.  :,  ;:-,^fj^'.r>iy.,.' ;v-:>:vj»-»:v.yy^   :->."■  :.gJt-.|  .^.  .;:■  ■     ■  r-  ■„'atiij,^\,  {•" 'j,  ■-,  jiViYi. 


o^  •->  \^ 


^.f 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


«f  Bi   |2j2 
£  Itt    12.0 


•' 


Photographic 

oCi£Ou6S 

Carparatkn 


as  WMT  MAM  STRHT 

WmTli.N.V.  14SM 

(7U)l7a-4S03 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


CwM«*n  InMHiiM  lor  HMoilcal  Mlcror«produCfloi<»  /  InttHul  camdiMi  d*  mlcronproduotlam  MMailquM 


Ttchnical  and  Bibliographic  Notaa/Notat  tachn  quaa  at  bibliographiquaa 


Tha  inatituta  haa  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  baat 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturaa  of  thia 
copy  wliich  may  ba  bibilographically  uniqua, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  Imagaa  in  tha 
raproduction,  or  which  may  aignificantly  changa 
tha  uaual  mathod  of  filming,  ara  chackad  baiow. 


D 


Colourad  covara/ 
Couvartura  da  couiaur 


I     j   Covara  damagad/ 


Couvartura  andommagia 


□   Covara  raatorad  and/or  laminatad/ 
Couvartura  raataurte  at/ou  palllculAa 

SCovar  tltla  mlaaing/ 
La  titra  da  couvartura  manqua 

r^^  Colourad  maps/ 


Cartaa  gtegraphlquaa  an  couiaur 

Colourad  inic  (l.a.  othar  than  blua  or  black)/ 
Encra  da  couiaur  (l.a.  autra  qua  blaua  ou  noira) 


0 


I     I   Colourad  plataa  and/or  llluatrationa/ 


D 
D 


D 


D 


Planehaa  at/ou  llluatrationa  an  couiaur 

Bound  with  othar  matarial/ 
RalM  avac  d'autraa  documanta 

Tight  binding  may  eauaa  ahadowa  or  diatortion 
along  intarior  margin/ 

Lara liura  aarrte  paut  cauaar  da  I'ombra  ou  da  la 
diatortlon  la  long  da  la  marga  Intirlaura 

Blank  laavaa  addad  during  raatoration  may 
appaar  within  tha  taxt.  ^Nhttwr  poaaibia,  thaaa 
hava  baan  omittad  from  filming/ 
II  aa  paut  qua  oartainaa  pagaa  blanchaa  ajoutiaa 
iora  d'una  raatauration  epparalaaant  dana  la  taxta, 
mala,  loraqua  cala  itait  poaalbia,  caa  pagaa  n'ont 
paa  4ti  fiimtea. 

Additional  commanta:/ 
Commantairaa  auppMmantairaa; 


L'Inatitut  a  microfilm^  la  maiilaur  axnmpiaira 
qu'il  lui  a  4ti  poaalbia  da  aa  procurar.  Laa  dMaila 
da  cat  axampiaira  qui  aont  paut-Atra  uniquaa  du 
point  da  vua  bibllographiqua,  qui  pauvant  modifiar 
una  Imaga  raproduita,  ou  qui  pauvant  axigar  una 
modification  dana  la  mAthoda  normala  da  fllmaga 
aont  indiqute  ci-daaaoua. 


r~1   Colourad  pagaa/ 


D 


Pagaa  da  couiaur 

Pagaa  damagad/ 
Pagaa  andommagtoa 

Pagaa  raatorad  and/oi 

Pagaa  raatauriaa  at/ou  pallieuMaa 

Pagaa  diacolourad,  atainad  or  foxm 
Pagaa  d^coloriaa,  tachatiaa  ou  piquiaa 

Pagaa  datachad/ 
Pagaa  ditachiaa 

Showtfirouglv 
Tranaparanea 

Quality  of  prln 

QuaNti  Inigala  da  I'kfnpraaaion 

Indudaa  aupplamanttry  matarii 
Comprand  du  matArM  auppMmantaira 

Only  adMon  availabia/ 
Saula  MMon  diaponlbia 


r~~|  Pagaa  damagad/ 

I — I  Pagaa  raatorad  and/or  laminatad/ 

I — I  Pagaa  diacolourad,  atainad  or  foxad/ 

rn  Pagaa  datachad/ 

rn  Showtfirough/ 

r~l  Quality  of  print  varlaa/ 

r~1  Indudaa  auppiamanttry  matarial/ 

I — I  Only  adition  avaHaMa/ 


Pagaa  wholly  or  partiaHy  obaeurad  by  arrata 
aUpa,  tiaauaa,  ate.,  hava  baMi  ranimad  to 
anaura  tha  ba^t  poaalbia  imaga/ 
Laa  pagaa  totalafnant  ou  partiaHamant 
obaourelaa  par  un  ffaulNat  d'arrata,  una  palura, 
ato..  ont  4t*  fflm4aa  A  nouvaau  da  fa^on  A 
obtanir  la  malHaura  imaga  poaaiMa. 


Thia  ham  ia  flimad  at  tha  raduction  ratio  chackad  balow/ 

Ca  documant  aat  filmA  au  taux  da  rAductton  IncHquA  cl*daaaoua. 

ItX  22X 


10X 


14X 


28X 


30X 


H 


n 

fix 


^m 


12X 


1AX 


aDx 


2«X 


i 


Th«  copy  filmed  h«r«  has  b—n  r«produc«<l  thanks 
to  tha  ganarosity  of: 

Library  of  Congrast 
Photoduplication  Sarvica 


L'axamplaira  fllmA  fut  raproduit  grica  A  ia 
g«n4roait«  da: 

Library  of  Congrats 
Photoduplication  Sarvica 


Tha  imagaa  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
poaalbia  oonaidaring  tha  condition  and  lagibllity 
of  tha  original  copy  and  In  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spacif Icationa. 


OrlglrMii  copias  in  printad  papar  covara  ara  ffilmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  Impraa- 
wkm,  or  tha  back  covar  ¥vhan  appropriata.  All 
othar  original  coplaa  ara  fllmad  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  Improa- 
alon.  and  anding  on  tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illuatratad  impraaaion. 


Tha  laat  racordad  f rama  on  aach  microfioha 
shaH  contain  tha  aymbd  — ^  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  aymbot  V  (moaning  "END"), 
whichavar  applias. 


Las  imagaa  auhrantas  ont  M  raproduitas  avac  la 
plus  grand  soln,  compta  tanu  da  la  condftion  at 
da  la  nattatA  da  l'axamplaira  filmA,  at  an 
conformity  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
fllmaga. 

Laa  axampiairaa  originaux  dont  ia  eouvartura  an 
paplar  ast  ImprlmAa  sont  fiimte  an  commandant 
EMir  la  pramlar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  par  la 
darnlAra  paga  qui  camporta  una  amprainta 
dimpraaalon  ou  dlHuatratlon,  aoit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  colon  ia  oaa.  Toua  laa  autras  axamplairas 
originaux  sont  fllmte  an  commandant  par  ia 
pramMra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
dimpraaalon  ou  d'lHuatratlon  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  damMra  paga  qui  comporta  una  talia 
amprainta. 

Un  daa  ayml»olaa  auhranta  apparattra  sur  ia 
damlira  imaga  da  chaqua  microflcha,  aalon  ia 
caa:  la  aymbola  '-^  algnifia  "A  SUIVRE",  ia 
aymbola  ▼  signlfia  "FIN". 


Mapa.  plataa,  charta,  ate.,  may  ba  fllmad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratioa.  Thoaa  too  larga  to  ba 
antiraly  Inehidad  In  ona  axpoaura  ara  fHmad 
beginning  In  tha  uppar  laft  hand  comar.  loft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  aa  many  framaa  aa 
required.  The  following  dlegrama  illuatrate  the 
nnethod: 


planehea,  tableeux,  etc.,  peuvent  ttre 
fHmte  i  dee  taux  da  reduction  dIffAranta. 
Lmraque  le  document  eet  trop  grand  pour  Atra 
reprodult  en  un  eeul  cilchA,  II  eat  fNm4  A  partir 
da  I'angki  aupArleur  gauche,  do  gauche  A  drohe, 
et  de  iMUt  en  baa,  an  prenant  la  nombre 
d'knagee  nAoeeaalre.  Lae  diagrammae  auivanta 
llluatrent  la  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

■6 


THE 


EARTH    AND    ITS    INHABITANTS, 


EUROPE. 


/O  U> 


BT 


lS2LIS:feE  RECLITS. 


V 


\^ 


EDITED  BT 

E.  G.  BAVENSTEIN,  F.R.G.8.,  F.S.8.,  Bic. 

■    ■',.  .*" 

VOL.  L 


GREECE,  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE,  RUMANIA,  SERVIA,  MONTENEaRO, 
ITALY,  SPAIN,  AND  PORTUGAL. 


ILLUSTRATED 


a  AND  MAPS. 


NEW    YORK: 

D.   APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

1,  S,  AVP    6    B(VND    STBBBT. 

1869. 


sr**-v-«'".- 


Is 
0 

P 


■.-.awi^j  ih>fcitfe*ttk,-^>.^.^ii.*ia>tt...««tf!a}ra'  ■■t.iB^j)!- uBirti'iaL' ;  .rtLmigaiB 


m^^ 


•i 


^ 


iV 


CONTENTS. 


M 


bnoDcoioBT  Kmtwi     .       .      •       < 

BUBOPE. 
L  OMMHuniOAL  iHNMnAmn 
n.  Kznm  Ain>  Boumdarim  . 

XU.  NATinUL  DlTMIOM  AHD  MOURTAUM 

IT.  Tn  MABnna  BMiom    . 

v.  Ouiun 

YL  iMHABRAm       .... 


PAM 

1 


vim 

VIL  Fumn   Ponnoii    amo    PaoinoM   or 

TrauT 148 

Yin.  Oonumm  and  ADtanmATioM  .  160 

TuATin  or  Sax  Stdako  Aim  Bolim     .  153 


.    18 


THE  MBDITBBRANBAN. 

L  Htsboumt 

n.  Amual  Lm,  Fmnam,  aid  SAU-rAm 
nL  Coiomcs  AXD  NAtraoAnoM 

6BBBOT. 
L  OnauL  Aanoit     .... 
n.  ComtanrAii  Qumm 
m.  Tarn  XonA,  or  PiuiroMimnni  . 
17.  Tu  IttAmw  or  nn  JtosAM  Ska 
Y.  Tn  loaiAK  lius     .... 
YL  Tn  Fnmr  Ain>  Fmrai  or  Qumm 
OanauamT  Aim  Pouiioal  Dmsion 


1« 

18 


88 

88 
81 


88 
48 

68 
•» 
It 
80 
88 


V 


BUMANU  . 


.  1S8 


SEEYU  AND  MONTBNBOBO. 

I  SUTU 

IL  Monmoio 


178 
179 


tubut  in  kubopb. 

L  CrRtJBUL  Aanon 87 

H  Outis  AID  TU  iJOAimt  01  m  Aioin- 

ntAM •* 

m.  Tomr  or  nn  Gun  (Tbraoia,  Maob- 

PORIA,  AMD  TUHALT)  ....     88 

lY.  AuAiRA  Aim  Bmn  .118 

Y.  Tm  iLLTMAii  AiMi  BonnA,  a*d  Him- 

ooriKA 188 

YI.  BnaAMA  .  -181 


ITALY. 

L  OWBAL  AfFicn      .... 

.  188 

■ABvr,  YmnA,  Aim  Bmiua 

.  188 

UL  LtsraiA  AND  in  BmmA  or  OnoA 

.  880 

lY.  TraoAiTT' 

.  889 

Y.  Tm  BoMAii  ArwiiwM,  m  Yauw 

or 

no  Tim,  Tn   MAMm,  Aim 

Tn 

AHHTHOt 

.  857 

YL  Sovnaw  I*a&t:  Natui  . 

.  888 

YU.  SiottT 

.  808 

Th«  .£oHan  or  lipwio  Idaiids 

.  881 

The  iBgRdiuk  Isbnda    . 

.  884 

]hltouidCh»o  .... 

.  888 

Yin.  SAIDimA   .        .                .        . 

.  888 

IX.  Tn  Punm  aiid  Fvniu  or  Itait  . 

.  858 

X.  Gommnm  and  AommiRRAnoK     . 

.  888 

OOBSIOA 


868 


SPAIN. 
L  OnauL  Asnon  ...  870 

n.  Tn  Camiui,  Lmw,  and  ImauDiiBA  .  877 
IIL  ijmA(.niiA        .  >  884 


CONTENTS. 


nr.  Thi  HiDiTUUUiiiAM  Ston:  Mtmou  amd 

Valimoia 414 

y.  Tn  Bauabio  Iuaiim  .498 

VI.  Tri  Vallit  or  m  Bno:  AaAaoN  ard 

Oatalohia    497 

VU.  BAWica    PioTiMon,   Natauu,   ard   Lo- 

OBOilo 489 

VnL  Sartandir,  thr  AnuRiAa,  and  Oalioia  .  448 

IX.  Tbr  Prrirrt  ard  Futitrr  or  Stair  .       .  460 

X  Gotrrrmrrt  ard  Admirirratior  .  448 


rA«m 
PORTUGAL 

I.  Obrrial  AiTBon 4M 

II.  NoRmRH    Portvoal:   tbr  VAUum  or 

THR  MiRRO,  DOORO,  ARD  MORDROO    .  4ft 

III.  Tn  Taurt  or  nu  Taour  .  489 

IV.  SOVTRRRR    PORTOdAL:  AUORRM   ARD   Al> 

OARTB .  490 

V.  Thr  Prrsrrt  ard  FunmR  or  Portvsal  .  494 

VI.  GOTRRRM5RT  ARD  ADMiniTRATIOH  .   498 

INDEX     .  .       .  .801 


-■-■' 

VMB 

.Mi 

ALUTS  or 

RBMO          .  419 

.  481 

1  Am  AL' 

.  490 

^OITUSAL   .  49« 

m     .       .498 

.     .oot 

( 

, 

M. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS  PRINTED  IN  COLOURS. 


1.  Ethnognphkal  Map  of  Europe  . 
3.  Turkey«in-Eurape  mmI  G(«eoe    . 

3.  Thq  BtMplionu  and  Conitontiaople 

4.  Bthnognphioal  Hap  of  Turkey . 


rA*i 

.     18 

.  M 
.  98 
.  148 


VACS 

6.  Italy .       •       •  »M 

6.  TheDdtooftliePo 2^0 

7.  The  Bay  of  Naples 388 

8.  Spain  and  Portugal 36A 


PLATES. 


PaaaantififomttieBnTfaromiof  ithana  3\>/m>jnv«  M 
Cotutoattnople  and  the  Oo'  4  a  Horn,  from  the 

Hdfl^ofEynb  -99 

AlliaiiiaBa •    .  •  118 

Wealthy  Anmto 124 

TaddahMnletaeniatheHenMigaTiii*  .  127 

TimoTft     .  IM 

Bolgiaiaiu.  1^ 

HuMoliBaa  of  Adriaiu^Ia*  and  MuHnlmaa  Lady 

of  IV  ill  end  •  •  147 

WallaeUaiia  (Yalakhs)       .       .       ■       .       .  182 

Bdgiade 17^ 

The  Penaiae  Alpa,  aa  leen  from  the  Becoa  di 

Nona  (PfoOHml},  10,880  fMk     .       .       .  198 
Vanioe       ^       .......  207 

The  Palace  at  Faitam  -228 
VaroDa  •  229 
PeaiaiitBef  tfaeAtmaaoa 2M 


Naplaa 
Capri, 


fkm  MaaM  Lubtenae 


2V/M(jMy«  800 

.       .  802 


804 

Layalatta,Halto      .  •  3>7 

Peaaantaitf  Toledo,  Oaitile  •  SM 

Roman  Biidfe  at  Aliiliitan  .  •  8>1 

dortedeloaaaitBnea,Deflle<rfOuadaIhoroe     .399 
PflBianto  of  Ctedon^  Andalnria .  .408 

Oibnltar,aaaeen  from  the  "linaa".  .  414 

Peaaanta  of  La  Hueiia,  and  CSganeta  of  Valen- 
da      .       .       .       ...  •«« 

Women  of  IWia,  Baleario  Idea  .  .426 

Monaerrat,  Oatalonia 431 

Barcelooa,  aeen  bam  the  Oaatle  of  ]foii\|uioh     .  437 

Gknrgea  of  Penooibo .440 

LosPkaagfla      .       .       .  •  **T 

Opwto  •  *'• 

UOni       .       .       .       •  •       •  *»* 


^  ..15^  ■rtjM'igmwjuij^ni'.'.'ijw 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ILLU8TEATION8  IN  TEXT. 


EUROPE. 

1.  The  Natural  Boundary  of  Europe      •       •      7 

2.  Tho  Relief  of  Europe 8 

8.  Dovelopment  of  Cout-Unea  reUtirely  to 

Area U 

4,  The  Iiothennal  Zone  of  Europe ...    17 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 

6.  The  Depth  of  the  Mediterranean        .  .  34 

6.  The  Strait  of  Qibraltar      .       .        .  .  2S 

7.  Principal  Fiaheriea  of  tho  Meditemmeaa  .  SO 

8.  Stennter  Routea  and  Telegraph! .  .  84 

GREECE. 

0.  Maihoti  Aim  Spaktav  .42 

10.  Foreign  Element!  in  the  Population  of 

Qneoo 44 

11.  MovNT  PABNAaaua  Aim  Dnrn       .       .    48 

13.  Lower  Aoamania 49 

15.  ThermopyliB M 

14.  Lake  Oopaia  .  .  .83 
18.  Thb  Aobopolu  07  ATunra      .        .       .84 

16.  Athens  and  ita  Long  Walla        .       ,       .    M 

17.  Ancient  Athena 88 

18.  MouMT  TAToarvB 88 

19.  Lakea  Phenea  and  Stymphalua  .       .       .    80 

20.  The  Plateau  of  Mantinea  ....  83 
31.  Bifurcation  of  the  Oastuni .  .  .  .  8S 
22.  The  Valley  of  the  Eniotaa ....  87 
2S.  Enripus  and  Ohalda   .  .       .       .70 

24.  Nea  Kaimeni 72 

28.  OoRTV  .  .  .  .  k  .  .  76 
36.  The  Channel  of  Santa  Mann  ;       .77 

27.  ArgoatoU 79 

TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

28.  Thb  Goroi  or  Haoio  Rvmu.  .  .  91 
39.  Crete,  or  Candia 98 

50.  The  .aigean  Sea .    98 

51.  Qeologioal  Map  of  the  Peninmla  of  Con* 

■tantinople 99 

53.  Tho  Helleapont,  or  Dardaaellea  .  .108 
S8.  Mount  Athoa 108 

54.  MooiiT  Oltkpvs  .  .  .110 
85.  Mount  Olympna  and  the  Valley  of  TWpe    111 

88.  Southern  Epirus 117 

87.  Subtenaneaii  Beda  of  the  Aillnenta  of  the 

Naienta 138 

SB.  Mount  Vitoah     .  .       .        .       .182 


fn.  tAM 

89.  DelU  of  the  Danube 187 

40.  Comparative  Diwharge  of  the  Months  of 

the  Danube 188 

41.  Commercial   Highways  oooTerging  upon 

Constantinople  ,       .<•■     ,  IM 

43.  The  Turkiah  Empire Ml 

RUMANIA. 
48.  The  Rumanians 188 

44.  The  Rivers  ShQ  and  Olto   .  .188 

48.  The  Danube  and  Yalomitaa  .161 

46.  Ethnological  Map  of  Moldavian  Bessarabia  164 

47.  BvoHAUST 189 

8BBVIA  AND  MONTENEGRO. 
18.  Confluence  of  the  Danube  and  Save   .       .  174 

49.  Montenegro  and  the  Lake  of  Skodra  .       .  180 

ITALY. 

80.  Rome  and  the  Rooan  Empire    .       .       .188 

81.  MoMTB  Vise 189 

83.  Grand  Paradia 191 

88.  Pkin  of  D8bris  between  the  Alps  and 

Apominea 193 

84.  Slope  of  the  Valley  of  the  Po  .  .191 
as.  Mud  Voloanoea  of  the  Nosthem  Apenniaes  194 
88.  Andaut  OhMuen  ol  the  Alpa      .  .198 

87.  Sena  of  Ivrea  and  Ancient  Olader  Lakea 

of  the  Don  .  .198 

88.  indent  Lakea  of  Verbano  .  .197 

89.  LakeComo 198 

80—62.  Sectioiia  of  Lake  Como  .199 

88.  Villa  Smbblloxi 201 

'34.  Beech  and  Pine  Woods  of  Ravenna   .       .  208 

Shingle  Beds  of  the  TagUamento,  to.       .  208 
OldBedoffhePiave 20« 


68. 
88. 

87. 
88. 

89. 


Lagoons  of  Venice 207 

Cdloniea  of  the  Romaa  Veterans  .  309 

The  Po  between  Piaoenn  and  Cremona     .  311 

70.  German  Communes  of  Northern  Italy       .  216 

71.  Moim  RoaA     .....       .217 

72.  The  Lagoona  of  Comaoohio  .9m 
78.  l>o  nsheiies  of  Comacohio  .231 
74.  MonthofiheAdigeVaUey  .838 
78.  Hie  Passagea  over  the  Alps  .284 
78.  The  Lakes  and  Canals  of  Mantua              .337 

77.  Pahnanova 320 

78.  Junction  of  the  Alps  and  Apenninea  .       .  281 

79.  Genoa  and  its  Subnzbs  .       .  284 

80.  G»OA       .  988 


FMB 

•            • 

.  1S7 

lie  Moathi  of 

•               ■ 

.  IM 

kTmrging 

upon 

•              • 

.  160 

•              t 

.  Ml 

•               • 

.  IM 

•              • 

.  158 

t              • 

.  1«1 

viuBeManbU  194 

• 

.  160 

'ENEOnC 

. 

ndCkTe   . 

.  174 

fSkodim. 

.  180 

n    • 

.  180 

•       fl 

.  180 

.       .       . 

.  101 

the  Alpi 

1  end 

•              •              • 

.  192 

Po    . 

.  IOC 

them  Apeoniiuf  194 

P«      • 

.  195 

It  OlMier  Lakes 

.       .    '•  • 

.  100 

•       f 

.  107 

.       , 

.  108 

> 

.  100 

•             • 

.  301 

BaTfmui   . 

.  003 

iiianto,4o. 

.  005 

•       > 

.  309 

.       •  ■     • 

.207 

emu 

.  too 

■nd  Orenunui     .  Sll 

fhem  Italy 

.  210 

•       • 

.217 

) 

.  2X0 

0 

.  221 

r        . 

.  228 

1 

.  2S4 

[■ntaa 

.  227 

•              • 

.  220 

Ipennines 

.       .  281 

•       ■ 

.  284 

•       • 

.385 

LIST  OF  niLUSTRATIONS. 


81.  TheOulf  of  SpedA 287 

83.  Tmb  OoLroLiNO  or  thb  Amo  .               .240 
88.  Defllce  of  the  Amo 341 

84.  Monte  ArgonUro 343 

85.  VbI  di  Chiana 344 

80.  The  Lake  of  Bientina  .       .       .345 

87.  The  Malarial  Refiuna  .       .347 

88.  FmUnoi 353 

80.  The  Harbour  of  Leghorn  ....  355 

00.  The  Lake  of  BoLwna 360 

01.  La  Montagna  d'Alhano  .361 

03.  Andent  Lake  of  Fuoino     .               .        .268 
08.  Lake  of  Tnuimeno 264 

04.  OAMTAOitA  OF  Bomb 265 

05.  Pontine  Maidiea 267 

06.  Andent  Lakea  of  the  Tiber  and  Topino     .  260 

07.  OAaoAOBa  or  Tbemi    .  .       .  270 

08.  The  Delta  of  the  Tiber  .       .  271 
00.  Pbabamti  or  thb  Bomaw  Oamtaoma  .       .  273 

100.  Bomb 376 

101.  The  Hills  of  Borne 378 

103.  Givita  Veochia 381 

108.  Talleyi  of  Erodon  on  the  Weatem  Slope 

of  the  Apeoninea 283 

104.  Biaini  and  Ban  Marino     ....  285 

105.  Monto  Oargano 387 

106.  Aahea  of  the  Oampania     .  .380 

107.  EnumoN  or  Movmt  Ymotiub        .       .  303 

108.  Eduoatiooal  Map  ci  Italy  .  .307 
100.  Pompeii '801 

110.  Hw  Manhea  of  Salpl        ...       .305 

111.  Harbour  of  Brindid  in  1871  .807 

113.  Harbour  of  Taranto  .  .'  .  .  .808 
118.  Strait  of  MeMina SM 

114.  ProAle  of  Mount  Btna  .811 

115.  Lava  Stream  of  Oatania  .818 
110.  Snbddiary  Gonaa  of  Mount  Btna  .  814 
117.  ThaMaooalubasandOlrgMiti  .  .817 
118  Palbsmo  Ann  Moim  Pbubobiiio  .  .  834 
110.  Tn^aoi  and  Mamla                        .    ,  .  830 

120.  Syraeuae .328 

121.  Tbhtu  or  Ookoobd  at  OiaoBim  .       .  880 

133.  The  Oeotial  Portion  of  the  JBoUanldanda  332 
138.  Hm  Mediterranean  to  the  South  of  Sidly.  834 

134.  The  Port  of  Malta 336 

135.  The  Sea  to  the  South  of  SanUaia  .380 

136.  Strait  of  Bonifado     .  .       .       .310 

137.  LaOian    ...  ...  345 

138.  Diitrictotlgledaa 348 

180.  Oaouabi  .  .350 
ISO.  Fort  of  Tenaaora 351 

181.  Kavigati<m  of  Italy 855 

183.  OommerdalBoutea  of  Italy  .356 

138.  Submarine  Plateaa  between  Coidoa  and 

Tuaoasy 364 


yb 


FAua 


184.  Profile  of  the  Boad  from  AJaodo  to  Bastia  865 

185.  Bastia 368 


SPAIN. 

J86.  Table-landa  of  Iberian  Peninnda  .  871 

iia7.  Deheeaa  near  Madrid 875 

138.  Dendty  of  Population  .        .        .876 

180.  Profile  "f  Kailway  from  Bayonne  to  Ctdia  370 

140.  Sierraa  de  OrMoa  and  de  Oata  .  .380 

141.  Dbtilb  or  thb  Taio  .  .383 
143.  Steppee  of  New  Oaatile      .  .  8M 

143.  siOamanoa 888 

144.  Thb  Aloabab  or  Sbootu  .880 

145.  ToLBDo .800 

140.  Madrid  and  ita  Enrirona    .  .393 

147.  Aiai\juei 304 

148.  Badns  of  the  Guadiana  and  Quadalquirir  .  305 
140.  Thb  Paim  or  DaarBilArBaBoe  .  .806 

150.  Thb  Sibbba  Nbtaoa  .307 

151.  The  Mouth  of  the  Ouadalquirir.              .800 
153.  The  Steppee  of  Ec^a 403 

153.  Zooea  of  Vegetation  on  the  Coaat  of  Anda- 

luta     .  .        .  .408 

154.  The  Minee  of  Huelva 406 

155.  Thb  Auumbba 408 

156.  OftdiaanditoBoaditead     .  .411 

157.  Gibraltar 418 

158.  Steppes  ot  Mtoda 416 

150.  Thb  Palm  Obotb  or  Elohb    .  .418 

160.  The  Pabn  Grore  of  Elohe  and  the  Huertas 

ofOiihuda 410 

161.  BuDta  or  thb  Otki  abotb  Loboa  .       .  430 

163.  PBAaAMTs  or.  Mvaou  .431 
168.  The  Harbour  of  Oartagena  .438 

164.  The  Grio  de  Valanda  .434 

165.  The  Beleario  Idaads 426 

166.  ViBW  or  lanA 437 

167.  Tlk»Pytiaaee 438 

168.  Port  Mahon 430 

160.  The  Delta  of  the  Sfaro       .       .       .       .  485 

170.  The  Steppee  of  Aragon  ...  436 

171.  The  Enrirona  of  Barcelona  .440 

173.  TheSaad-banksolMatavd                       .441 
178.  Andom 448 

174.  Jaisquibel  .  .  .445 

175.  ABomtia  and  Aipdtia  .  .447 

176.  The  i^viroos  of  Bilbao     .  .440 

177.  St.  Sebastian 450 

178.  Br.  SaBAsnAH 451 

170.  Onetaria    .  .453 

180.  Guendoa   .......  453 

181.  Pass  of  Bdnosa 454 


1 


Tiii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


1  h- 


IVi,  PeflM  d4  Eiuro|» *M 

181.  Uiu  of  U  l!ortiA«  uid  Fvrrol    .  .  4AS 

IR4.  fkntoAs  and  HiiuUndcr      .        .        .        .460 

IM.  Uvindo  and  O^on 469 

186.  TuWBH  or  UavcvLn        .       .  .  461 

187.  RU  do  Vigo 464 

188.  KaUroada  of  the  Iberian  Peninaula    .        .  466 

189.  Foraign  Commratw  of  the  Iberian  Poninaula  466 

190.  Diagram  exhibiting  the  F^itent  of  tiw  Oaa- 

tilian  Language 467 


PORTUGAL. 

Ralnidl  of  the  Iberian  PeDinmk 
PonTuouHi  Ttfm  (PiAiAirea) 
The  Valley  of  the  limia,  or  lima 
Dimes  of  ATiiro 


191. 
103. 
198. 
194, 
106.  Oporto  and  the  Pdi  do  Vinho 


470 
473 
476 
476 
476 


no.  FM 

196.  8lo  Jolo  da  Foi  and  the  Mouth  of  the 

D6uro 480 

197.  CoiMsaA 483 

108.  The  Eftuary  of  the  T^)o  (Tagu) 

199.  Poniche  and  tho  Berlingaa  .        .486 

300.  Mouth  of  the  Tejo 486 

301.  Zonae  of  VageUtion  in  Porln^a       .       .  488 

303.  Oaitli  or  Pmiu  di  Oimtba   .       •       .489 

305.  MoKAarnT  or  thi  Kmiomtc  or  CiiMtr  at 

Tmomab       491 

304.  Eituary  of  the  8ado 403 

306.  Bern  da  Monohique  and  Promontory  of 

BagTM 496 

306.  Geology  of  Alganre 494 

307.  Faro  and  Tkrira        .... 

308.  Geographical  Extent  of   the   PortogMW 

Language 497 

200.  Telegraph  tron  Liabon  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  496 


*.;- 


V 


MMIVMWMMMMMai 


-O'.lMMMHM 


miimm 


Month  of  Uw 

•              • 

.  4iM> 

1              • 

.  4U 

NT") 

•              1 

.4M 
.  4U 

•              • 

.  4M 

■A     .          • 

.  48» 

.  48» 

■  or  OiiMwr 

AT 

•              > 

.  491 

t              • 

.  491 

Promontory 

of 
.  491 

•       t 

.494    ' 

•       • 

.49« 

Jm  PortafMW 
.        .        .  497 

RiodeJueiro.  49S 

THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 


INTBODUCTOEY  BEMABK8.* 

|UR  earth  ii  but  m  an  atom  in  space,  a  itar  amongst  stars.  Tet,  to  us 
who  inhabit  it,  it  is  stiU  without  bounds,  as  it  was  in  the  time  of 
our  barbarian  ancestors.  Nor  can  we  foresee  the  period  when  the 
whole  of  its  surface  will  be  known  to  os.  We  havo  been  taught 
by  astronomers  atid  geodesists  that  our  planet  is  a  sphere  flattened 
at  the  poles,  and  physical  geographers  and  meteorologiste  have  applied  their 
powers  of  inductive  reasoning  to  establish  theories  on  the  direction  of  the  winds 
and  ocean  currents  within  the  polar  regions.  But  hitherto  no  explorer  has 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  extremities  of  our  earth,  and  no  one  can  tell  whether 
land  or  sea  extends  beyond  those  icy  barriers  which  have  fri£>trated  our  most 
determined  efforts.  Thanks  to  the  struggles  of  indomitable  seamen,  the  pride  of 
our  race,  the  area  of  the  mysterious  regions  around  the  north  pole  has  been 
redue««d  to  something  like  the  hundredth  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  but  in  the 
south  there  still  remains  an  unknown  region  of  such  vast  extent,  that  the  moon, 
were  she  to  drop  upon  our  planet,  might  disappear  within  it  without  coming  into 
contact  with  any  part  of  the  earth's  surfltce  already  known  to  us. 

And  the  polar  regions,  which  present  so  many  natural  obstacles  to  our 
explorers,  are  not  the  only  portions  of  the  earth  not  yet  known  to  men  of  science. 
It  may  be  humiliating  to  our  pride  as  men,  but  we  feel  constrained  to  admit  that 
among  the  countries  not  yet  known  to  us  there  are  some,  accessible  enough  as 
&r  as  natural  obstacles  are  concerned,  but  closed  against  us  by  our  fellow-men  I 
There  are  peoples  in  this  world,  dwelling  in  towns,  obeying  laws,  and  having 
customs  comparatively  polished,  but  who  choose  to  live  in  seclusion,  and  are  as 
little  known  to  us  as  if  they  were  the  inhabitants  of  some  other  planet.  Their 
ftontiers  are  closed  by  war  and  its  horrors,  by  the  practice  of  slavery,  by  religious 

♦  HonaMtt.  "HirtoJw  da  Sol  de  I'Europe.  -Cwl  Bitter.  "Baiop.."— Kohl,  "DieOoogwphkeh* 
l»gt  der  HftupttidU  EonpikV 

VOL.  I.  1 


f 


'■'b^..l\ 


S  INTBODUOTOBT  BEMABE8. 

fanaticism,  and  even  commercial  jealousy.  Wo  have  heard  of  some  of  these 
peoples  by  vague  report,  but  there  are  others  concerning  whom  we  absolutely 
know  nothing.  And  thus  it  happens  that  in  this  age  of  steam,  of  the  printing 
press,  of  incessant  and  feverish  activity,  we  still  know  nothing,  or  very  little,  of 
th&  centre  of  Africa,  of  a  portion  of  Australia,  of  the  interior  of  that  fine  and 
no  doubt  most  fertile  island  of  New  Guinea,  and  of  vast  table-lands  in  the  centre 
of  Asia.  Nay,  even  the  country  which  most  men  of  learning  love  to  look  upon  as 
the  cradle  of  our  Aryan  ancestors  is  known  to  us  but  very  imperfectly. 

As  regards  most  countries  which  have  been  visited  by  travellers,  and  figure 
more  or  less  correctly  upon  our  maps,  a  great  amount  of  further  research  is 
required  before  our  knowledge  of  their  geography  can  be  called  complete.  Tears 
will  pass  ere  the  erroneous  and  contradictory  statements  of  our  explorers  con- 
cerning them  have  been  set  right.  A  prodigious  amount  of  labour  must  be 
performed  before  their  climate,  their  hydrography,  their  plants  and  animals,  can 
be  thoroughly  known  to  us.  Minute  and  systematic  researches  have  to  be 
conducted  to  elucidate  the  slow  changes  in  the  aspects  and  physical  phenomena 
of  many  countries.  The  greatest  caution  will  have  to  be  exercised  in  distinguishing 
between  changes  due  to  the  spontaneous  action  of  natural  Dauses  and  those  brought 
about  by  the  hand  of  man.  And  all  this  knowledge  we  must  acquire  before  we 
can  boast  that  we  know  the  earth,  and  all  about  it  I 

Nor  is  this  alL  By  a  natural  bent  of  our  mind,  (dl  our  studies  are  carried 
on  with  reference  to  Man  qp  the  centre  of  all  things.  A  knowledge  of  our  planet 
is,  therefore,  imperfect  as  long  as  it  is  not  joined  to  a  knowledge  of  the  various 
races  of  man  which  inhabit  it.  The  earth  which  man  treads  is  but  imperfectly 
known,  man  himself  even  less  so.  The  first  origin  of  races  is  shrouded  in  absolute 
darkness,  and  the  most  learned  disagree  with  refermce  to  the  descent,  the 
amalgamation,  the  original  seats,  and  migratory  stages  of  most  peoples  and 
tribes.  What  do  men  owe  to  their  surroundings  P  What  to  the  original  seats 
of  their  ancestors,  to  inborn  instincts  of  race,  to  a  blending  with  aUen  races, 
or  to  influences  and  traditi9ns  l^rought  to  bear  upon  them  from  beyond  P  We 
hardly  know,  and  as  yet  only  a  few  rays  of  light  b^g;in  to  penetrate  this  darkness. 
Unfortunately  our  erroneous  views  on  many  of  these  questions  are  not  livM  solely 
to  ignorance.  Contending  p«ssions  and  instinctive  national  hatreds  too  frequently 
obscure  our  judgment,  and  we  see  man  as  he  is  not.  ''The  lar-off  savages-  assume 
the  shape  of  dim  phantoms,  and  our  near  neighbours  and  rivals  in  the  arts  (tf 
civilisation  appear  repulsive  and  deformed  of  feature.  If  we  would  see  them  as 
they  really  are,  we  must  get  rid  of  all  our  jnejudioes,  and  of  thoad  feelings  oi 
contempt,  hatred,  and  passion  which  still  set  nation  against  nation.  Our  fore- 
fathers, in  their  wisdom,  said  that  "the  most  difficult  thing  of  all  was  to  know 
one's  self.    Surely  a  comprehensive  study  of  mankind  is  more  difficult  stiU. 

We  are  thus  not  in  a  positicm  at  present  to  fbmish  a  complete  account  of  the 
earth  and  its  inhabitants.  The  accomplishment  of  this  task  we  must  leave  to  the 
future,  when  fellow-workers  from  all  quarters  of  tiie  globe  will  meet  to  write 
the  grand  book  embodying  the  sum  of  human  kiiowledge.    For  the  present  on 


■"WrU'WIIilOrtliliMla 


INTBODUOTOBT  BEMABES. 


8 


ne  of  these 
absolutely 
the  printing 
ery  little,  of 
hat  fine  and 
n  the  centre 
ook  upon  as 

B,  and  figure 

research  is 

ete.    Team 

plorers  oon- 

>ur  must  be 

animals,  can 

have  to  be 

[  phenomena 

istinguishing 

hose  brought 

ire  before  we 

are  carried 
of  our  planet 
if  the  various 
,t  imperfectly 
)d  in  absolute 
descent,  the 
peoples  and 
original  seats 
I  alien  races, 
eyond  P  We 
this  darkness, 
lot  due  solely 

00  frequently 
▼agea  assume 

1  the  arts  of 
[  see  them  as 
le  feelings  of 
I.  Our  lore- 
was  to  know 
itstiU. 

ooount  of  the 
t  leave  to  the 
neet  to  write 
le  prMont  an 


individual  author  must  rest  content  with  giving  a  succinct  account  of  the  Earth, 
in  which  the  space  occupied  by  each  country  shall  be  proportionate  to  its  impor- 
tance, and  to  the  knowledge  we  possess  with  respect  to  it. 

It  is  natural,  perhaps,  that  each  nation  should  imagine  that  in  such  a 
description  it  ought  to  be  accorded  the  foremost  place.  Every  barbarous  tribe, 
however  small,  imagines  itself  to  occupy  the  very  centre  of  the  earth,  and  to  be  the 
most  perfect  r^resentative  of  the  human  race.  Its  langpiage  never  fails  to  bear 
witness  to  this  naive  illusion,  bom  of  the  very  narrowness  of  its  horizon.  The 
river  which  irrigates  its  fields  is  called  the  "  Father  of  Waters,"  the  mountain 
which  shelters  its  camp  the  "  Navel,"  or  "  Centre  of  the  Earth ; "  and  the  names 
by  which  primitive  races  designate  their  neighbours  are  terms  of  contempt,  for 
they  look  down  upon  them  as  their  inferiors.  To  them  they  are  "  mute,"  "  deaf," 
"unclean,"  "imbecile,"  "monstrous,"  or  "demoniac."  The  Chinese,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  peoples  in  some  respects,  and  certainly  the  most  important  of  all 
as  far  as  mere  numbers  go,  are  not  content  with  having  bestowed  upon  their 
Qonntry  the  epithet  of  "  Flower  of  the  Centre,"  but  are  so  fully  convinced  of  its 
superiority  as  to  have  fidlen  into  the  mistake  (very  excusable  under  the  circum- 
stances) of  deeming  themselves  to  be  the  "Sons  of  Heaven."  As  to  the  nations 
thinly  scattered  around  the  borders  of  their  "  Celestial  Empire,"  they  know  them 
merely  as  "  dogs,"  "  swine,"  "  demons,"  and  "  savages."  Or,  more  disdainful  still, 
they  dedgnate  them  by  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  and  speak  of  the 
"  unclean  "  tribes  of  the  west,  the  north,  the  east,  and  the  south. 

If  in  our  description  of  the  Earth  we  accord  the  first  place  to  civilised  Europe^ 
it  is  not  because  of  a  prejudice  similar  to  that  of  the  Chinese.  No  I  this  place 
belongs  to  Europe  as  a  matter  of  right.  Europe  as  yet  is  the  only  continent  the 
whole  of  whose  waiaoe  has  been  sdentifioally  explored.  It  possesses  a  map 
approximately  correct,  and  its  material  resources  are  almost  fully  known  to  us. 
Its  population  is  not  as  dense  as  that  of  India  or  of  China,  but  it  neverthelefu 
contains  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  populatiwi  of  the  globe ;  and  its  inhabitants, 
whatever  their  fidlings  and  vices,  or  their  state  of  barbarism  in  some  respects,  still 
impel  the  rest  of  maiJcind  as  regards  material  and  mental  progress.  Europe,  for 
twoity-five  centuries,  has  been  the  focus  whence  radiated  Arts,  Sciences,  and 
Thought  Nor  have  those  hardjr  cobnists  who  carried  their  European  languages 
and  customs  beyond  the  sea  succeeded  hitherto  in  giving  to  the  New  World  an 
importance, equal  to  that  of  "little"  Europe,  in  spite  of  the  virgin  soil  and  vast 
area  which  gave  them  scope  for  unlimited  espansiott. 

Our  American  rivak  may  be  mora  aotive  and  enterprising  than  we  are— they 
certainly  are  not  cumbered  to  the  same  extent  by  the  traditiims  and  inheritances 
of  feudal  times — but  they  are  as  yet  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  compete  with  us 
as  regards  the  totality  of  work  done.  They  have  scarcely  been  able  hitiierto  to 
asoertain  the  material  resources  of  the  country  in  which  they  have  made  their 
home.  "  Old  Europe,"  where  every  clod  of  earth  has  its  history,  where  every  man 
is  tiw  heir  of  a  hundred  successive  generations,  therefore  still  maintains  the  first 
place,  and  a  comparative  study  of  nations  justifies  us  in  the  belief  that  its  moral 


X. 


""■IP 


II 


;^B7r     mi 


mm 


4  INTBODUOTOBT  BEMABK8. 

aaoendancy  and  industrial  preponderance  will  remain  with  it  for  many  yean  to  come. 
At  the  same  time,  we  must  not  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  equality  will  obtain 
in  the  end,  not  only  between  America  and  Europe,  but  also  between  these  two  and 
the  other  quarters  of  the  world.  The  intermingling  of  nations,  migrations  which 
have  assumed  prodigious  proportions,  and  the  increasing  fooilities  of  intercourse 
must  in  the  end  lead  to  an  equilibrium  of  population  being  established  throughout 
the  world.  Then  will  each  country  add  its  proper  share  to  the  wealth  of  mankind, 
and  what  we  call  civilisation  will  have  "its  centre  everywhere,  its  periphery 
nowhere.*' 

The  central  geographical  position  of  Europe  has  undoubtedly  exercised  « 
most  favourable  influence  upon  the  progress  of  the  nations  inhabiting  it.  The 
superiority  of  the  Europeans  is  certainly  not  due  to  the  inherent  virtues  of  the 
races  from  which  they  sprang,  as  is  vainly  imagined  by  some,  for  in  other  parts  of 
the  ancient  world  these  same  races  have  exhibited  fiur  less  creative  genius.  To 
the  happy  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  configuration,  and  geographical  position  the 
inhabitants  of  Europe  owe  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  earth  in  its  entirety,  and  to  have  remained  for  so  long  a  period 
at  the  head  of  mankind.  Historical  geographers  are,  therefore,  right  when  they 
insist  upon  the  influence  which  the  configuration  of  a  country  exercises  upon  the 
nations  who  inhabit  it.  The  extent  of  table-lands,  the  heights  of  mountain 
ranges,  the  direction  and  volume  of  rivers,  the  vicinity  of  the  ocean,  the  indenta- 
tion of  the  coast-Une,  the,  temperature  of  the  air,  the  abundance  or  rarity  of 'rain, 
and  the  correlations  between  soil,  air,  and  water — all  these  are  pregnant  with 
e£Pebcs,  and  explain  much  of  the  charioter  and  mode  of  life  of  primitive  nations. 
They  account  for  most  of  the  contrasts  existing  between  nations  subject  to 
different  conditions,  and  point  out  the  natural  highways  of  the  globe  which 
nations  are  constrained  to  follow  in  their  migrations  or  warlike  expeditions. 

At  the  same  time,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  influence  exercised  upon 
the  history  of  mankind  by  the  general  configuration  of  land  ,and  sea,  or  any 
special  features  of  the  fonder,  is  subject  to  change,  and  depends  essentially  upon 
the  stage  of  culture  at  which  nations  have  arrived.  Geography,  strictly  speaking, 
confines  itself  to  a  description  of  the  eartii's  sur&oe,  and  exhibits  the  various 
nations  in  a  passive  attitude  as  it  were,  whilst  Historical  Oeography  and  statistics 
show  man  engaged  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  striving  to  obtain  the  mastery 
OYbT  his  surroundings.  A  river,  which  to  an  uncultured  tribe  wodd  constitute  an 
insurmountable  barrier,  becomes  a  commercial  high-road  to  a  tribe  further  advanced 
in  culture,  and  in  process  of  time  it  may  be  converted  into  a  mere  canal  of 
irrigation,  the  course  of  which  is  regulated  by  man.  A  mountain  nmge  frequented 
by  shepherds  and  huntsmen,  and  forming  a  barrier  betwem  nations,  may  attract, 
in  a  more  civilised  epoch,  the  miner  and  the  manufiusturer,  and  in  course  of  time 
will  even  cease  to  be  an  obstacle,  as  roads  will  traverse  it  in  all  directions.  Many  a 
creek  of  the  sea,  which  afforded  shelter  of  yore  to  the  small  vessels  of  our  ancestors, 
is  deserted  now,  whilst  the  opm  bays,  which  vessek  dreaded  formerly,  have  been 
protected  by  enormous  breakwaters,  and  have  become  the  resort  of  our  largest  ships. 


Wii lnHMiWIMilil 


mmmimt* 


■Kiriirririiiiiinjii in 


'-•mrtriTt  t^Juiuismi^H 


mm 


nrrBODTJOTOBT  BEMABES. 


ears  to  come, 
y  will  obtain 
heae  two  and 
rations  which 
if  intercourae 
id  throughout 
I  of  mankind, 
its  periphery 

'  exercised  a 
ting  it.     The 
virtues  of  the 
other  parts  of 
)  genius.    To 
1  position  the 
;  to  obtain  a 
long  a  period 
;ht  when  they 
sises  upon  the 
)  of  mountain 
I,  the  indenta- 
rarity  of' rain, 
pregnant  with 
oitiye  nations. 
>ns  subject  to 
I  globe  which 
ditions. 

ixercised  upon 
d  sea,  or  any 
isentially  upon 
ictly  speaking, 
its  the  various 
f  and  statistics 
on  the  mastery 
d  constitute  an 
irther  advan<»d 
mere  canal  of 
pnge  frequented 
as,  may  attract, 
course  of  time 
otions.  Many  a 
f  our  ancestors, 
erly,  have  been 
or  largest  ships. 


Innumerable  changes  such  as  these  have  been  effected  by  man  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  they  have  revolutionised  the  correlations  existing  between  man  and 
the  land  he  lives  in.  The  configuration  and  height  of  mountains  and  table-lands, 
the  indentation  of  the  coasts,  the  disposition  of  islands  and  archipelagos,  and  the 
extent  of  the  ocean— these  all  lose  their  relative  influence  upon  the  history  of 
nations  in  proportion  as  the  latter  emancipate  themselves  and  become  free 
agents.  Though  subject  to  the  condition  of  his  dwelling-place,  man  may  modify 
it  to  suit  his  own  purpose ;  he  may  overcome  nature  as  it  were,  and  convert  the 
energies  of  the  earth  into  domesticated  forces.  As  an  instance  we  may  point  to 
the  elevated  table-lands  of  Central  Asia,  which  now  separate  the  countries  and 
peninsuks  surrounding  them,  but  which,  when  they  shall  have  become  the  seats  of 
human  industry,  will  convert  Asia  into  a  real  geographical  unit,  which  at  present 
it  is  only  in  appearance.  Massy  and  ponderous  Africa,  monotonous  Australia,  and 
Southern  America  with  its  forests  and  waterfalls,  will  be  put  on  something  like  an 
equality  with  Europe,  whenever  roads  of  commerce  shall  cross  them  in  aH 
directions,  bridging  their  rivers,  and  traversing  their  deserts  and  mountain  ranges. 
The  advantages,  on  the  other  hand,  which  Europe  derives  from  its  backbone  of 
mountains,  its  radiating  rivers,  the  contours  of  its  coasts,  and  its  generally  well- 
balanced  outline  are  not  as  great  now  as  they  were  when  man  was  dependent 
exdusively  upon  the  resources  fiimished  by  nature. 

This  gradual  change  in  the  historical  importance  of  the  configuration  of  the 
land  is  a  fiwt  of  capital  importance  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  if  we  would 
understand  the  general  geography  of  Europe.  In  studying  ctacb  we  must  take 
aooount  of  aaotha  element  of  equal  value — xms. 


..>  r. 


SfH 


'kgi 


ijiJUItiJltiHlli  -1  ■i.ii|llHiHifti"'tlHiiH'''i'i'i'*'MJ'  irJMW- 


irr?^.'^-^'  '''WJ  i.iiiiwwwKW^ 


"MiMi 


1 


EUROPE. 


I.— Gboobajphioal  Impobtanoe. 

IN  the  geography  of  the  world  the  first  place  is  claimed  for  Europe, 
not  heoanse  of  a  prejudice  like  that  of  the  Chinese,  but  as  a  matter 
of  right.  Europe  as  yet  is  the  only  continent  the  whole  of  whose 
surface  has  been  scientifically  explored.  It  possesses  a  map  approx- 
imately cortrect,  and  its  material  resources  are  ahnoet  fully  known  to 
us.  Its  popuktion  is  not  as  dense  as  that  of  India  or  of  China,  but  it  nevertheless 
contains  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  popuktion  of  the  globe ;  aed  its  inhabitants, 
whatever  their  failings  and  vices,  or  their  state  of  barbarism  in  some  respects,  still 
impel  the  rest  of  mankind  as  regards  material  and  mental  progress.  Europe,  for 
twenty-five  centuries,  has  been  the  focus  whence  radiated  Arts,  Sciences,  and 
Thought.  Nor  have  those  hardy  coir  lists  who  carried  their  European  Unguages 
and  customs  beyond  the  sea  succeeded  hitherto  in  giving  to  the  New  World  an 
importance  equal  to  that  of  «  Uttle  "Europe,  in  spite  of  the  virgm  soil  and  vast 
arm  which  gave  them  scope  for  unlimited  expaiision. 

"Old  Europe,"  where  every  dod  of  earth  has  its  history,  where  every  man 
is  the  heir  of  a  hundred  successive  generations,  therefore  still  maintains  the  first 
place,  and  a  compaiative  study  of  nations  justifies  us  in  the  beUef  that  its  moral 
ascendancy  and  industrial  preponderance  will  remwn  with  it  for  many  years  to  come. 
At  the  same  time,  we  must  not  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  equality  will  obtain 
in  the  end,  not  only  between  America  and  Eui«pe,  but  also  between  these  two  and 
the  other  quarters  of  the  world.  The  ir  ermingling  of  nations,  migrations  which 
have  assumed  prodigious  proportions,  and  A©  increasing  feoilitiee  of  intercourse, 
must  in  the  end  lead  to  an  equilibrium  of  popuktion  throughout  the  world.  Then 
will  each  country  add  its  proper  share  to  the  wealth  of  mankind,  and  what  we  call 
civilisation  will  have  "  its  centre  everywhere,  its  periphery  nowhere." 

The  central  geographical  position  of  Europe  has  undoubtedly  exercised  a 

most  favourable  infinence  upon  the  progress  of  the  nations  inhabiting  it.    The 

superiority  of  the  Europeans  is  certainly  not  due  to  the  inherent  virtues  of  the 

races  from  which  they  sprang,  as  is  vaiiJy  imagined  by  sonae,  for  in  other  parts  of 

1 


■llll>IIWIllllll» 


WMNiii 


B 


6 


EUROPE. 


the  ancient  world  these  Bame  races  have  exhibited  far  less  creative  genius.  To 
the  happy  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  configuration,  and  geographical  position,  the 
inhabitants  of  Europe  owe  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  obtain  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  in  its  entirety,  and  to  have  remained  for  so  long  a  period  at  the 
head  of  mankind.  Historical  geographers  are,  therefore,  right  when  they  insist 
upon  the  influenc*)  which  the  configuration  of  a  country  exercises  upon  the  nations 
who  inhabit  it.  The  extent  of  table-lands,  the  heights  of  mountain  ranges,  the 
direction  and  volume  of  rivers,  the  vicinity  of  the  ocean,  the  indentation  of  the 
coast-line,  the  temperature  of  the  air,  the  abundance  or  rarity  of  rain,  and  the 
correlations  between  soil,  air,  and  water — all  these  are  pregnant  with  effects,  and 
explain  much  of  the  character  and  mode  of  life  of  primitive  nations.  They 
account  for  most  of  the  contrasts  existing  between  nations  subject  to  different 
conditions,  and  point  out  the  natural  highways  of  the  globe  which  nations  are 
constrained  to  follow  in  their  migrations  or  warlike  expeditions. 


11.^ — ^Extent  and  Boundabies. 

The  dwellers  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  must  have  learnt,  in 
the  course  of  their  first  warlike  and  commercial  expeditions,  to  distinguish  between 
the  great  continents;  for  within  the  nucleus  of  the  ancient  world  Africa  is 
attached  to  Asia  by  a  narrow  band  of  arid  sand,  and  Europe  separated  from  Asia 
Minor  by  seas  and  channels  difiScult  to  navigate  on  account  of  dangerous  cnirents. 
The  division  of  the  known  world  into  three  distinct  parts  could  not  fail  to  impress 
itself  upon  the  minds  of  those  infant  nations ;  and  when  the  Greeks  had  attained 
a  state  of  maturity,  and  historical  records  took  the  place  of  myths  and  oral  tradi- 
tions, the  name  of  Europe  had  probably  been  transmitted  through  a  long  series  of 
generations.  Herodotus  naively  admits  that  no  mortal  could  ever  hope  to  find 
out  the  true  meaning  of  this  name,  bequeathed  to  us  by  our  forefathers ;  but  this 
has  not  deterred  our  modem  men  of  learning  from  attempting  to  exphdn  it. 
Some  amongst  them  consider  that  it  was  applied  at  first  to  Thrace  with  its  "  large 
plains,"  and  subsequently  extended  to  the  whole  of  Europe ;  others  derive  it  from 
one  of  the  surnames,  of  Zeus  with  the  ''huge  eyes,"  the  andent  god  of  the  Sun, 
specially  charged  with  the  protection  of  ^e  continent.  Some  etymolo^sts  believe 
that  Europe,  was  designated  thus  by  the  Phoenidans,  as  being  the  ooontry  of 
"white  men."  We  consider  it;  however,  to  be  far  more  probable  that  its  mane 
originally  meant  simply  "the  West,"  as  contrasted  with  Asia,  "the  East,"  or 
"  country  of  the  rising  sun."  It  is  thus  that  Italy  first,  and  then  Spain,  bore  the 
name  of  Hesperia ;  that  Western  Africa  received  the  name  of  £1  Maghreb  from 
the  Mohammedans,  and  the  plains  beyond  the  Mississippi  became  known  in  our 
own  times  as  the  "  Far  West." 

But,  whatever  may  be  the  original  meaning  of  its  name,  Europe,  in  all  the 
myths  of  the  imcients,  is  described  as  a  Daughter  of  Asia.  The  Phoenicians  were 
the  first  to  explore  the  shores  of  Europe,  and  to  bring  its  inhabitants  into  contact 
with  those  of  the  East.    When  the  Daughter  had  become  the  superior  ol  her 


WMW»'liliwilMTiH''i<rwi  a.'lV»iill«Xiilui 


■wwiawii 


EXTENT  AND  BOUNDARIES. 


I  genius.  To 
I  position,  the 
>tain  a  knowl- 

period  at  the 
en  they  insist 
on  the  nations 
Jn  ranges,  the 
itation  of  the 

rain,  and  the 
th  effects,  and 
ations.  They 
it  to  different 
sh  nations  are 


have  learnt,  in 
tgaish  between 
orld  Africa  is 
Ated  from  Asia 
;erons  currents, 
fail  to  impress 
ks  had  attained 
and  oral  tradi- 
a  long  series  of 
sr  hope  to  find 
ithers ;  but  this 
I  to  explain  it. 
with  its  "Urge 
i  derive  it  &om 
K)d  of  the  Sun, 
lolo^ts  believe 
the  country  of 
te  that  its  mane 
"the  East,"  or 
Spun,  bore  the 
I  Haghreb  from 
le  known  in  our 

arope,  in  all  the 
Phoenicians  were 
ants  into  contact 
I  superior  oi  hsae 


Kother  in  civilisation,  and  Greek  voyagers  were  following  up  the  explorations 
begun  by  the  mariners  of  Tyre,  all  the  known  countries  to  the  north  of  the 
Mediterranean  were  looked  upon  as  dependencies  of  Europe,  and  that  name,  which 
was  originally  confined  to  the  Thraco-Hellenio  peninsula,  was  made  to  include,  in 
course  of  time,  Italy,  Spain,  the  countries  of  the  Gauls,  and  the  hyperborean 


Fig.  1.— Thi  Natural  Bovni>ary  of  Edropi. 
Soile  1 :  11^)0,000. 


M*Ber  Or. 


k 


.X^ 


^^ 


•^ 


Tlie  «m«  of  deprcnkm  extandiag  from  tli«  Black  Seit  to  the  Oulf  of  Obi  ii  iliaded.   *rha  darker  tbuling 
to  the  north  of  the  Oaapiaiii  ahows  the  area  depretaed  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

regions  beyond  the  Alps  and  the  Danube.  Strabo,  to  whom  were  known  already 
the  most  varied  and- fruitful  portions  of  Europe,  extends  it  eastwazd  as  far  as  the 
Palus  HsBOtis  and  the  Tanais.* 

*  llodem  Sea  of  Aiof  and  River  Don. 


l''1i 


8 


EUEOPE. 


: 


\r-  I 


Since  that  epoch  the  limits  between  Europe  and  Asia  hav^  Seen  shifted  hj 
geog^phers  still  farther  to  the  east.  They  are,  however,  mc.e  or  less  con- 
ventional, for  Europe,  though  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  ocean,  is  in  reality 
but  a  peninsula  of  Asia.  At  the  same  time,  the  contrasts  between  these  two  parts 
of  the  world  fully  justify  scientific  men  in  dividing  them  into  two  continental 
masses.  But  where  is  the  true  line  of  separation  between  them  f  Map-makers  ' 
generally  adopt  the  political  boundaries  which  it  has  pleased  the  Russian 
Government  to  draw  between  its  vast  European  and  Asiatic  territories,  and  others 
adopt  the  summits  of  the  Ural  Mountains  and  of  the  Oauoasus  as  the  boundary 


Fl«.  J 

Thi  RiUBP  OP  EvHon. 

▲«eoidiiivtoHonM«u,B«|l>Mii,Kiv«t,OlMii,MidoUim.    Soidt  1 :  ao,00IMNO. 

</ 

f         J$        *      ft  ,   m  fS  m  S  «fBi   f.  f>  mft  M  U  p,  ft  H  »    t,     1     ^      ^       1,        « 

■" 

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■ 

^K^^^^Wf  H  ![;# 

a. 

1 

£\ 

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1 

(jirifii 

1 

ii. 

iL 

1 

flfll^^H 

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it 

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p^^K^j?^^  -^ 

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m 

V       A*      V        I       ii       L       W  '     L      !W      H*      |i       b 

■■5m  IMM  itmit  eSOfnt  «■  Wly«ft . ' 


■M*  «lM  IMV  A^  a  4iy«k 


between  the  two  continents;  and  although,  at  the  first  glance,  thit  delineation 
appears  more  reasonable  than  the  former,  it  is  in  reality  no  less  absurd.  The 
two  slopes  of  a  mountain  chain  can  never  be  assigned  to  different  formationa,  and 
they  are  generally  inhabited  by  men  of  the  same  race.  The  true  line  of  sepa- 
ration between  Europe  and  Asia  does  not  consist  of  moortains  at  all,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  of  a  series  of  depressions,  in  former  times  covered  by  a  channel  of  the 
sea  which  united  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  stei^)e8  of 
the  Manych,  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian,  and  to  the  north  of  die 
Caucasus,  are  still  covered  in  part  with  salt  swamps.  The  Caq>ian  itself,  as  well  as 
Lake  Aral  and  the  other  lakes  which  we  meet  with  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of 
Obi,  are  the  remains  of  this  ancient  arm  of  the  sea,  and  the  intermediate  regions 
still  bear  the  traces  of  having  been  an  ancient  see-bed. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  vast  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  configuration 


rtiii Wimw »ii,jjmnj#iw 


MMWIM 


# 


NATUBAL  DIVISIONS  AND  MOUNTAINS. 


9 


in  shifted  by 

or  lesB  con- 

,  is  in  reality 

lese  two  parts 

>  continental 

Map«makers 

the  Russian 

les,  and  others 

the  boundary 


1 


t 


i 


this  delineation 

IS  absurd.    The 

formations,  and 

le  line  of  sepa- 

all,  but,  on  the 
i  channel  of  the 

The  steiqpes  of 

he  north  of  the 

itself,  as  well  as 

n  of  the  Oulf  of 

[mediate  regions 

the  configuration 


ijihM > '-  '-II  "I— 


WMM 


of  Europe,  not  only  during  more  ancient  geological  periodu,  but  also  within 
comparatively  recent  times.  We  have  already  seen  that  a  vast  arm  of  the  sea 
formerly  separated  Europe  from  Asia ;  it  is  equally  certain  that  there  was  a  time 
when  it  was  joined  to  Anatolia  by  an  isthmus,  which  has  since  been  converted  into 
the  Bosphorus  of  Oonstantinople  ;  Spain  was  joined  to  Africa  until  the  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  invaded  the  Mediterranean ;  Sicily  was  probably  connected  with 
Mauritania ;  and  the  British  Islands  once  formed  a  portion  of  the  mainland.  The 
erosion  of  the  sea,  as  well  as  upheavals  and  subsidences  of  land,  has  effected,  and 
still  effect,  changes  in  the  contours  of  our  coasts.  Numerous  soundings  in  the 
seas  washing  Western  Europe  have  revealed  the  existence  of  a  submarine  plateau, 
which,  from  a  geological  point  of  view,  must  be  looked  upon  as  forming  an  integral 
portion  of  our  continent.  Bounded  by  abyssal  depths  of  thousands  of  fathoms, 
and  submerged  one  hundred  fathoms  at  most  below  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  this 
pedestal  of  France  and  the  British  Islands  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  foundation 
of  an  ancient  continent,  destroyed  by  the  incessant  action  of  the  waves.  If  the 
shallow  portions  of  the  ocean,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  were  to  be 
added  to  Europe,  its  area  would  be  increased  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth,  but  it 
would  lose,  at  the  same  time,  that  wealth  in  peninsulas  which  has  secured  to  Europe 
its  historical  superiority  over  the  other  continents. 

If  we  supposed  Europe  to  subside  to  the  extent  of  one  hundred  fathoms,  its 
area  would  be  reduced  to  the  oompnss  of  one-half.  The  ocean  would  again  cover  her 
low  plr '  iS,  most  of  which  are  andent  sea-beds,  and  there  wotdd  remain  above  the 
waters  merely  a  skeleton  of  plateaux  and  mountain  ranges,  far  more  extensively 
indented  by  bays  and  fringed  by  peninsulas  than  are  the  coasts  existing  at  the 
present  time.  ,  The  whole,  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  would  be  converted 
into  a  huge  island,  separated  by  a  wide  arm  of  the  sea  from  the  plains  of  interior 
Russia.  From  an  historical  as  well  as  a  geological  point  of  view,  this  huge 
island  is  the  true  Europe.  Russia  is  not  only  half  Asiatic  on  account  of  its 
extremes  of  temperature,  and  the  aspect  of  its  monotonous  plains  and  interminable 
steppes,  but  is  likewise  intimately  linked  with  Asia  as  riegards  its  inhabitants  and 
its  historical  development.  Russia  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  belonged  to  Europe 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  It  was  in  maritime  and  mountainous  Europe, 
with  its  islands,  peninsulas,  and  volleys,  it«  varied  features  and  unexpected 
contrasts,  that  modem  civilisation  arose,  the  result  of  innumerable  local  civilisa- 
tions, happily  united  into  a  single  current.  And,  as  the  rivers  descending  from  the 
mountains  cover  the  plains  at  their  foot  with  fertile  soil,  so  has  the  progress 
accomplished  in  this  centre  of  enlightenment  gradually  spread  over  the  other 
continents  to  the  very  extremities  of  the  earth. 

III. — NATVRAii  Divisions  and  Mountains. 

Thb  Europe  alluded  to  includes  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the  thfee 
Mediterranean  peninsulas,  and  constitutes  several  natural  divisions.  The  British 
Islands  form  one  of  these.      The  Iberian  peninsula  is  separated  scarcely  leas 


^ 


^^ 


10 


EUBOPB. 


distinctly  from  the  remainder  of  Europe,  for  between  it  and  France  rites  a 
most  formidable  range  of  mountains,  the  most  difficult  to  cross  in  all  Europe ;  and 
immediately  to  the  north  of  it  a  depression,  nowhere  exceeding  a  height  of 
650  feet,  extends  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
geographical  unity  of  Europe  is  represented  to  the  ftill  extent  only  in  the  system 
of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  mountains  of  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Balkan 
peninsula  which  are  connected  with  it.  It  is  there  we  must  seek  the  framework 
of  continental  Europe. 

The  Alps,  whose  ancient  Celtic  name  probably  refers  to  the  whiteness  of  their 
snowy  summits,  stretch  in  an  immense  curve,  more  than  600  miles  in  length, 
frcm  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  the  plains  of  the  Danube.  They  consist 
in  reality  of  more  than  thirty  mountain  masses,  representing  as  many  geological 
{proups,  and  joined  to  each  other  by  elevated  passes;  but  their  rocks,  whether 
they  be  granite,  slate,  sandstone,  or  limestone,  form  one  continuous  rampart  rising 
above  the  plains.  In  former  ages  the  Alps  were  higher  than  they  are  now.  This 
is  proved  by  an  examination  of  their  detritus  and  of  the  strata  disintegrated 
by  natural  agencies.  But,  whatever  the  extent  of  detrition,  they  still  rise  in 
hundreds  of  summits  beyond  the  line  of  perennial  snow,  and  vast  riven  of  ice 
descend  f^rom  them  into  every  upland  valley.  Looked  at  from  the  plains  of 
Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  these  glaciers  and  snow-fields  present  the  appearance  of 
sparkling  diadems  encircling  the  mountain  summits. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Alpine  system — that  is  to  say,  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  Mont  Blanc,  the  culminating  point  of  Europe — the  average 
height  of  the  mountain  groups  gradually  increases  from  6,600  to  more  than 
13,000  feet.  To.  the  east  of  Mont  Blano  the  Alps  change  in  direction,  and, 
beyond  the  vast  citadels  represented  by  Monte  Rosa  and  the  Bernese  Oberiand, 
they  gradually  decrease  in  height.  To  the  east  of  Switzerland  no  summit  exceeds 
a  height  of  13,000  feet,  but  this  loss  in  elevation  is  Ailly  made  up  by  increase  of 
breadth.  And  whilst  tL(«  general  direction  of  the  principal  axis  of  the  Alps 
remains  north-easterly,  very  considerable  mountain  chains,  hr  exceeding  the 
central  mass  in  breadth)  are  thrown  off  towards  the  north,  the  eost,  and  the 
south-east.  A  line  drawn  across  the  true  Alps  from  Vienna  has  a  length  of  no 
less  than  250  miles. 

In  thus  spreading  out,  the  Alps  lose  tuo  r  character  and  aspect.  We  no  longer 
meet  with  grand  mountain  masses,  glaciers,  and  snow-fields.  Towards  the  north 
they  gradually  sink  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Danube ;  towards  the  south  thqr 
branch  out  into  secondary  chains,  resting  upon  the  arched  plateau  of  Turkey. 
But,  in  spite  of  the  vast  contrasts  offered  by  the  true  Alps  and  the  mountains  of 
Montenegro,  the  Hsemus,  the  Rhodope,  and  the  Pindus,  all  these  mountain  chains 
nevartheless  belong  to  the  same  orographical  system.  The  whole  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  natural  dependency  of  the  Alps ;  and  the  same 
applies  to  Italy,  for  the  chain  of  the  Apennines  is  nothing  but  a  continuation 
of  the  Maritime  Alps,  and  we  hardly  know  where  to  draw  the  line  of  separa- 
tion  between  them.      The    Carpathians,  too,  must   be  included    among   Hm 


HI 


mi  .1.  .AM.KtmmmtmKH 


■!^ 


NATURAL  DIVISIONS  AND  MOUNTAINS. 


11 


ttnoe  rises  a 

Europe;  and 

a  height  of 

!)oean.      The 

n  the  system 

the  Balkan 

he  framework 

enesB  of  their 

es  in  length, 

They  consist 

iny  geological 

ouks,  whether 

rampart  rising 

re  now.    This 

disintegrated 

J  still  rise  in 

t  rivers  of  ice 

the  plains  of 

I  appearance  of 

between  the 
) — the  average 
to  more  than 
direction,  and, 
Dese  Oberlond, 
lummit  exceeds 
by  increase  of 
B  of  the  Alps 
exceeding  the 
cost,  and  the 
I  length  of  no 

We  no  longer 
Bids  the  north 
the  south  th^ 
Ntu  of  Turkey. 
le  mountains  of 
lountain  chains 
of  the  Balkan 
;  and  the  same 
a  continuatitm 
line  of  separa- 
1    among   the 


mountain  chains  forming  part  of  the  system  of  the  Alps.  They  have  been 
gradually  separated  from  them  through  the  continuous  action  of  water,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  former  times,  the  semicircle  of  mountains  known  as  the 
Little  Carpathians,  the  Beskids,  the  Tatra,  the  Great  Carpathians,  and  the  Transyl> 
vanian  Alps  was  joined,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  Austrian  Alps,  and  on  the  other 
to  spurs  descending  from  the  Balkan.  The  Danube  has  forced  its  way  through 
these  mountain  ramparts,  but  the  passages,  or  "gates,"  are  narrow;  they  are  strewn 
with  rooks,  and  commanded  by  what  remains  of  the  ancient  partition  ranges. 

The  configuration  of  the  Alps,  and  of  the  labyrinthine  mountain  ranges  branching 
off  from  them  towards  the  east,  could  not  fail  to  exercise  a  most  powerAil  influence 
upon  the  history  of  Europe  and  of  the  entire  world.  The  only  high-roads  known 
to  barbarians  are  those  traced  out  by  nature  herself,  and  they  were  consequently 
able  to  penetrate  into  Europe  only  by  sea,  or  through  the  vast  plains  of  the  north. 
Having  penetrated  to  the  westward  ot  the  Black  Sea,  their  progress  was  first 
stopped  by  the  lakes  and  difficult  swamps  of  the  Danubian  valley ;  and,  when 
they  had  surmounted  these  obstacles,  they  found  themselves  face  to  face  with  a 
barrier  of  high  mountains,  whose  intricate  wooded  valleys  and  declivities  led  up 
to  the  inaccessible  regions  of  eternal  snow.  The  Alps,  the  Balkan,  and  all  the 
other  advanced  chains  of  the  Alpine  system  constituted  an  advanced  defensive 
barrier  for  Eastern  Europe,  and  the  conquering  nomad  tribes  who  threw  them- 
selves against  it  did  so  at  the  risk  of  deetruotion.  Accustomed  to  the  boundless 
horixon  of  the  steppes,  they  did  not  venture  to  climb  these  steep  hiU»— -they 
turned  to  the  northward,  where  the  vast  plains  of  (Jerraania  enabled  successive 
swarms  of  immigrants  to  spread  over  the  country  with  greater  ease.  And  as  to  the 
invaders,  whom  blind  rage  of  conquest  impelled  to  engage  in  the  defiles  of  these 
mountains,  they  found  themselves  caught  as  in  a  trap ;  and  this  accounts  for  the 
variety  of  nations,  and  of  fragments  of  nations,  whose  presence  has  converted  the 
oountries  of  the  Danube  into  a  sort  of  ethnological  chaos.  And  as  the  debris 
carried  along  by  the  current  is  deposited  in  the  eddy  of  a  river,  so  were  these 
fragments  of  nearly  every  nation  of  the  East  aocumuUited  in  motley  disorder  in 
this  comer  of  the  continent. 

To  the  south  of  this  great  monntam  barrier  the  migrations  between  Europe 
and  Asia  pould  take  place  only  by  sea — a  high-road  open  to  those  nations  alone 
who  were  sufficiently  advanced  in  civilisation  to  have  acquired  the  art  of  building 
ships.  Whether  pirates,  merchants,  or  warriors,  they  had  raised  themselves  long 
ago  above  a  state  of  primitive  barbarism,  and  even  thnr  voyages  of  conquest  added 
something  to  the  stock  of  human  knowledge.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  difficulties 
of  navigation,  they  migrated  only  in  small  bodies.  At  whatever  point  they  settled 
they  came  into  contact  with  populations  of  a  different  race  from  their  own,  and  this 
intercourse  gave  birth  to  a  number  of  local  civilisations,  each  bearing  its  own  stamp, 
and  nowhere  did  their  influence  preponderate.  Every  isLmd  of  the  Archipela(^x>,  and 
every  valley  of  ancient  Hellas,  differed  firom  its  neighbours  as  regards  social  con- 
dition, dialect,  and  customs,  but  they  all  remained  Qreek,  in  spite  of  the  Phconician 
and  other  influences  to  which  they  had  been  subjected.     It  is  thus  owing  to  the 


II 


BVBOPE. 


oonflguration  of  tho  mountain  oliaina  and  ooMt*Unef  that  the  oMIiMtion  whioh 
developed  itaelf  graduully  in  the  Moditorrunean  oountrie*  to  the  wuth  of  tho  Alpa 
was,  upon  the  whole,  more  ipontaneoui  in  it«  nature,  and  offered  more  Yariety 
and  greater  oontratta,  than  the  oiviltiation  of  the  far  Ioh  adTanoed  nationi  of  the 
north,  who  were  moving  from  place  to  pUoe  on  vast  phiina. 

The  wide  range  of  the  Alps  and  of  their  advanced  chains  thus  separated  two 
distinct  worlds,  in  which  historical  development  went  on  at  a  different  rate.  At 
the  same  time,  the  separation  between  the  two  slopes  of  the  Alpine  system  was  by 
no  means  •.'Omplete.  Nowhere  in  the  Alps  do  we  meet  with  cold  and  uninhabited 
pkteaux,  as  in  the  Andes  and  in  Tibet,  whose  enormous  extent  forms  almost 
insurmountable  barriers.  The  Alpine  masses  are  out  up  everywhere  into  mountains 
and  valleys,  and  the  climate  of  the  latter  is  sufficiently  mild  to  enable  man  to 
exist  in  them.  The  mountaineers,  who  easily  maintained  their  independence, 
owing  to  the  proteation  extended  to  them  by  nature,  first  served  as  intermediariea 
between  the  peoples  inhabiting  the  opposite  lowlands.  It  was  they  who  effected 
the  rare  exchanges  of  produce  which  took  place  between  the  North  and  South, 
aud  who  opened  the  first  commercial  high-roads  between  the  summits  of  the  moun- 
tains. The  direction  of  the  valleys  and  the  deeply  cut  mountain  passes  even  then 
indicated  the  grand  routes  by  which  thu  Alps  would  be  crossed,  at  a  future  period, 
for  the  purposes  of  commerce  or  of  war.  That  portion  of  the  Alps  whioh  lies 
between  the  mountain  masses  of  Savoy  and  of  the  Mediterranean  would  natu- 
rally cease  first  to  form  an  obstacle  to  military  expeditions.  The  Alps  there 
are  of  great  height,  it  is  true,  but  they  are  narrower  than  anywhere  else ;  besides 
whioh,  the  climate  on  the  two  opposite  slopes  is  similar,  and  assimilates  the  mode 
of  life  and  the  customs  of  the  people  dwelling  there.  Far  more  formidable,  at  a 
natural  barrier,  are  the  Alps  to  the  north-east  of  Mont  Blanc,  for  they  constitute  a 
climatic  boundary. 

The  other  mountain  ranges  play  but  a  secondary  or  local  part  in  the  history  of 
Europe,  when  we  compare  them  with  the  Alps.  Still,  the  influence  whioh  they 
have  exercised  upon  the  destiny  of  nations  is  no  less  evident.  The  table-lands  and 
snow-fields  of  the  Scandinavian  Alps  form  a  wall  of  separation  between  Norwegians 
and  Swedes.  The  quadrangular  mountain  fort  of  Bohemia,  in  the  oentreof  Europe, 
whioh  shelters  the  Oheohians,  is  almost  entirely  enclosed  by  Germans,  and  resembles 
an  island  fretted  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean.  The  hills  of  Wales  and  of  Soot- 
land  have  afforded  a  shelter  to  the  Oeltio  race  against  the  encroachments  of 
Anglo-Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans.  The  Bretons,  in  France,  are  indebted  to 
their  rocks  and  landet  for  the  fact  of  their  not  having  yet  become  wholly  French ; 
whilst  the  table-land  of  Limousin,  the  hills  of  Auvergne,  and  th*  Cevennes  con- 
stitute the  principal  cause  of  the  striking  oontrast  which  still  exists  between 
the  inhabitants  of  Northern  and  of  Southern  France.  The  Pyrenees,  next  to 
the  Alps,  constitute  the  most  formidable  obstacle  to  the  march  of  nations  in 
Europe;  they  would  have  remained  an  insurmountable  rampart  down  to  our 
own  time,  were  it  not  easy  to  pass  round  them  by  their  extremities  abutting  upon 
the 


■4k, 


THE  MARITIME  RE0I0N8. 


u 


Mtion  which 

of  tho  Alps 

more  rurietv 

lutioni  of  the 

oparated  two 

int  rate.    At 

iratem  woe  by 

uninhabited 

forms  almoet 

to  mountain! 

lable  man  to 

ndependenoe, 

ntermediariee 

who  effected 

1  and  South, 

ofthemoun- 

leeeven  then 

Riture  period, 

pe  which  lies 

would  natu- 

e  Alps  there 

else;  besides 

ktes  the  mode 

rmidable,  as  a 

17  constitute  a 

the  history  of 
e  which  they 
lUe-lands  and 
n  Norwegians 
treof  Europe, 
and  resembles 

and  of  Soot- 
■oachments  of 
)  indebted  to 
lolly  French ; 
Terennes  con- 
lists  between 
nees,  next  to 
»f  nations  in 

down  to  our 
ibntting  upon 


rV. — TiiK  Maritimk  Rroions. 

Thb  Talleys  which  radiate  in  all  directions  from  the  great  central  masses  of  the 
Alps  are  admirably  adapted  for  imparting  to  almost  the  whole  of  Europe  a 
remarkuble  unity,  whilst  they  offer,  at  the  name  time,  an  extreme  variety  of  a«p(>ots 
nn^  of  physical  conditions.  The  Po,  the  Rhone,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube 
trayerau  <f>untries  having  the  most  diverse  climates,  and  yet  they  have  their 
Houroes  in  tho  same  mountain  region,  and  the  fortiliaini;  alluvium  which  they 
deposit  io  their  valleys  results  from  the  disintegration  of  the  same  rocks.  Minor 
valleys  out  up  the  "lopes  of  the  Alps  and  of  their  dependent  chains,  and  carry 
towards  the  sea  the  waters  of  the  mountains  and  tho  triturated  fragments  of  their 
rooks.  Rttsnint;  waters  are  visible,  wherever  we  oast  our  eyes.  There  are 
neither  deserts,  nor  sterile  plateaux,  uor  inland  lakes  and  river  basins  such  as  we 
meet  with  in  Africa  and  Asia.  The  rivers  of  Europo  are  not  flooded  as  are  those 
of  certain  portions  of  South  America,  which  deluge  half  the  country  with  water. 
On  the  contrary,  in  the  scheme  of  her  rivers  Europe  exhibits  a  certain  degree  of 
moderation  which  has  favoured  the  work  of  the  settler,  and  facilitated  the  rise  of 
a  local  civilisation  in  each  river  basin.  Moreover,  although  most  rivers  are  suffi- 
oiently  large  to  have  retarded  migration,  they  are  not  sufficiently  so  to  have 
arrested  it  for  any  length  of  time.  Even  when  roads  and  bridges  did  not  exist, 
barbarian  immigrants  easily  made  their  way  from  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to 
those  of  the  Atlantic. 

But  Europe,  in  addition  to  the  advantages  due  to  its  framework  of  mountains 
and  the  disposition  of  its  river  basins,  enjoys  the  still  greater  advantage  of  poKsess- 
ing  an  indented  coast-line.  It  is  mainly  the  contours  of  its  coasts  which  impnrt  to 
Europe  its  double  character  of  unity  and  diversity,  which  distinguish  it  amongst 
continents.  It  is  "one"  because  of  its  great  central  mass,  and  "diversified" 
because  of  its  numerous  peninsulas  and  dependent  islands.  It  is  an  organism,  if 
wo  may  say  so,  resembling  a  huge  body  furnished  with  limbs.  Strabo  compared 
Europe  to  a  dragon.  The  geographers  of  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters 
compared  it  to  a  crowned  virgin,  Spain  being  the  head,  France  the  heart,  and 
England  and  Italy  the  hands,  holding  the  sceptre  and  the  orb.  Russia,  at  that 
time  hardly  known,  is  made  to  do' duty  for  the  ample  folds  of  the  robe. 

The  area  of  Europe  is  only  half  that  of  South  America,  and  one-third  of  that 
of  Africa,  and  yet  the  development  of  its  ooast-lines  is  superior  to  that  of  the  two 
continents  taken  together.  In  proportion  to  its  area  the  coasts  of  Europe  have 
twioe  the  extent  of  those  of  South  America,  Australia,  and  Africa ;  and  although 
they  are  to  a  small  extent  inferior  to  those  of  North  America,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  arotio  coasts  of  the  latter  are  ice-bound  during  the  greater 
portion  ci  tiiei  year.  A  glance  at  the  subjoined  diagrams  will  show  that  Europe, 
as  compared  with  the  two  other  continents  washed  by  tbo  Arctic  Ocean,  enjoys  the 
immense  advantage  of  possessing  a  coast-line  almost  wholly  available  for  purposes 
of  navigatitm,  whilst  a  large  portion  of  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  America  is  altogether 
useless  to  man.     And  not  only  does  the  sea  penetrate  into  the  very  heart  of 


■i 


iiiiiiM^ 


^^ff^  r 


14 


EUEOPE. 


temperate  Europe,  cutting  it  up  into  elongated  peninsulas,  but  these  peninsulas, 
too,  are  fringed  with  gulfs  and  miniature  inland  seas.  The  coasts  of  Greece,  of 
Thessaly,  and  of  Thrace  are  thus  indented  by  bays  and  gulfs,  penetrating  far  into 
the  land;  Italy  and  Spain  likewise  possess  numerous  bays  and  gulfs;  and  the 
peninsulas  of  Northern  Europe,  Jutland,  and  Scandinavia  are  out  up  by  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  into  numerous  secondary  peninsulas. 

Fig.  3.— DtviLOPMBirr  of  Coast- UNBt  kblatitblt  to  Abba. 


EUROPE 


ASIA 


AFmCA 


SOUTH  AMCRICA 


NORTH  AMCRrCA 


AUSTRALIA 


4,006,100 
3,7£8,30p 

18,600 

17,010 

1:2-6 


17,308,400 
16,966,000 

34.110 

28,200 

1:2-6 


AfriMU 

11.642,400 
11,293,930 

16,480 

16,480 

1:1-4 


N.  AniMiea. 
0,376,860 
7,973,700 


8.  Amcriaa. 
6,808,670 
6,731,470 


3,460,130 
2,934.600 


Total  area,  aquare  miles  .    . 
Mainland  „ 

Development  of  coast-line, ) 

miles > 

Accessible  ooftsU  .... 
Ratio  of  the  geometrical  to  | 

the  actntd  contour  .  .  . ) 
The  shaded  circles  represent  the  various  continents ;  the  outer  circle  represents  the  actual  extant  of 
coast-line.  The  blank  space  between  the  two  concentric  circles  represents  graphically  the  diiTerence 
between  the  smallest  possible  or  geometrical  contour  of  a  country  having  the  area  of  the  respective 
continents,  and  the  actual  contour  as  exhibited  in  the  existing  ooast-Iines.  Europe^  being  in  reality  only 
a  peninsula  of  Aria,  hardly  admits  of  this  comparison. 

The  islands  of  Europe  must  be  lo<^ed  upon  as  dqiendencies  of  that  continent, 
for  most  of  them  are  separated  from  it  only  by  shallow  seas.  Oandia  and  the 
islands  scattered  broadcast  over  the  JBgean  Sea,  the  Archipelagos  of  the  Ionian 
Sea,  and  of  Dalmatia,  Sicily,  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  Elba,  and  the  Baleares,  are  in 
reality  but  prolongations,  or  maritime  out-stations,  of  neighbouring  peninsalas.  To 
the  islands  of  Sealand  and  Fyen,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic,  Denmark  owes 


'.''41-1J.Ui.JJA.J|i. 


■^  iiiiimiiuiiiwuiiMiiiiiwifciuiiisim 


THE  MABITIME  REGION. 


16 


se  peninsulas, 
of  Qreece,  of 
rating  far  into 
ulfs;  and  the 
ut  up  by  the 


TRIU 


ItTKAUA 

Amriaa. 
,808,070 
,781,470 


AmtiaUK. 
3,460,180 

2,934,«00 


the  actual  extaitk  of 
ically  the  diffemm 
»  of  the  raapeotive 
)eiiig  ia  nalitjr  only 


that  continent, 
Oandia  and  the 
i  of  the  Ionian 
Baleares,  are  in 
peninralas.  To 
Denmark  owes 


most  of  her  commercial  and  political  importance.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
which  actually  formed  a  portion  of  the  European  continent  in  a  past  age,  cannot 
be  looked  upon  otherwise  than  as  dependencies  of  it,  although  the  isthmus  which 
once  joined  them  has  been  destroyed  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  England  has 
actually  become  the  gprand  commercial  emporium  of  Europe,  and  plays  now  the 
same  part  in  the  world's  commerce  that  Gre^e  once  played  in  that  of  the  more 
restricted  world  of  the  Mediterranean. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  each  of  the  European  peninsulas  should  have 
enjoyed  in  turn  a  period  of  commercial  preponderance.  Ghreece,  the  "  most  noble 
individuality  of  the  world  of  the  ancients,"  came  first,  and  when  at  the  height  of 
her  power  governed  the  Mediterranean,  which  at  that  time  meant  nearly  the  whole 
universe.  During  the  Middle  Ages  Amalfi,  Genoa,  and  Venice  became  the  com- 
mercial agents  between  Europe  and  the  Indies.  The  discovery  of  a  passage  round 
the  Gape  and  of  America  diverted  the  world's  commerce  to  Oadiz,  Seville,  and 
Lisbon,  on  the  Iberian  peninsula.  Subsequently  the  merchants  of  the  small 
Dutch  Bepublic  seized  a  portion  of  the  heritage  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the 
wealth  of  the  entire  world  was  floated  into  the  harbours  of  their  sea-bound  islands 
and  peninsulas.  In  dUr  own  days  Qreat  Britain,  thanks  to  its  favourable  geo- 
graphical position,  in  the  very  centre  of  great  continental  masses,  and  the  energy 
of  its  people,  has  become  the  great  mart  of  the  world.  London,  the  most  populous 
city  of  the  world,  is  alw  the  great  centre  of  attraction  for  the  treasures  of  man- 
kind ;  but  there  can  be  no  dodbt  ihat  sooner  or  later  it  will  be  supplanted,  in 
consequence  of  the  opening  of  new  commercial  high-roads,  and  changes  in  the 
political  preponderance  of  nations.  Perhaps  some  city  of  the  United  States  will 
take  the  place  oi  London  in  a  future  age,  and  thus  the  American  belief  in  the 
westward  march  of  civilisation  will  be  verified ;  cr  we  may  possibly  return  to  the 
East,  and  convert  Constantinople  or  Oairo  into  the  world's  emporium  and  centre  of 
intercourse. 

But,  whatever  may  happen  in  the  future,  ihe  great  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  relative  importance  of  the  peninsulas  and  islands  of  Europe  in  the 
diort  span  of  twenty  centuries,  sufficiently  prove  that  geographical  features 
exercise  a  varying  influence  at  different  epochs.  That  which  at  one  time  was 
looked  upon  as  a  great  natural  advantage  may  become,  in  course  of  time,  a  serious 
disadvantage.  Thus  the  numerous  inlets  and  guL»  enclosed  by  mountain  chains, 
which  fiivoqred  the  rise  of  the  cities  of  Greece,  and  gave  to  Athens  tlie  dominion 
of  the  Medifdrranean,  now  constitute  as  many  obstacles  to  their  cotmeotion  with 
the  existing  system  of  European  communications.  Thai  which  in  former  times 
ctmstituted  the  strength  of  the  country  has  become  its  weakness.  In  primitive 
times,  before  man  ventured  upon  the  seas,  these  bays  and  gulls  formed  insur- 
mountable obstacles  to  the  migration  of  nations ;  at  a  later  date,  when  the  art  of 
navigati(m  had  been  acquired,  they  became  commercial  high-roads,  and  were 
&vourable  to  the  development  of  civilisation ;  and  at  the  present  time  ihey  are 
again  obstacles  in  the  way  of  our  road'builders  and  railway  engineers. 


->  & 


»F!«S»}!-»»^««flW*. 


I 


^ss^vmf!'^"' 


16 


,1 


EUBOPB. 


V. — Olimate. 


The  influence  exeroiBed  by  the  relief  of  the  land  and  the  configuration  of  the 
coasts  varies  in  diiferent  ages,  but  that  of  climate  is  permanent.  In  this  respect 
Europe  is  the  most  favoured  region  of  the  earth,  for  during  a  cycle  of  unknown 
length  it  has  enjoyed  a  climate  at  once  the  most  temperate,  the  most  equable,  and 
the  most  healthy  of  all  continents. 

Owing  to  the  inland  seas  which  penetrate  far  into  the  land,  the  whole  of 
Europe  is  exposed  to  the  modifying  influence  of  the  ocean.  With  the  exception 
of  Central  Russia,  no  part  of  Europe  is  more  than  400  miles  from  the  sea,  and,  as 
most  of  the  mountains  slope  from  the  centre  of  the  continent  towards  its  circum- 
ference, the  influence  of  the  sea  breezes  is  felt  throughout.  And  thus  continental 
Europe,  in  spite  of  its  great  extent,  enjoys  the  advantages  of  an  insular  olimate 
throughout,  the  winds  passing  over  the  ocean  moderating  th«  heat  of  summer  and 
tempering  the  cold  of  winter. 

The  continuous  north-easterly  movement  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  likewise 
has  a  favourable  effect  upon  the  climate  of  Europe.  After  having  been  heated  by 
a  tropical  sun  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  gulf-stream  issues  through  the  Strait  of 
Florida,  and,  spreading  over  the  Atlantic,  takes  its  course  towards  the  coasts  of 
Europe.  This  enormous  mass  of  warm  water,  equal  in  volume  to  twenty  million 
rivers  as  large  as  the  Rhone,  brings  the  warmth  of  southern  latitudes  to  the 
western  and  northern  shores  of  Europe.  Its  influence  is  telt  not  only  in  the 
maritime  countries  of  Western  Europe,  but  to  some  extent  as  far  as  the  Caspian 
and  the  ITral  Mountains. 

The  currents  of  the  air  exercise  as  favourable  an  influence  upon  the  climate  of 
Europe  as  do  those  of  the  ocean.  The  south-westerly  winds  predominating  on  the 
coasts  pass  over  the  warm  gulf-stream,  and,  on  reaching  Europe,  they  part  with  the 
heat  stored  up  by  them  between  the  tropics.  The  north-westerly,  northerly,  and 
even  north-easterly  winds,  which  blow  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  are  less  cold 
than  might  be  expected,  for  theiy,  too,  have  to  cross  the  warm  waters  of  the  gulf- 
stretmi.  Atid  lastly,  there  is  the  Sahara,  which  elevates  the  temperature  of  a 
portion  of  Europe. 

The  increase  in  temperature  due  to  the  combined  influence  of  winds  and 
ocean  currents  amounts  to  40°,  50°,  and  even  60°,  if  we  compare  Eurt^  with 
other  parts  of  the  world  lying  under  the  same  latitudes.  Nowhere  else,  not  even 
on  the  western  coast  of  North  America,  do  the  isothermals,  or  lines  of  equal  annual 
temperature,  ascend  so  high  towards  the  arctic  regions.  The  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  though  they  may  live  900  to  1,200  miles  fiirther  away  from  the  equator, 
enjoy  as  mild  a  climate  as  do  those  of  America,  and  the  decrease  of  temperature 
on  going  northward  is  fiur  less  rapid  tiiaii  in  any  other  pari'  of  the  globe.  This 
uniformity  of  temperature  oonifttitutes  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of 
Europe.  The  whole  of  it  lies  within  the  temperate  region  bounded  by  the 
isothermal  lines  of  82°  F.  and  68°  F.,  whilst  in  America  and  Asia  that  {nrivileged 
Kone  has  only  half  this  extent. 


mmamBSBm 


w 


CLIMATE. 


17 


ration  of  tbe 
u  this  respect 
)  of  unknown 
b  equable,  and 

tlie  whole  of 
the  exception 
iie  sea,  and,  as 
ds  its  ciroum- 
lus  continental 
nsular  climate 
>f  summer  and 

Aantic  likewise 
)een  heated  by 
'h  the  Strait  of 
8  the  coasts  of 
twenty  million 
ttitudes  to  the 
at  only  in  the 
as  the  Caspian 

1  the  climate  of 
ninating  on  the 
y  port  with  the 
,  northerly,  and 
ur,  are  less  cold 
ers  of  the  gulf- 
mperature  of  a 

)  of  winds  and 
re  Europe  with 
re  dse,  not  even 
of  equal  annual 
inhabitants  of 
rom  the  equator, 
)  of  temperature 
^e  globe.  This 
ristio  features  of 
)ounded  by  the 
» that  inrinleged 


This  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  climate  of  Europe  is  exhibited  not  only  in 
its  temperature,  but  likewise  in  the  distribution  of  its  rains.  The  seas  washing 
the  shores  of  Europe  supply  all  parts  of  it  with  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture. 
There  is  no  rainless  district,  nor,  with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  the  maritime 
region  of  the  Caspian  and  a  small  corner  of  Spain,  any  district  where  droughts 
occasionally  entail  the  entire  loss  of  the  harvest.  Rains  fall  not  only  regularly 
every  year,  but  in  most  countries  they  occur  in  every  season,  ihe  only  exception 
being  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  autumn  and  winter  are  the  real 
rainy  seasons.  Moreover,  in  spite  of  the  great  diversity  in  the  physical  features  of 
Europe,  the  amount  of  rain  is  scarcely  anywhere  excessive,  whether  it  descends  as 
a  fine  drizzle,  as  in  Ireland,  or  in  heavy  showers,  as  in  Provence  and  on  the 

Fig.  4.— Tbb  Ibothirmal  Zom  or  Evhopi. 
Bt^iinfloojooa. 


•0 


•l»to»rt*A- 


a«Nto«M»lt 


•  •Man. 


southern  dope  of  the  Alps.  The  annual  rainMl  scarcely  ever  exceeds  thirty-nine 
inches,  except  on  the  flunks  of  certain  mountain  ranges  vrhich  arrest  the  passage 
of  oonents  charged  with  moisture.  This  uniformity  and  moderation  in  the  rain- 
&U  exercise  a  regulating  influence  upon  the  course  of  the  rivers,  for  even  the 
smallest  amongst  Uiem,  at  all  events  those  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps, 
and  ihe  Balkan,  flow  throughout  the  year.  They  rise  and  fidl  generally  within 
narrow  limits,  and  inundations  on  a  vast  scale  are  as  rare  as  is  want  at  water  for 
purposes  of  irrigation.  In  consequence  of  this  regularity,  Europe  is  able  to  derive 
a  greater  advantage  fiN»n  its  waters  than  other  continents  where  the  amount  of 
precipitation  is  more  considerable.     The  Alps  contribute  much  towards  main- 


MriMMMpiMi 


18 


EUBOPB. 


taining  a  regular  flow  of  the  riven ;  the  excess  of  humidity  which  fidls  to  their 
share  is  stored  up  in  the  shape  of  snow  and  ice,  which  descend  slowly  into  the 
valleys,  and  melt  daring  the  heat  of  summer.  This  happens  just  at  a  time  when 
the  rivers  gain  least  from  rain,  and  lose  most  by  evaporation,  and  some  amongst 
them  would  dry  up  if  the  ice  of  the  mountains  did  not  come  to  the  aid  of  the 
waters  descending  from  the  sky.  It  is  thus  that  a  sort  of  balance  is  established  in 
the  economy  of  European  rivers. 

The  climate  of  Europe  is  thus  characterized  by  uniformity  as  a  whole,  and  by  a 
compensatory  action  in  its  contrasts.  Regularity  and  freedom  from  excess,  such 
as  are  not  known  in  other  continents,  mark  its  ocean  currents,  its  winds,  its 
temperature  and  rains,  and  the  course  of  its  rivers.  These  great  advantages 
have  benefited  its  inhabitants  in  the  past,  and  will  not  cease  to  do  so  in  the 
future.  Though  small  in  extent,  Europe  possesses  by  far  the  largest  area  of 
acclimation.  Man  may  migrate  from  Russia  to  Spain,  or  from  Ireland  to  Greece, 
without  exposing  himself  to  any  great  risk  of  life.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Caucasus  and  the  Ural  Mountains  were  thus  able  to  cross  the  plains  and  mountains 
of  Europe,  and  to  establish  themselves  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Soil  and 
climate  are  equally  propitious  to  man,  and  enable  him  to  preserve  his  physical  and 
intellectual  powers  wherever  he  goes.  A  migratory  people  might  found  new 
homesteads  in  any  part  of  Europe.  Their  companions  of  travel — the  dog,  the 
horse,  and  the  ox — would  not  desert  them  on  the  road,  and  the  seed-corn  which 
they  carry  with  them  would  yield  a  harvest  wherever  confided  to  the  earth. 


t. 


■JL. 


VI. — ^iNHABtTANTS. 

A  STUDY  of  the  soil  and  a  patient  observation  of  climatic  phenomena  enaUe  us 
to  appreciate  the  general  influmce  exercised  by  the  nature  of  the  country  upon 
the  development  of  its  inhabitants ;  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  assign  to  each  race 
or  nation  its  due  share  in  the  progress  of  European  civilisation.  No  doubt,  in 
their  struggles  for  existrace,  di^erent  groups  of  naked  and  ignorant  savages  must 
have  been  acted  upon  differently,  according  to  their  numbers  and  physical  strength, 
their  inborn  intelligence,  their  tastes  and  mental  tendencies.  But  who  were  those 
primitive  men  who  first  turned  to  account  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  in 
which  they  dwelt  P  We  know  not ;  for,  if  we  go  back  for  a  few  thousand  years, 
every  fact  is  shrouded  in  darkness.  We  know  nothing  even  as  r^^ards  the  origin 
of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe.  Are  we  the  "  sons  of  the  soil,"  and  the  "  shoots 
of  oak-trees,"  as  told  in  the  poetical  language  of  ancient  tradition,  or  are  we  to 
look  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  as  the  ancestors  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
our  languages,  and  for  the  rudiments  of  our  arts  and  sciences  P  Or  did  those 
immigrants  from  a  neighbouring  continent  settle  down  amongst  an  indigenous 
population  P  Not  many  years  ago  the  Asiatic  origin  of  European  nations  was 
accepted  as  an  established  fact,  and  the  original  seats  o{  our  forefikthers  were 
pointed  out  upon  the  map  of  Asia.    But  now  most  men  of  soienoe  are  agreed  to 


rngmmmmmmmmmmmmm 


mMS!»wmmmmmmmm^■nfmmlmm 


1^" 


'A.-j>>%£«UKitiil¥>«&£;.L'ki-.-  '. 


falls  to  their 
owly  into  the 
b  a  time  when 
some  amongst 
the  aid  of  the 
established  in 


hole,  and  by  a 
n  excess,  such 
its  winds,  its 
at  advantages 
do  so  in  the 
irgest  area  of 
and  to  Greece, 
bitants  of  the 
and  mountains 
itic.  Soil  and 
Is  physical  and 
ht  found  new 
—the  dog,  the 
9ed-oom  which 
e  earth. 


aena  enable  ns 
3  country  upon 
^  to  each  race 

Ko  doubt,  in 
it  savages  must 
ysical  strength, 
who  were  those 

the  country  in 
thousand  years, 
;ards  the  origin 
md  the  "  shoots 
in,  or  are  we  to 
xe  indebted  for 
Or  did  those 
I  an  indigenous 
san  nations  was 
bre&thers  were 
se  are  agreed  to 


s. 


»iattiiAii 


' " ..  ii  iBiijijiiwii*^^^ 


I 


INHABITANTS. 


If 


wek  our  ancestors  upon  the  very  soil  which  we,  their  descendants,  still  occupy. 
Caverns,  the  shores  of  oceans  and  lakes,  and  the  alluvial  beds  of  our  rivers  have 
yielded  the  remains  of  human  industry,  and  even  human  skeletons,  which  clearly 
prove  that  long  before  these  supposed  immigrations  from  Asia  there  existed  in 
Europe  tribes  who  had  already  made  some  progress  in  human  industry.  Even  in 
the  childhood  of  history  there  existed  tribes  who  were  looked  upon  as  aborigines,  and 
some  of  their  descendants — as,  for  ^  •»nce,  the  Basks — have  nothing  in  common 
with  the  invaders  from  the  neighbouring  continent.  Nor  is  it  universally  admitted 
that  the  Aryans — that  is,  the  ancestors  of  the  Pelasgians,  the  Greeks,  the  Latins, 
Celts,  Germans,  and  Slavs — are  of  Asiatic  origin.  Similarity  of  language  may 
justify  our  belief  in  the  common  origin  of  the  Aryans  of  Europe,  the  Persians,  and 
the  Hindoos,  but  it  does  not  prove  that  their  ancestral  home  should  be  looked  for 
somewhere  near  the  sources  of  the  Oxus.  Many  men  of  learning  *  look  upon  the 
Aryans  as  aborigines  of  Europe,  but  certainty  on  this  point  does  not  exist  No 
doubt,  in  prehistoric  times,  intermigrations  between  the  two  continents  were 
frequent ;  but  we  hardly  know  what  directions  they  took,  and  can  speak  with 
certainty  only  of  those  migrations  of  peoples  which  are  related  by  history.  We 
thus  know  that  Europe  sent  forth  to  other  continents  Oalatians,  Macedonians,  and 
Qreeks,  and  more  recently  innumerable  emigrants  of  all  nationalities,  and  received 
in  turn  Huns,  Avares,  Turks,  Mongols,  Circassians,  Jews,  Armenians,  Moors, 
Berbers,  and  members  of  many  other  nations. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  smaller  families  of  nations,  as  well  as  the 
members  of  races  who  have  not  attained  a  national  existence,  Europe  may 
be  described  as  consisting  of  three  great  ethnological  divisions,  the  principal 
boundary  between  which  is  formed  by  the  Alps,  the  Carpavhians,  and  the 
Balkan. 

The  first  of  these  great  families  of  European  nations,  the  members  of  which 
speak  Oreco-Latin  languages,  occupies  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Balkan  and  of  the 
Alps,  the  Iberian  peninsula,  France,  and  a  portion  of  Belgium,  as  well  as  a  few 
detached  territories  within  the  limits  of  ibe  ancient  Roman  empire,  altogether 
surrounded  by  alien  nations.  Such  are  the  plains  of  the  Lower  Danube  and  a 
portion  of  Transylvania,  which  are  inhabited  by  the  Rumanians,  and  a  few 
tocluded  Alpine  valleys  inhabited  by  "  Romans."  On  the  other  hand,  fragments 
of  two  ancient  nations  have  maintained  their  ground  in  the  midst  of  Latinised 
populations,  viz.  die  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Brittany,  and  the  Basks  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Generally  speaking,  however,  all  the  inhabitants  of  South-western  Europe,  whether 
of  Celtic,  Iberian,  or  Ligurian  race,  speak  languages  derived  from  the  Latin,  and 
whatever  diffeieaces  existed  originally  between  these  various  populations,  this 
oonununity  of  language  has  more  or  less  obliterated  them. 

The  Teutonic  nations  form  the  second  great  group.  They  occupy  nearly  the 
whole  of  Central  Europe  to  the  north  of  the  Alps,  and  extend  through  Holland  and 
Flanders  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  Straits  of  Dover.  Denmark  and  the 
great  Soandinavian  peninsula,  as  well  as  Iceland,  belong  to  the  same  group,  and 

*  L>th«m,  Benfey,  Ouno,  Spiegal,  and  othoi. 


i 


10 


EUBOPR 


the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  British  Islands  are  likewise  generally  inoluded 
in  it.  The  latter,  however,  should  rather  be  described  as  a  mixed  race,  for  the 
aboriginal  Celtic  population  of  these  islands,  which  now  exists  pure  only  in  u  few 
remote  districts,  has  amalgamated  with  Anglo-Saxon  and  Danish  invaders,  and 
the  language  of  the  latter  has  become  mixed  with  mediroval  French,  the 
resulting  idiom  being  almost  as  much  Latin  as  Saxon.  The  development  of 
national  characteristics  has  been  favoured  by  the  isolation  in  which  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  British  Islands  found  themselves,  and  they  differ  essentially  flrom 
continental  neighbours — the  Scandinavians,  Qermans,  and  Oelto-Latins — in  Ion- 
guage  and  customs. 

The  Slavs,  or  Slavonians,  form  the  third  group  of  European  nations.  They  are 
less  numerous  than  the  Greco-Latins,  but  the  territories  they  occupy  are  far  more 
extensive,  for  they  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Russia,  over  Poland,  a  large 
portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  about  one-half  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy.  All  the  g^reat  plains  to  the  east  of  the  Carpathians  are  inhabited  by 
Slavs,  either  pure  or  mixed  with  Tartars  and  Mongols.  To  the  west  and  south 
of  the  mountains  the  race  is  split  up  into  numerous  small  nations,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Danube  these  come  into  contact  with  Rumanians,  as  well  as  with 
Turks  and  Magyars,  the  two  latter  being  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  these  separate  the 
Slavonians  of  the  north  from  the  Slaronians  of  the  south.  In  the  north,  Finns, 
Livonians,  and  Lithuanians  interpose  between  the  Slavonians  and  the  Germanic 
nations.* 

Race  and  language,  however,  are  not  always  identical.  Members  of  one  race 
frequently  speak  the  language  of  another,  and  race  and  linguistic  boundaries, 
therefore,  differ  frequently.  As  for  the  political  boundaries,  they  scarcely  ever 
follow  those  natural  feati  i~3  which  would  have  been  selected  had  their  settlement 
been  intrusted  to  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  different  nations.  They  hardly 
ever  coincide  with  the  boundaries  of  races  or  of  languages,  except  in  the  case  of  a 
few  high  mountain  ranges  or  of  arms  of  the  sea.  On  many  occasions  the  countries 
of  Europe  were  arbitrarily  split  up  in  consequence  of  wars  or  diplomatic  arrange- 
ments.   A  few  peoples  only,  protected  by  the.  nature  of  their  country  as  well  as 


*  Popuktion  of  Euiope,  about  805,000,000 : 


Oraoo-Iiktiii. 


OrMki  .       . 

2,600,000 

Albaniuui 

1,2«0,000 

ItalikM . 

27,700,000 

French  . 

80,700,000 

Sputiardsand  For- 

tngueae 

20,210.000 

Rnmaniaiu    ■ 

8,400,000 

BhntiaotC'Bomaiu")    42,000 
09,902,000 


flw  IMIllll 

Oennaiu               .  63,400,000 

Dntoh  and  Flemish  0,720,000 

Soandinavians  6,640,000 

Anglo-Saxons       .  80,600,000 


Finns 4,700,(^ 

Onnanli 1,800,000 

Magyars 6,770,000 

Tartan 2,600,000 

Calmuoks        ....  100,000 


96,860,000 


BteTonie. 


Bnssians 

.    69.000.000 

Poles    . 

11.800,000 

6.760,000 

Servians 

6.760.000 

Sloyenes 

1.200,000 

Bulgarians    . 

8,100,000 

Included  aboTO  are  4,600,000  Jews. 


87,600.000 


GelU       .       .       . 

.    1,600,000 

Basks     .       .       . 

.        .       700,000 

Letts.  &c. 

.    2,000,000 

Armenians 

.       280,000 

Gipsies    .       .       . 

.       690,000 

Circassians 

400,000 

59,000,000 
11,800,000 
6,760,000 
«,7<0,000 
1,200,000 
3,100,000 


ARITANT8.  M 

by  their  ynlour,  hare  maintained  i«ir  itt'iMfmid'^ce  since  the  af^e  of  ^itk  mlgrn- 
tiona,  but  many  more  have  b«^t  iv  ptavviiy  by  cocmivo  invasions.  Mati^  otb  «, 
again,  have  alternately  seen  their  rontiers  ex  rid  and  oontraot  me*'''  ti  <n  ica 
even  during  a  generation. 

.  The  so-oalled  "baUnce  of  European  powers,"  fouiul  «•  it  is  u  *  th#  rif:  'to 
of  war  and  ambitious  riyabries  between  nations,  is  uet  <Mirily  iinr  ,Ale.  Nations 
eminently  fit  to  lead  a  common  political  existence  uv  orn  an  m.ior  on  the  one 
side,  whilst  the  most  heterogeneous  elements  are  thrown  uig<  iher  on-  the  other.  In 
these  political  arrangements  the  nations  themselves  are  never  consulted,  but  their 
wishes  and  inclinations  must  nevertheless  prevail  in  the  end,  and  the  artificial 
edifice  raised  by  warriors  and  statesmen  will  come  to  the  ground.  A  true 
"balance  of  power"  will  only  be  established  when  every  nation  of  the  continent 
shall  have  become  the  arbiter  of  its  own  destinies,  when  every  pretended  right  of 
conquest  shall  have  been  surrendered,  and  neighbouring  nations  shall  be  at  liberty 
to  combine  for  the  management  of  the  affairs  they  have  in  common.  Our  arbitrary 
political  divisions,  therefore,  possess  but  a  transitory  value.  They  cannot  altogether 
be  ignored ;  but  in  the  following  descriptions  we  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  adhere 
to  the  great  natural  divisions  as  defined  by  mountains  and  valleys,  and  by  the 
distribution  of  nations  having  the  same  origin  and  speaking  the  same  language. 
But  even  these  natural  boundaries  lose  their  importance  in  countries  like 
Switzerland,  inhabited  by  nations  speaking  different  languages,  but  held  together 
by  the  strongest  of  all  ties — the  common  enjoyment  of  freedom. 

From  an  historical  point  of  view  a  description  of  Europe  should  commence  with 
the  maritime  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  Greece  which  gave  birth  to 
our  European  civilisation,  and  which  at  one  time  occupied  the  centre  of  the  known 
world.  Her  poets  first  sang  the  praises  of  venturesome  navigators,  and  her 
histdrians  and  philosophers  collected  and  classified  the  information  received  with 
respect  to  foreign  countries.  In  a  subsequent  age,  Italy,  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
Mediterranean,  took  the  place  of  Greece,  and  for  fifteen  centuries  maintained 
herself  therein :  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Florence  succeeded  Rome,  as  the  leaders  of 
the  civilised  world.  During  that  period  the  surrounding  nations  gravitated 
towards  tike  Mediterranean  and  Italy;  and  it  was  only  when  the  Italians 
themselves  enlarged  the  terrestrial  sphers  by  the  discovfry  of  a  new  world  beyond 
the  ocean  that  this  preponderance  passed  away  from  them,  to  remain  for  a  short 
time  with  the  Iberian  peninsula.  Greece  had  been  the  mediator  between  Europe 
and  the  ancient  civilisationa  of  Asia  and  Africa ;  Spain  and  Poiingal  became  the 
representatives  of  Europe  in  America  and  the  extreme  Orient ;  historical  develop- 
ment in  its  progress  had  followed  the  axis  of  the  Mediterranean  £rom  east  to  west. 

It  will  be  found  natural,  under  these  circumstances,  when  we  describe  the  three 
Mediterranean  peninsulas  in  the  same  volume,  particularly  as  they  are  peopled 
almost  exclusively  by  Greco-Latin  nations.  France,  though  likewise  Latinised, 
nevertheless  occupies  a  distinct  position.  It  is  a  Mediterranean  country  only  as 
respects  Provence  and  Languedoo,  the  rest  of  its  territory  sloping  towards  the 
Atlantic.  Its  geographical  positiou  and  history  have  made  France  the  great 
2 


MM 


m^S^SStSSSSSS^ 


M  fca«v  Tariff,  4-.-~r>"i 


'iWtii'ij'ipaBHHHiRMfcsKi*-^ 


EIJHOPB. 

A.ul  n.«.  to  .xch.nK»  «r  PJ^J^;;^  •"J/J^.  t<^,M  upon  U.«..H. 
taportod  inW  Fmnc  fro,a  .11  part.  «f  *='"°P'; '"^^  ^  „,  j^,  g„„.k.    Next  « 
part  o(  »»  inwrprotcr  We«.  A.  n...on.  of  th.  N""^"^"'        ^.^.^  ij,^ 
Franc  w.  -hall  d.«rib.  A.  Oennanio  oountn..  o    Europe. 
^  taudiuuvi.  i  und  U»tly,  .1.0  in,n.on«  .n.p.ro  oi  Ba-,- 


(I  of  th« 

deal  are 

oot  the 

Next  to 

Iiluids, 


■^'^.\  ^ 

■i  • .  •*'/,  .■}&.   .V* ,  >  st"_-~ 

\;      •<,  '?^     ^ 

-^  "i^4^ 

A.  ^'   >L      ''.:. 

r«*r"  vii  'T 1, 

'*:;-  /  '■'--  *' 

"-  ,    '   \„  „■...,«, :..»  -■ ifv             .   •Ill,* 1 

milW i.m  ii,.«ii'i.ll!iailLi ^.,<ini .  I'illlliiiii,. 

■» 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 


I. — Hydmilooy. 


tA« 


REECE  and  its  inaular  satellites  prove  su£Bciently  that  the  unstahle 
floods  of  the  Mediterranean  have  exercised  a  greater  influence  upon 
the  march  of  history  than  did  the  solid  land  upon  which  man  trod. 
Western  civilisation  would  never  have  seen  the  light  had  not  the 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean  washed  the  shores  of  Egypt,  Phoenicia, 
Asia  Minor,  Hellas,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Carthage.     The  western  nations  would  have 
remained  in  their  primitive  barbarism  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  Mediterranean, 
which  joined  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  facilitated  the  intercourse  between  Aryans, 
Semites,  and  Berbers ;  and  rendered  more  equable  the  climate  of  the  surrounding 
countries,  thus  facilitating  access  to  them.    For  ages  it  appeared  almost  as  if  man- 
kind could  prosper  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  central  sea,  for  beyond  its 
basin  only  decayed  nations  were  to  be  met  with,  or  tribes  not  yet  awakened  to  mental 
activity.     "  Like  frogs  around  a  swamp,  so  have  we  settled  down  on  the  shores  of 
this  sea,"  said  Plato ;  and  the  sea  he  refers  to  is  the  Mediterranean.   It  is  therefore 
deserving  of  description  quite  as  much  as  the  inhabited  countries  which  surround 
it.    Unfortunately  many  mysteries  still  remain  hidden  beneath  its  waves.* 

From  an  examination  of  the  coasts,  as  well  as  from  the  traditions  of  the  people 
inhabiting  them,  we  learn  that  the  Mediterranean  has  varied  frequently  in  its 
contours  and  oxtent.  The  straits  which  connect  its  waters  with  those  of  the 
ocean  have  frequently  changed  their  position.  At  a  time  when  peninsulas  like 
Greece,  and  even  islands  like  Malta,  formed  part  of  continental  masses — and  that 
they  did  so  in  a  comparatively  recent  geological  epoch  is  proved,  by  their  fossil 
fauna — ^the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  covered  large  portions  of  Africa,  of 
Southern  Bussia,  and  even  of  Asia.  The  researches  of  Spratt,  Fuchs,  and  others 
have  satisfactorily  proved  that  towards  the  close  of  the  miooene  age  a  vast  fresh* 


•  W.  H.  Smith,  <•  The  Mediterranean."— Dureau  de  k  Malle, 
Koin  et  de  la  lIMitemnie."— Bdttger,  •'  Daa  Mittelmeer." 


'  Giographia  Phyiiqae  de  I»  ller 


:<^ 


I, 


1 


s'si^&j.ddMa^ 


24 


THE  MEDITEREANEAN. 


water  laka  stretched  from  the  banks  of  the  Aral,  across  Russia,  the  plains  of  the 
Danube  and  the  Archipelago,  as  far  as  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  Then  came  the  briny 
waters  of  the  osean.  There  was  a  time  when  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian 
connected  the  Archipelago  with  the  Gulf  of  the  Obi.  At  another  epoch  the  gulfs 
of  the  Syrtes  penetrated  far  inland,  and  a  large  portion  of  what  is  now  the  Libyan 
and  Saharan  desert  was  then  covered  with  water.  The  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  which 
was  torn  asunder  by  Hercules  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  ancients,  is  in 
reality  but  of  recent  origin,  and  has  taken  the  place  of  a  more  ancient  strait  which 
joined  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Bed  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean :  this  strait  has  been 
restored  by  human  hands,  and  is  known  now  as  the  Suez  Canal.  The  coast-lines  of 
the  Mediterranean  are  undergoing  perpetual  change,  owing  to  the  upheaval  or 
subsidence  of  the  countries  surrounding  it.  The  Nile,  the  Po,  the  Rhone,  and 
other  rivers  incessantly  enlarge  the  alluvial  plains  at  their  mouths,  and  still 
further  encroach  upon  the  sea.    Actually  the  Mediterranean,  with  its  subordinate 

Fig.  5. — Tub  Depth  of  tbi  Mkoitbrranbam. 
Fi-om  a  Chut  by  M.  Deleoe. 


» 

oCc 

£• 

.  k 

!- 

u 

V 

35 

|v> 

ft» 

f' 

ft 

K 

♦* 

*• 

r 

B 

ll 

3 

y 

••. 

3b 

P^ 

^ 

S 

1 

H 

1 

» 

la 

^ 

fc 

IB 

0 

& 

ID 

i& 

i«. 

a& 

So 

3S 

4o 

OMMor      iiomiooon   immiuoi- 


seas  from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  Sea  of  Azof,  covers  an  area  about  thirty 
times  that  of  the  British  Islands.  This  area  is  small  if  we  compare  it  with  the 
immense  development  of  the  coasts  and  the  wealth  in  peninsulas,  which  impart  an 
aspect  of  life  and  independence  to  at  least  one-third  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
Mediterranean^  though  it  takes  precedence  of  all  the  oceans,  in  consequence  of  the 
part  it  has  played  in  history,  nevertheless  only  covers  an  area  one-seventieth  that 
of  the  Pacific*  It  is  broken  up,  moreover,  into  several  separate  seas,  some  of  them 
so  small  in  extent  that  the  navigator  hardly  ever  loses  sight  of  the  land.    In  the 


Area  of  the  Mediterranean  basin : — 

Europe 
■  ■ 
Drainage  of 


Asia 
Africa  . 
Mediterranean  Sea 


683,(00  square  miles. 

232,000  „ 

1,737,500  „ 

l.lfi3,300  „ 


Ot 
H 

hi 


3,806,300 


'^j^.tf^aimifctw..,., !...,.  iiw 


HYDEOLOGY. 


26 


B  of  the 

e  briny 

Caspian 

he  gulfs 

Libyan 

r,  which 

ts,  is  in 

it  which 

has  been 

it-lines  of 

eaval  or 

lone,  and 

and  still 

ibordinate 


l«» 

¥> 

1 

V» 

Sb 

Ss 

v> 

ibout  thirty 
it  with  the 
h  impart  an 
rorld.  The 
lence  of  the 
entieth  that 
>me  of  them 
nd.    In  the 


semtimmmmtt 


east  we  have  the  Black  Sea,  with  its  two  dependencies,  the  Seas  of  Azof  and  of 
Marmara.  The  ^gean  Sea,  or  Archipelago,  with  its  numerous  islands,  extends 
between  the  deeply  indented  coasts  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Crete.  The 
Adriatic  stretches  towards  the  north-west,  between  the  Balkan  peninsula  and 
Italy ;  and  the  Mediterranean  proper  is  divided  into  two  separate  basins,  which 
might  appropriately  be  called  the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  Seas,  or  the  Greek 
and  Boman  Mediterraneans.  Each  of  these  basins  is  again  subdivided,  the  one  by 
Crete,  the  other  by  the  two  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica.  These  various 
subdivisions  of  the  Mediterranean  differ  in  area,  and  still  more  in  depth.  The  Sea 
of  Azof  almost  deserves  the  name  of  "  Swamp,"  which  was  bestowed  upon  it  by 
the  ancients,  for  if  a  ship  sinks  in  it  the  masts  remain  visible  above  the  water. 
The  Black  Sea  has  a  maximum  depth  of  over  1,000  fathoms,  but  the  narrow  strait 
which  joins  it  to  the  Sea  of  Marmara  is  shallower  than  many  a  European  river. 
The  cavity  filled  by  the  Sea  cf  Marmara  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  many  an  inland 
lake ;  and  the  Dardanelles,  like  the  Bosphorus,  are  hardly  wider  than  a  river.  In 
the  Archipelago  and  the  eastern  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  proper  the  depth 
corresponds  with  the  protuberance  of  the  land.  Abyssal  depths  and  "pits "  of  260 
and  even  of  540  fathoms  are  to  be  found  in  close  proximity  to  the  scarped 
mountain  islands  of  the  Cyclades,  whilst  on  the  low  coasts  of  Egypt  the  water 
deepens  only  gradually,  until  in  the  centre  of  the  Levantine  Sea  it  attains  a  depth 
of  1,750  fathoms.  The  maximum  depth — 2,170  fathoms — ^is  attained  between 
Crete  and  Malta.  If  the  whole  of  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  were  to  be 
collected  into  an  aqueous  sphere,  the  latter  would  have  a  diameter  of  90  miles ; 
if  it  fell  down  upon  the  earth,  it  would  not  even  wholly  cover  a  country  like 
Switzerland. 

The  Ionian  Sea  is  separated  from  the  Adriatic  by  a  submarine  ridge  rising  in 
the  Strait  of  Otranto,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  a  shoal  or  submarine  isthmus, 
already  referred  to  by  Strabo,  which  joins  Sicily  to  Tunis.  This  isthmus  forms 
the  true  geological  boundary  between  tiie  western  and  eastern  basins  of  the 
Mediterranean,  which  are  oonneoted  here  by  a  narrow  breach  only,  the  depth  of 
which  hardly  exceeds  100  fathoms.  The  western  of  these  basins  is  the  smaller  and 
shallower  of  the  two,  but  nevertheless  it  attains  a  depth  of  1,100  fathoms  in  the 
Tyrrhenian,  and  of  1,360  fitihoms  and  even  1,640  in  the  Balearic  Sea,  and  is 
separated  from  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  by  a  submarine  ridge  lying  outside  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  joining  Europe  to  Africa.* 

This  subdivisicm  of  the  Mediterranean  into  separate  basins,  divided  from  each 
other  by  shoals  or  submarine  ridges,  by  islands  and  promontories,  sufficiently 
explains  the  contrasts  between  the  phenomena  of  the  open  ocean  and  those  observed 
here.  In  the  Mediterranean,  it  is  well  known,  the  tides  are  almost  everywhere 
irr^ular  and  uncertain^  To  the  east  of  the  Narrows  of  Gibraltar,  in  the  sea 
extending  between  Andalusia  and  Morocco,  the  tides  are  hardly  felt  at  all,  and 

Warfnttbuin. 
*  Are*  .    3U,800 

Gmtert  dqtth,  ftthonu        1,640 
Avanga  de|)th,      ...  040 


DMtembuin. 

Adriatic. 

IreUpelago. 

BlaakSok 

602,000 

60,200 

60,600 

186,300 

1,163,800 

2,170 

6W 

S40 

1,070 

8.170 

0«0 

no 

820 

S20 

640 

f 


rr^fm 


86  THE  MEDITEBBANEAN. 

they  are,  moreover,  interfered  with  to  such  an  extent  by  currents  that  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  determine  their  amplitude,  or  the  establishment  of  the  various 
ports.  Nevertheless  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tidal  wave  are  sufficiently  marked  to 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  Greek  and  Italian  navigators.  On  the  coasts  of 
Catalonia,  France,  Liguria,  Naples,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt  the  oscillation 
is  hardly  perceptible,  but  on  those  of  Eastern  Sicily  and  of  the  Adriatic  the  tide 
sometimes  rises  three  feet,  and,  if  accompanied  by  storms,  may  even  attain  a  height 
of  ten  feet  in  certain  localities.  The  Straits  of  Messina  and  of  Earipo  (Eubcea)  have 
their  regular  tides,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  the  waters  rise  and  fall  with  the  same 
regularity  as  in  the  open  ocean.    In  the  Black  Sea,  however,  nc  tidal  moyements 


Fi^.  6. — The  Strait  of  Gibbaltar 
According  to  Robtque^,  Rand^nn',  and  otlnrt.    Srato  1 :  700.000. 


Depth  !••«  Own  nsMlwins 
Bcplk  II*  Xm  tf  fetksms 


Deplk  «7«  t*  U»  bOienw 
•r  U«  bthnm 
nllilM. 


whatever  have  been  discovered  hitherto.  It  is  nevertheless  probable  that  more 
careful  observations  will  lead  to  the  discovery  of  a  feeble  tide,  for  it  is  believed 
that  this  phenomenon  exists  even  on  Lake  Michigan,  which  has  only  one-fifth  the 
area  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  Mediterranean  differs  not  only  from  the  open  ocean  with  respect  to  the 
feebleness  and  irregularity  of  its  fides,  but  it  is  likewise  without  a  great  stream- 
current  keeping  in  constant  circulation  the  whole  body  of  its  waters.  The  currents 
which  have  been  observed  in  various  dividons  of  the  Mediterranean  can  be  ascribed 
only  to  local  causes.    An  Italian  geographer  of  the  last  century,  ?*^omtanari,  has 


that  more 
18  beUeved 
le-fifth  the 

peotto  the 
at  stream- 
lie  currents 
be  ascribed 
itanari,  has 


HYDEOLOGY.  27 

advanced  an  hypothesis  of  a  great  circuit  current  which  entered  the  Mediterranean 
through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and,  after  having  washed  the  shores  of  Africa  as 
far  as  Egypt,  returned  to  the  west  along  those  of  Asia  and  Europe ;  but  careful 
observers  have  vainly  endeavoured  to  discover  its  existence.  They  have  met  only 
with  local  currents,  produced  by  an  indraught  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  by 
winds,  by  the  floods  of  rivers,  or  by  an  excess  of  evaporation.  One  of  these 
currents  sets  along  the  coasts  of  Morocco  and  Algeria  from  west  to  east ;  another 
flows  along  the  Italian  coast  of  the  Adriatic  from  north  to  south ;  and  a  third 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  in  the  direction  of  Cette  and  Port  Vendres.  In 
&ot,  the  configuration  of  the  sea-bottom,  and  particularly  the  shoal  between  Sicily 
and  Tunis,  precludes  the  existence  of  any  but  surface  currents  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

Amongst  the  local  currents  the  existence  of  which  has  been  most  clearly 
established  are  those  which  convey  the  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Azof  into  the  Black 
Sea,  and  those  of  the  latter  into  the  Archipelago.  The  Don  more  than  makes  up 
for  the  loss  by  evaporation  in  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  its  surplus  waters  find  an  exit 
through  the  Strait  of  Kerch  into  the  Black  Sea.  Similarly  the  waters  of  the 
Dniester,  the  Dnieper,  the  Rion,  and  of  the  rivers  of  Asia  Minor,  and,  above  all,  of 
the  Danube,  whicn  by  itself  conveys  a  lai^r  volume  of  water  into  the  Black  Sea 
than  all  the  others  combined,  are  discharge  through  the  Bosphorus  and  the 
Dardanelles  into  the  Archipelago.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Archipelago  returns  to 
the  Black  Sea,  by  means  of  a  submarine  counter-current  and  of  lateral  surface 
currents,  a  certain  quantity  of  salt  water  for  the  iresh  water  which  it  receives  in 
oxoess.  This  «iohaage  accounts  for  the  salineness  of  the  waters  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  volume  of  fresh  water  discharged  into  it  by  the  Danube  and  other 
rivers  is  so  large  that  in  the  course  of  a  thousand  years  its  waters  would  become 
perfectly  fresh,  if  there  did  not  exist  these  compensatory  highly  saline  counter- 
currents. 

Analogous  pnenomena  take  place  at  the  other  extranity  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Evaporation  there  is  excessive,  owing  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  burning  sands 
of  the  deserts,  the  winds  from  which  blow  freely  over  the  sea,  absorbing  the 
vapours  and  dispersing  the  clouds.  The  loss  by  evaporation  amounts  to  at  least 
•even  feet  in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  as  the  annual  rainfall  is  estimated  to  amount 
to  twenty  inches  only,  and  the  volume  of  water  discharged  annually  by  all  the 
tributary  rivers  of  the  Mediterranean,  if  uniformly  spread  over  its  surface,  would 
hardly  exceed  ten  inches  in  depth,  there  exists  thus  an  excess  of  evaporation 
amounting  annually  to  more  than  four  feet ;  and  this  excess  has  to  be  made  good 
by  an  inflow  al  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  which  takes  place  through  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  whose  volume  far  exceeds  that  of  the  Amazon  in  a  state  of  flood.  This 
inflow  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  is  felt,  as  a  ourrMit,  as  &r  as  the  coasts  <^ 
Sicily,  and,  like  all  other  currents,  it  is  bounded  by  latend  currents  flowing  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  main  current.  During  ebb  the  insetting  Atlantic 
current  takes  up  the  whole  of  the  strait,  but  when  the  tide  rises  the  Mediterranean 
reaists  more  sucoessfully  the  pressure  of  the  ocean,  and  this  struggle  gives  birth  to 


■^f'  Mi 


nMM 


m0 


■l!i_-i|  — 


S8 


THE  MEDITEBBANEAN. 


two  counter-currents,  one  of  which  akirts  the  coast  of  Europe,  the  other  that  of 
Africa  between  Ceuta  and  Cape  Spartel ;  the  latter  is  the  larger  and  more  powerful 
of  the  two.  In  addition  to  these,  there  exists  a  submarine  current,  which  conveys 
the  highly  saline  and  heavier  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  out  into  the  Atlantic. 

The  quantity  of  salt  held  in  solution  in  various  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 
differs  widely,  as  the  submarine  ridges  and  shoals  which  divide  it  into  separate 
basins  do  not  permit  its  waters  to  mingle  as  freely  as  in  the  open  ocean.  Owing 
to  the  excess  of  evaporation,  the  quantity  of  salt  in  greater  on  the  whole  than  in  the 
Atlantic,  and  this  is  the  case  more  particularly  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  But  in  the 
Black  Sea  it  is  far  less,  and  near  the  mouths  of  some  of  the  large  rivers  which 
enter  that  sea  the  water  is  almost  fresh.* 

The  temperature  of  the  Mediterranean  is  affected  by  the  same  causes  which 
produce  its  varying  salineness,  viz.  the  existence  of  shoals  and  banks,  which 
separate  it  into  distinct  sub-basins.  In  the  open  ocean  the  currents  convey  to  all 
latitudes  large  bodies  of  water,  some  of  them  heated  by  a  tropical  sun,  others  cooled 
by  contact  with  the  ice  of  the  polar  regions.  But  these  layers  of  unequal  density 
are  regularly  superimposed  one  upon  the  other,  owing  to  the  differences  in  their 
temperature:  the  warm  water  remains  on  the  surface,  whilst  the  cold  water 
descends  to  the  bottom.  In  the  Mediterranean  an  analogous  superimposition 
exists  only  to  a  depth  of  110  fathoms,  which  is  the  depth  of  the  Atlantic  current, 
flowing  into  it  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  If  a  thermometer  be  lowered  to  a 
greater  depth  it  will  indicate  no  further  decrease  of  temperature,  and  the  immense 
body  of  water,  remaining  almost  still  at  the  bottom  of  the  Mediterranean,  has  an 
equable  temperature  of  about  56°  F.  Observations  made  at  depths  varying 
between  110  and  1,640  fathoms  have  always  exhibited  the  same  result.  Professor 
Carpenter  believes,  however,  that  the  abyssal  waters  of  some  of  the  volcanic  regions 
have  a  somewhat  higher  temperature,  which  may  be  due  to  the  presence  of  lava  in 
a  state  of  fusion. 


II. — Animal  Life.    Fisheries  and  Salt  Pans. 


Another  remarkable  feature  of  the  abyssal  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  consists 
in  their  poverty  of  animal  life.  No  doubt  there  is  some  life ;  the  dredgings  of  the 
Porcupine  and  the  teleg^ph  cables,  which,  on  being  brought  to  the  surface,  were 
found  to  be  covered  with  shells  and  polypes,  prove  this.  But,  compared  with  those  of 
the  ocean,  the  depths  of  the  Mediterranean  are  veritable  deserts.  Edward  Forbes, 
who  explored  the  waters  of  the  Archipelago,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  their 
abyssal  depths  were  entirely  devoid  of  life,  but  he  was  wrong  when  he  assumed  an 
exceptional  case  like  this  to  represent  a  universal  law.  Carpenter  thinks  that 
this  absence  of  life  in  the  depths  of  the  Mediterranean  is  due  to  the  great  quantity 
of  organic  remains  which  is  carried  into  it  by  the  rivers.  These  remains  absorb 
the  oxygen  of  the  water,  and  part  with  their  carbonic  acid,  which  is  detrimental  to 

*  Quantity  of  lalt  held  in  solution  in  the  Atlantic,  36  pwta  in  1,000 ;  in  th«  If  editemuunn  (intMi), 
38  parta;  in  the  Black  tJea,  16  parts. 


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ANIMAL  LIFB.  M 

animal  life.  In  numerous  instances  the  water  of  the  Mediterranean  contains  only 
one-fourth  the  normal  quantity  of  the  former  gas,  but  fifty  per  cent,  in  excess  of 
the  latter.  To  the  presence  of  these  organic  remains  the  Mediterranean  is 
probably  indebted  for  its  beautiful  azure  colour,  so  different  from  the  black  waters 
of  most  oceans.  This  blue,  then,  which  is  justly  celebrated  by  poets,  would  thus  be 
caused  by  the  impurity  of  the  water.  M.  Delesse  has  shown  that  the  bottom  of 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  ia  covered  with  ooze. 

The  regions  of  the  Mediterranean  immediately  below  the  surface  abound  in  animal 
life,  particulfcrly  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy ;  but  nearly  all  species, 
whether  fish,  testacea,  or  others,  are  of  Atlantic  origin.  The  Mediterranean,  in 
spite  of  its  vast  extent,  as  far  as  its  &una  is  concerned,  is  nothing  but  a  gulf  of  the 
Lusitanian  Ocean.  Its  longitudinal  extension  and  the  similarity  of  climate  in  its 
various  portions  have  &voured  the  migration  of  animals  through  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Syria.  At  the  same  time,  animal  life  is  most 
varied  near  this  point  of  entry,  and  the  species  met  with  in  the  western  basin  are 
generally  of  greater  size  than  those  which  exist  in  the  eastern.  A  very  small  pro- 
portion of  non-Atlantic  species  recalls  the  fact  that  the  Mediterranean  formerly 
communicated  with  the  Bed  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  But  amongst  a  total  of 
more  than  eight  hundred  molluscs  there  are  only  about  thirty  which  have  reached 
the  seas  of  Ghreeoo  and  Sicily  through  the  ancient  straits  separating  Africa  from 
Asia,  Instead  of  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.*  The  diminution  in  the  number 
of  species  in  an  easterly  direction  becomes  most  striking  when  we  reach  the  narrow 
channel  of  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Bosphorus.  The  Black  Sea,  in  fact,  diflPers 
essentially  from  the  Mediterranean  proper  as  regards  temperature.  It  is  refri- 
gerated by  north-easterly  winds  sweeping  over  its  sur&ce,  to  the  extent  even  of 
portions  of  it  becoming  now  and  then  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  ice,  adhering 
to  the  coast.  The  Sea  of  Azof  has  frequently  disappeared  beneath  a  thick  crust  of 
ice,  and  even  the  whole  of  the  Black  Sea  has  been  frozen  over  in  winters  of 
exceptional  severity.  The  cold  surface  waters,  together  with  those  conveyed  into 
the  Black  Sea  by  large  rivers,  descend  to  the  bottom,  and  prove  most  detrimental 
to  animal  life.  Eohinodermata  and  zoophytes  are  not  met  with  at  all  in  the  Black 
Sea;  certain  classes  of  molluscs,  already  rare  in  the  Levantine  Sea  and  the 
Archipelago,  are  likewise  absent ;  and  the  total  number  of  species  of  molluscs  is 
only  one-tenth  of  what  it  is  in  the  Mediterranean.  Fish  are  numerous  as  far  as 
individuals  go,  but  their  species  are  few.  In  fact,  the  fauna  of  the  Black  Sea 
appears  to  resemble  that  of  the  Caspian,  from  which  it  is  cut  off,  rather  than  that 
of  the  Greek  seas,  with  which  the  Sea  of  Marmara  connects  it. 

In  addition  to  the  species  which  have  found  a  second  home  in  the  Mediterranean, 
there  are  some  that  must  still  be  looked  upon  as  visitors.  Such  are  the  sharks, 
which  extend  their  incursions  to  the  seas  of  Sicily,  to  the  Adriatic,  and  even  to  the 
coasts  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  Such,  also,  are  the  larger  cetacea — ^whales,  rorquals, 
and  sperm  whales — whose  visits,  however,  are  confined  now  to  the  Tyrrhenian 

*  Than  an  fotmd  in  the  Meditorraneui  444  (pedes  of  flth  (Goodwin  Aoeten),  MO  ipeoies  of  moUuoe 
(Jeffrey*),  and  about  200  aiieeiea  of  fbiaminifcra. 


)  ft 

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:   % 
\  'v. 


80 


THE  MEDITEBRANEAN. 


basin,  and  become  less  frequent  from  century  to  century.  The  tunny>fish  of  the 
Mediterranean  are  also  visitors  from  the  coasts  of  Lusitania.  First-rate  swimmers, 
they  entei*  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  in  spring,  ascend  the  whole  of  the 
Mediterranean,  make  the  tour  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  return  in  autumn  to  the 
Atlantic,  after  having  accomplished  a  journey  of  8or>e  5,600  miles.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  fishermen  the  tunnies  go  upon  their  travels  in  three  immense  divisions  or 
shoals,  and  it  is  the  central  shoal  which  visits  the  coasts  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
and  consists  of  the  largest  and  strongest  fish.  Each  of  the  three  divisions  appears 
to  be  composed  of  i'  dividuah  about  the  same  age.  For  mutual  protection  they 
swim  in  troops,  for  they  are  preyed  upon  by  enemies  innumerable.  Dolphins  and 
other  fish  of  prey  follow  their  track,  but  their  great  destroyer  is  man.  In  the 
summer  the  tunny  fishery,  or  tonnaro,  is  carried  on  in  numerous  bays  of  Sicily, 
Sardinia,   Naples,   and  of  Provence.      Enormous  structures  consisting  of  nets 


Fig.  7. — Tub  Phincipal  Fishbriu  of  thi  Mbditbrrakran. 
SoOe  1  :  38,800,000. 


ebml 


•—    TmmifH 


,._  Sfomgr 


Sr)>a*4 


Aldose  these  bays,  and  they  are  ingeniously  arranged  so  as  to  close  gradually 
around  the  captured  fish,  which,  passing  from  net  to  net,  find  themselves  at  last  in 
the  "  chamber  of  death,"  where  they  are  massacred.  Millions  of  pounds  of  flesh 
are  annually  obtained  from  these  floating  "slaughter-houses,"  yet  the  tunny 
appears  year  after  year  in  multitudes,  and  on  the  same  coasts.  There  may  have 
been  a  slight  decrease  in  the  number,  but  their  closely  packed  masses  still  invade 
the  "  Golden  Horn  "  of  Byzance  and  other  bays,  as  they  did  when  first  they 
attracted  the  attention  of  Greek  naturalists. 

Next  to  the  tunny  fisheries  those  of  the  sardines  and  anchovies  are  most 
important.  Sea-urchins  and  other  ^products  of  the  sea  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  coasts,  particularly  in  Italy,  but  there  is  no  part  of  the  Mediterranean  where 
animal  life  is  so  abundant  and  so  prodigious  in  quantity  as  on  the  celebrated 
banks  of  Newfoundland,  or  on  the  coasts  of  Portugal  or  of  the  Oanaries. 

A  large  number  of  fishing-boats  are  engaged,  not  in  the'capture  of  fish,  but  in 


■umm^^'^y''^x^^f^^'-^m^^:^ 


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to  the 
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In  the 
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first  they 

I  are  most 

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celebrated 

fish,  but  in 


COMMEBCE  AND  NAYIOATION. 


M 


the  collection  of  articles  of  dresn  or  of  the  toilet.  Tbe  purple-shell  fisheries  on  the 
coasts  of  Phcenicia,  the  Peloponnesus,  and  Greece  are  no  longer  carried  on,  but 
hundreds  of  boats  are  employed  annually  during  the  fine  season  in  fishing  for  coral 
or  sponges. 

Coral  is  found  most  abundantly  in  tbe  western  portion  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Italian  fishermen  do  not  confine  themselves  to  their  own  shores — to  Sicily, 
Naples,  and  Sardinia — but  also  visit  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  the  sea  off  St.  Tropez, 
tbe  vicinity  of  Cupe  Creua  in  Spain,  and  tbe  waters  of  Barbary.  Ordinary 
sponges  are  collected  in  the  Gulf  of  Gabos,  and  at  the  other  extremity  of  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  coasts  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  straits  winding 
between  the  Cyclades  and  Sporades.  Sponges  are  usually  found  at  a  depth  of 
from  12  to  150  feet,  and  can  be  gathered  by  divers ;  whilst  coral  occurs  at  far 
greater  depths,  and  has  to  be  wrenched  off  with  an  iron  instrument,  which  brings 
up  iti;  fragments,  mixed  with  ooze,  seaweeds,  and  the  remains  of  marine  animal- 
culs.  This  industry  is  still  in  a  state  of  barbarism :  those  devoted  to  it  are  not  as 
yet  sufficiently  acquainted  with  tbe  sea  and  its  inhabitants  to  enable  them  to  carry 
on  the  sponge  and  coral  fisheries  in  a  rational  manner.  Yet  this  they  must  aim 
at:  they  must  learn  how  to  deprive  Proteus,  tbe  ever-changing  deity,  of  his 
dominion  over  the  inhabitants  of  the  deep. 

Next  to  the  fisheries,  the  preparation  of  sea  salt  constitutes  ore  of  the  leading 
industries  of  the  Mediterranean  coast-lands.  But  this  industry,  too,  is  frequently 
carried  on  in  a  primitive  way,  and  only  in  the  course  of  the  present  century  have 
scientific  methods  been  intrc  iuced  in  connection  with  it.  The  Mediterranean  is 
admirably  suited  for  the  production  of  salt,  for  its  waters  have  a  high  temperature, 
they  hold  a  very  large  quantity  of  salt  in  solution,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  are 
inconsiderable,  and  flat  seashores  alternate  with  steep  coasts  and  promontories. 
The  most  productive  salt  marshes  of  the  Mediterranean  are  probably  those  on  the 
Ijagoon,  or  £tang  de  Thau,  near  Cette,  and  on  the  littoral  of  Hy^res ;  but  consider- 
able ones  may  also  be  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  in  Italy,  in  Sardinia, 
Sicily,  Istria,  and  even  on  the  "  limans  "  of  Bessarabia,  bordering  upon  the  Black 
Sea.  The  annual  production  of  salt  is  estimated  at  more  than  a  million  tons,  and 
exceeds,  therefore,  tue  entire  tonnage  of  the  commercial  marine  of  France.*  But 
this  quantity,  large  as  it  is,  is  infinitesimal  if  we  compare  it  with  the  saline 
contents  of  the  sea,  and  science  will  enable  us  oue  day  to  raise  a  far  more  abundant 
treasure  from  its  sterile  depths,  t 

,  III. — Commerce  and  Navigation, 

Whatever  advantages  may  be  yielded  by  fisheries  and  salt-works,  they  shrink 
into  insignificance  if  we  compare  them  with  the  great  gain— ^-material,  intellectual, 

*  The  prodnotioii  of  mtt  on  the  ooMta  of  the  Mediteimneiui  is  thai  distribated  unong  its  coast- 
landa:—  SpBin,  200,000  tone;  France,  250,000  tons;  Italy,  300,000  tons;  AustrtH,  70,000  tons;  Boasia, 
120,000 ;  other  countries,  200,000  tons.    Total,  1,140,000  tims,  valued  at  £480,000. 

t  Tbe  annual  produce  of  the  fisheries  has  been  eetimated  at  £3,000,000,  of  the  coral  fisheries  at 
£640,000,  of  the  sponge  fisheries  at  £40,000.    Total,  £3,680,000. 


,,: 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 


and  moral — which  mankind  has  derived  from  the  navigation  of  this  inland 
It  has  repeatedly  been  pointed  out  by  historians  that  the  disposition  of  the  coasts, 
islands,  and  peninsulas  of  the  Mediterranean  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  admi- 
rably favoured  the  first  essays  in  maritime  commerce.  Many  causes  have  con- 
tributed to  make  this  sea  the  cradle  of  Euiopean  commerce :  the  faint  summits  of 
distant  lands  visible  even  before  the  port  has  been  quitted ;  numerous  nooks  along 
the  coasts  where  a  safe  refuge  may  be  found  in  case  of  storms ;  regular  land  and 
sea  breezes ;  an  equability  of  climate  which  makes  the  sailor  feel  at  home  wherever 
business  takes  him  ;  and,  moreover,  a  great  variety  of  productions  resulting  from 
the  diverse  configuration  of  the  Mediterranean  coast-lands.  And  this  commerce, 
does  it  not  lead  to  a  peaceful  intercourse  between  peoples  on  neutral  ground,  and 
to  mutual  enlightenment,  brought  about  by  an  interchange  of  ideas?  Every 
coast-line  which  facilitates  the  intercourse  between  nations  is,  therefore,  of  immense 
value  as  a  means  of  developing  civilisation. 

Civilisation  for  many  centuries  marched  from  the  south-east  towards  (he  north- 
west, and  Phoenicia,  Greece,  Italy,  and  France  have  successively  become  great 
centres  of  human  intelligence.  This  historical  phenomenon  is  due  to  the  configura- 
tion of  the  sea,  which  has  been  the  vehicle  of  migratory  nations.  In  fact,  the  axis 
of  civilisation,  if  this  expression  be  allowed,  has  become  confounded  with  that  axis 
of  the  Mediterranean  which  extends  from  the  coast  of  Syria  to  the  Gulf  of  Lions, 
on  the  coast  of  France.  But  the  Mediterranean  has  ceased  to  be  the  only  centre  of 
gravitation  of  Europe,  which  sends  its  merchantmen  now  to  the  two  Americas  and 
the  farthest  East ;  and  civilisation  no  longer  marches  in  that  general  line  from  east 
to  west,  but  rather  radiates  in  all  directions.  Civilising  streams  depart  from 
England  and  Germany  towards  Northern  America,  and  from  the  Latinised  countries 
of  Europe  towards  Southern  America.  Their  direction  is  still  westerly,  but  they 
have  been  deflected  towards  the  south,  to  meet  the  conditions  imposed  by  climate 
and  the  geographical  configuration  of  land  and  sea. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  changes  which  have  occurred  in  the  historical 
importance  of  the  Mediterranean.  As  long  as  that  sea  remained  the  great  highway 
between  nations,  the  commercial  republics  were  content  to  extend  this  highway 
towards  the  east,  by  establishing  caravan  routes  to  the  Gulf  of  Persia,  to  India,  and 
to  China.  In  the  Middle  Ag^s  Genoese  factories  dotted  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  extended  thence  through  Trans-Caucasia  as  far  as  the  Caspian.  European 
travellers,  and  particularly  Italians,  at  that  time  crossed  Western  Asia  in  all 
directions ;  and  many  a  route  hardly  known  in  our  days  was  then  frequented  almost 
daily.  But  for  several  centuries  direct  commercial  intercourse  with  Central  Asia 
has  dwindled  down  to  small  proportions. 

The  Meiiterranean  had  ceased  to  be  a  great  ocean  highway.  Our  navigators, 
no  longer  dreading  a  boundless  sea,  took  their  ships  into  every  part  of  the  ocean. 
The  difficult  and  perilous  land  routes  yrert^  abandoned,  the  once  busy  markets  of 
Central  Asia  became  solitudes,  and  the  Mediterranean  itself  a  veritable  blind  a^ey, 
as  far  as  the  world's  commerce  was  concerned.  This  condition  of  afiairs  lasted  for 
many  years,  but  since  the  middle  of  this  century  our  relations  with  the  East  have 


thej 


^iSSKSflK^!^ 


COMMEBCE  AND  NAVIGATION. 


nd 
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I  admi- 
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Lsia  in  all 
tted  almost 
mtral  Asia 

navigators, 
the  ocean, 
markets  of 
blind  a^ey, 
Blasted  for 
>  East  have 


been  renewed,  and  the  lost  ground  is  rapidly  being  rocovored.  Within  the  last 
year  a  great  commeroiul  revolution  bus  been  effoctod  through  the  opening  of  one 
of  the  ancient  gates  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Suez  Canal  has  become  the 
great  highway  of  steamers  between  Western  Europe,  the  Indies,  and  Australia. 
Possibly,  at  no  distant  fUture,  a  similar  canal  will  enable  our  merchantmen  to 
proceed  from  the  BlacK  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  and  perhaps  even  to  the  Amu  and  the 
Syr,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  ancient  continent. 

It  is  thus  that  the  great  centres  of  intercommunication,  or  vital  points  of  our 
planet,  as  we  should  like  to  call  them,  become  shifted  in  the  course  of  time.  Port 
Said,  an  improvised  town  on  a  desert  shore,  has  thus  become  a  centre  of  attraction 
for  travellers  and  merchandise,  whilst  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon 
have  dwindled  down  into  miserable  villages,  with  nothing  to  indicate  the  proud 
position  they  held  in  the  past.  Carthage,  too,  has  perished,  and  Venice  decayed. 
Many  a  thriving  place  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  has  been  reduced  to 
insignificance  through  the  silting  up  of  iti  harbour,  the  employment  of  larger 
vessels,  the  loss  of  independence,  or  through  political  changes  of  all  kinds.  But 
in  nearly  every  instance  some  neighbouring  town  has  taken  the  place  of  these 
decayed  harbours,  and  most  of  the  great  routes  of  commerce  have  maintained  their 
original  directions,  and  their  terminal  points,  as  well  as  intermediate  stations,  have 
remained  in  the  same  localities. 

There  are,  moreover,  certain  places  which  ships  are  almost  obliged  to  frequent, 
and  where  townb  of  importance  arise  as  a  matter  of  course.  Such  are  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  and  of  Messina ;  such,  also,  are  places  like  Genoa,  Trieste,  and  Salouiki, 
which  occupy  the  bottom  of  gulfs  or  bays  penetrating  far  into  the  land.  Ports 
offering  the  greatest  facilities  for  embarking  merchandise  intended  for  foreign 
countries,  such  as  Marsdlles  and  Alexandria,  are  likewise  natural  centres  of 
attraction  to  merchants.  One  town  there  is  in  the  Mediterranean  which  enjoys  at 
one  and  the  same  time  every  one  of  the  g^graphical  advantages  which  we  have 
pointed  out,  for  it  is  situated  on  a  strait  connecting  two  seas  and  separating  two 
continents.  This  town  ie  Constantinople,  and  despite  the  deplorable  maladminis- 
tration under  which  it  suffers,  its  position  alone  has  enabled  it  to  maintain  its 
place  amongst  the  great  cities  of  the  world. 

The  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  no  longer  enjoy  a  monopoly  of  commerce  as 
they  did  for  thousands  of  years,  but  the  number  of  ships  to  be  met  with  in  that 
inland  sea  is,  nevertheless,  proportionately  far  greater  than  what  we  meet  with  on 
the  open  oceans.  The  commercial  marine  of  the  Mediterranean  numbers  thirty- 
seven  thousand  vessels,  of  a  capacity  of  two  million  seven  hundred  and  ninety-six 
thousand  tons,  without  counting  fishing-boats.  This  is  more  than  one-fourth  of 
the  entire  commercial  marine  of  the  world,  as  respects  the  number  of  ships,  and 
one-sixth  of  it  as  regards  tonnage.  This  inferiority  of  tonnage  is  due  to  the  small 
vessels  of  ancient  types  which  still  maintain  their  ground  in  Greece  and  Ttaly,  and 
which  possess  certain  advantages  for  the  coasting  trade. 

To  this  marine  of  thfe  Mediterranean  should  be  added  the  vessels  belonging  to 
foreign  ports,  which  visit  it  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  amongst  which  those  of 


^^l^Bmmmmm 


t^imm^" 


84 


THE  MEDITEBRANEAN. 


England  take  the  most  prominent  runk.  The  Gnvomment  of  Great  Britain  hot 
even  taken  care  to  secure  itself  a  place  amongst  the  Mediterranean  powers.  It  has 
w-ccapied  Gibraltar,  at  the  eastern  entrance  to  this  basin,  and  taken  possession  of 
Multu,  which  commands  its  centre ;  and  although  the  western  entrance,  formed  by 
the  Suez  Canal,  is  not  in  its  possession,  its  garrisons  on  Perim  and  the  rook  of  Aden 
ure  able  at  any  moment  to  close  up  the  only  approach  to  it  which  leads  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  through  the  Red  Sea. 

The  share  which  England  takes  in  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  i» 
considerable,  but  it  is  surpassed  by  far  by  that  of  France  and  Italy.  A  sovereign 
who  aspired  to  the  dominion  of  the  world  once  spoke  of  the  inland  sea  extending 
from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  Egypt  as  a  "  French  lake ; "  but  with  equal  juutice 
might  it  be  called  a  Greek,  a  Dalmatian,  or  Spanish  lake,  and  with  still  greater 
an  Italian  lake.  The  pirates  of  Barbary  were,  in  reality,  the  last  "  masters  "  of  the 
Mediterranean :  their  swift  vessels  presented  themselves  unexpectedly  before  the 


Fig.  R.— Htbamis  Bovtm  and  Tblioraphs  in  thb  Msdriiuuxiak. 

Ill 


.  StsMnar  rout**. 


'  Telegnph  wUm. 


noast  towns,  and  carried  off  their  inhabitants.  But  since  their  predatory  fleets 
have  been  destroyed,  the  Mediterranean  has  become  the  common  property  of  the 
world,  and  the  meshea  of  an  international  network  of  maritime  highways  become 
closer  from  year  to  year.  The  merchantmen  no  longer  pursue  their  voyages  in 
company  as  they  did  in  former  times,  discharging  their  cargo  from  port  to  port, 
for  a  single  vessel  may  venture  now  into  any  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  in 
safety.  Still  there  remain  the  dangers  of  reefs  and  of  storms.  The  art  of  naviga- 
tion has  made  vaHt  progress ;  most  of  the  capes,  at  least  on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  are 
lit  up  by  lighthouses ,  the  approaches  to  the  ports  are  rendered  easy  by  lightships, 
buoys,  and  beacons ;  but  shipwrecks  are  nevertheless  of  frequent  occurrence.  Even 
large  vessels  founder  sometimes,  without  leaving  a  stray  plank  behind  to  indicate 
the  place  of  their  disappearance. 

Steamers  travelling  along  prescribed  routes  are  now  gradually  taking  the 
place  of  sailing  vessels,  and  where  they  cross  at  frequent  intervals  they  may  be 


m 


4B. 


Ci)lfMKRCE  AND  NAVIGATION. 


86 


likened  to  ferry-boats  crosiing  a  river.  The  regularity  and  speed  of  these  stoam 
ferries ;  the  facilities  which  they  afford  fur  the  conveyance  of  merchandise ;  the 
increasing  number  of  railways  which  convey  the  produce  of  the  interior  to  the 
seaports ;  and  lastly,  the  submarine  telegraphs,  which  have  established  instantaneous 
means  of  communication  between  the  principal  ports,  all  contribute  towards  the 
growth  of  Mediterranean  commerce.  This  commerce,  including  imports  and 
exports,  and  the  transit  through  the  Suez  Cunul,  actually  amounts  to  about 
£333,000,000,  a  year.*  This  may  not  be  much  for  a  maritime  population  of  a 
hundred  millions,  but  a  perceptible  increase  is  taking  place  fh>m  year  to  year.  We 
should  also  bear  in  mind  that,  face  to  face  with  the  busy  peninsulas  of  £urope,  there 
lies  torrid  Africa,  an  inert  mass,  avoided  by  the  sailors  of  our  own  age  as  much  as 
it  was  by  those  of  ancient  Qreeoe.  Its  coasts  are  hardly  ever  visited,  with  the 
exception  of  those  portions  which  extend  from  Onin  to  Tunis,  and  from  Alexandria 
to  Port  Said.  It  is  matter  of  surprise,  too,  that  certain  localities  which  formerly 
attracted  crowds  of  vessels,  such  as  Oyrenaica,  Cyprus,  and  beautiful  Orete,  at  the 
very  entrance  to  the  Archipelago,  should  itill  remain  outside  the  ordinary  track 
of  our  steamers. 


*  Shipping  and  oommeroe  of  the  Hoditemnran  (Mtimated) : — 


Spain  (MediterranMUi} 

Tmtee  „ 

lUly  .... 

Austria 

Oreeoe 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 

Rumania    . 

ItuMia  (Heditezranean) 

Egypt  ,, 

Malta  and  Oibialtar  . 

Algeria 

Tunis,  Tripoli,  to.     . 


SaU' 
2,600 
4,000 
18,800 
3,000 
6,400 
2,200 

MO 
100 
200 
170 
400 

87,870 


CoMHiaouL  Mauiib. 
ill.      Btaamen.        Tonnafft, 
lOU 


230 

140 

03 

M 

10 

M 
M 
13 


260,000 
300,000 
1,080,000 
380,000 
603,000 
210,000 

60,000 
16,000 
30,000 
10,000 
10,000 


ErraiBB  aho 

CUUBID. 

TMm. 
6,000,000 
6,000,000 

21,000,000 
8,000,000 
8,600,000 

36,000,000 
1,300,000 
2,000,000 
4,000,000 

12,000,000 

3,000,000 

600,000 


V4MiC  0»  I>MNn« 

A»D  InroiiTt. 

t 

24,000,000 

80,000,000 

104,000,000 

18,000,000 

8,000,000 
24,000,000 

8,000,000 
24,000,000      . 
20.000,000 
28,000,000 
16,000,000 

4,000,000 


680  2,706,000      96,300,000      363,000,000 


ia 


GREECE. 


I. — Oenerai.  ASPECII. 

REECE,  within  its  confined  political  boundaries,  to  the  south  of  the 
Gulfs  of  Arta  and  Volo,  is  a  country  of  about  nineteen  thousand 
square  miles,  or  at  most  equal  to  the  ten'millionth  part  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Within  the  vast  empire  of  Russia  there  are  many  districts 
more  extensive  than  the  whole  of  Greece,  but  there  is  nothing 
which  distinguishes  these  from  other  districts  which  surround  them,  and  their  names 
call  forth  no  idea  in  our  mind.  The  little  country  of  the  Hellenes,  however,  so 
insignificant  upon  our  maps — how  many  memories  does  it  not  awaken !  In  no 
other  part  of  the  world  had  man  attained  a  degree  of  civilisation  equally  har* 
monious  in  all  respects,  or  more  favourable  to  individual  development.  Even 
now,  though  carried  along  within  an  historical  cycle  far  more  vast  than  that  of 
the  Greeks,  we  should  do  well  to  look  back  frequently  in  order  to  contemplate 
those  small  nations,  who  are  still  our  masters  in  the  arts,  and  first  initiated  us  into 
science.  The  city  which  was  the  "  school  of  Greece "  still  remains  the  school  of 
the  entire  world ;  and  after  twenty  centuries  of  decay,  like  some  of  those  extinct 
stars  whose  luminous  rays  yet  reach  the  earth,  still  continues  to  enlighten  us. 

The  considerable  part  played  by  the  people  of  Greece  during  many  ages  must 
undoubtedly  be  ascribed  to  the  geographical  position  of  their  country.  Other 
tribes  having  the  same  origin,  but  inhabiting  countries  less  happily  situated — such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Pelosgians  of  lUyria,  who  are  believed  to  be  the  ancestors  of 
the  Albanians — have  never  risen  above  a  state  of  barbarism,  whilst  the  Hellenes 
placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  civilised  nations,  and  opened  fresh  paths  to  their 
enterprise.  If  Greece  had  renuiined  for  ever  what  it  was  during  the  tertiary 
geological  epoch — ^a  vast  plain  attached  to  the  deserts  of  Libya,  and  run  over  by 
lions  and  the  rhinoceros — would'  it  have  become  the  native  country  of  a  Phidias, 
an  iEschylos,  or  a  Demosthenes  P  Certainly  not.  It  would  have  shared  the  fate 
of  Africa,  and,  far  from  taking  the  initiative  in  civilisation,  would  have  waited  for 
an  impulse  to  be  given  to  it  from  beyond. 


^^l^il^'-WUi^^il 


OENI-IfiAI.  AMl'KCTS. 


8T 


Orceoe,  a  lub^poninsuU  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Balkan*,  wnii  even  mora 
completely  protected  by  transverse  mountain  barriers  in  the  nortli  than  wan 
Tbraoia  or  Macedonia.  Or«ek  culture  was  thun  able  to  develop  itself  without  fear 
of  being  stifled  at  its  birth  by  successive  invasions  of  burburians.  Mounts 
Olympus,  Pclion,  and  Ossa,  towards  the  north  and  cust  of  Thessaly,  uonntituted  the 
Arnt  line  of  formidable  obstacles  towards  Macedonia.  A  second  barrier,  the  steep 
range  of  the  Othryw,  runs  along  what  is  the  present  political  boundary  of  Greece. 
To  the  south  of  the  Oulf  of  Lamia  a  fresh  obstacle  awaits  us,  for  the  range  of  the 
(Kta  closes  the  passage,  and  there  is  but  the  narrow  pass  of  the  Tliurmopyltn 
between  it  and  the  sea.  Having  crossed  the  mountains  of  the  Locri  and  descended 
into  the  basin  of  Theboe,  there  still  remain  to  bo  crossed  the  I'arncs  or  the 
•purs  of  the  Oithooron  before  we  reach  the  plains  of  Attica.  The  "  isthmus " 
beyond  these  is  again  defended  by  transverse  barriers,  outlying  ramparts,  as  it 
were,  of  the  mountain  citadel  of  the  Peloponnesus,  that  acropolis  of  nil  Greece. 
Ilellas  has  frequently  been  compared  to  a  series  of  chambers,  the  doors  uf  which 
were  strongly  bolted  ;  it  was  diffionit  to  get  in,  but  more  difficult  to  get  out  again, 
owing  to  their  stout  defenders.  Michelet  likens  Graece  to  a  trap  having  three 
compartments.  You  entered,  and  found  yourself  taken  first  in  Macedonia,  then  in 
Thessaly,  then  between  the  Thermopylo}  and  the  isthmus.  But  the  difficulties 
increase  beyond  the  isthmus,  and  Lacodiomonia  remained  impregnable  for  a  long 
time. 

At  an  epoch  when  ti^e  navigation  even  of  a  land-locked  sea  like  the  .^geiin 
was  attended  with  danger,  Greece  found  herself  sufficiently  protected  against  the 
invasions  of  oriental  nations ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  no  other  country  held  out  such 
inducements  to  the  pacific  expeditions  of  merchants.  Gulfs  and  harbours  facili- 
tated access  to  her  j9*)gean  coasts,  and  the  numerous  outlying  islands  were  available 
as  stations  or  as  places  of  refuge.  Greece,  therefore,  was  favourably  placed  for 
entering  into  commercial  intercourse  with  the  more  highly  civilised  peoples  who 
dwelt  on  the  opposite  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  The  colonists  and  voyagers  of  Eastern 
Ionia  not  only  supplied  their  Aoheean  and  Pelasgian  kinsmen  with  foreign  com- 
modities and  merchandise,  but  they  also  imparted  to  them  the  myths,  the  poetry, 
the  sciences,  and  the  arts  of  their  native  country.  Indeed,  the  geographical 
configuration  of  Greece  points  towards  the  east,  whence  she  has  received  her  first 
enlightenment.  Her  peninsulas  and  outlying  islands  extend  in  that  direction ;  the 
harbours  on  her  eastern  coasts  are  most  commodious,  and  afford  the  best  shelter ; 
and  the  mountain-surrounded  plains  there  offer  the  best  sites  for  populous  cities, 
Greece,  at  the  same  time,  does  not  share  the  disadvantage  of  Turkey,  which  is 
almost  out  off  from  the  western  world  by  a  mountain  region  difficult  to  cross. 
The  Ionian  Sea,  to  the  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  it  is  true,  is,  comparatively 
speaking,  a  desert ;  but  farther  north  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  almost  cuts  in  two  the 
Greek  peninsula,  and  the  sight  of  the  distant  mountains  of  Italy,  which  are  visible 
from  the  Ionian  Islands,  must  have  incited  to  an  exploration  of  the  western  seas. 
The  Acamanians,  who  knew  how  to  build  vaults  hg  before  the  Romans,  were 
thus  brought  early  into  contact  with  the  Italians,  to  whom  they  imparted  their 
8 


saMiiMffiaMMi 


88 


OBEEOE. 


knowledge,  and  at  a  subsequent  period  the  Qreeks  became  the  civilisen  of  the 
whole  western  world  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  most  distinctive  feature  of  Hellas,  as  far  as  concerns  the  relief  of  the 
ground,  consists  in  the  large  number  of  small  basins,  separated  one  from  the  other 
by  rocks  or  mountain  ramparts.  The  features  of  the  groimd  thus  favoured  the 
division  of  the  Greek  people  into  a  multitude  of  independent  republics.  Every 
town  had  its  river,  its  amphitheatre  of  hills  or  mountains,  its  acropolis,  its  fields, 
pastures,  and  forests,  and  nearly  all  of  them  had,  likewise,  access  to  the  sea.  All 
the  elements  required  by  a  free  community  were  thus  to  be  found  within  each  of 
these  small  districts,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  other  towns,  equally  favoured,  kept 
alive  perpetual  emulation,  too  frequently  degenerating  into  strife  and  battle.  The 
islands  of  the  j^gean  Sea,  likewise,  had  constituted  themselves  into  miniature 
republics.  Local  institutions  thus  developed  themselves  freely,  and  even  the 
smallest  island  of  the  Archipelago  has  its  g^eat  representatives  in  history. 

But  whilst  there  thus  exists  the  greatest  diversity,  owing  to  the  configuration 
of  the  ground  and  the  multitude  of  islands,  the  sea  acts  as  a  binding  element, 
washes  every  coast,  and  penetrates  far  inland.  These  gulfs  and  numerous  harbours 
have  made  the  maritime  inhabitants  of  Greece  a  nation  of  sailors — amphibise,  as 
Strabo  called  them.  From  the  most  remote  times  the  passion  for  travel  has  always 
been  strong  amongst  them.  When  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  grew  too  numerous 
to  support  themselves  upon  the  produce  of  their  land,  they  swarmed  out  like  bees, 
explored  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and,  when  they  had  found  a  site  which 
recalled  their  native  home,  they  built  themselves  a  new  city.  It  was  thus  Greek 
cities  arotie  in  hundreds  of  places,  from  the  Mseotis  Palus  to  beyond  the  columns  of 
Hercules — from  Tanais  and  Panticapseum  to  Gades  and  Tingis,  the  modem  Tangier. 
Thanks  to  those  numerous  colonies,  some  of  them  more  powerful  and  renowned  than 
the  mother  towns  which  gave  birth  to  them,  the  veritable  Greece,  the  Greece  of 
science  and  art  and  republican  independence,  in  the  end  overflowed  its  ancient 
cradle,  and  sporadically  occupied  the  whole  circumference  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Greeks  held  the  same  position  relatively  to  the  world  of  the  ancients  which 
is  occupied  at  the  present  time  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  with  reference  to  the  entire 
earth.  There  exists,  indeed,  a  remarkable  analogy  betwee:^  Greece,  with  its  srchi  - 
pelago,  and  the  British  Islands,  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  continent.  Similar 
geographical  advantages  have  brought  about  similar  results,  as  far  as  commerce 
is  concerned,  and  between  the  ^gean  and  the  British  seas  time  and  space  have 
effected  a  sort  of  harmony. 

The  admiration  with  which  travellers  behold  Greece  is  due,  above  all,  to  the 
memories  attaching  to  every  one  of  its  ruins,  to  the  smallest  amongst  its  rivulets, 
and  the  most  insignificant  rock  i^  its  seas..  Scenery  in  Provence  or  Spain,  though 
it  may  surpass  in  grace  or  boldness  of  outline  anything  to  be  seen  in  Greece,  is 
appreciated  only  by  a  few.  The  mass  go  past  it  without  emotion,  for  names  like 
Marathon,  Leuctra,  or  PlatsBee  are  not  connected  with  it,  and  the  rustle  of  bygone 
ages  is  not  heard.    But  even  if  glorious  memories  were  not  associated  with  the 


•WJ 


T'  'T^^j^' 


'^■!^^'~^m. 


4i- 


OENEBAL  ASPECTS. 


89 


coasts  of  Greece,  their  beauty  would  nevertheless  entitle  them  to  our  admiration. 
In  the  g^fs  of  Athens  or  of  Argos  the  artist  is  charmed  not  only  with  the  azure 
blue  of  the  waters,  the  transparency  of  the  sky,  the  ever-changing  perspective 
along  the  shores,  and  the  boldness  of  the  promontories,  but  also  with  the  pure  and 
graceful  profile  of  the  mountains,  which  consist  of  layers  of  limestone  or  of  marble. 
We  almost  fancy  we  look  upon  architectural  piles ;  and  the  temples  with  which 
many  a  summit  is  adorned  appear  to  epitomize  them. 

It  is  verdure  and  the  sparkling  water  of  rivulets  which  we  miss  most  on  the 
shores  of  Greece.  Nearly  all  the  mountains  near  the  coast  have  been  despoiled  of 
their  large  trees.  There  remain  only  bushes,  mastic,  strawberry,  and  juniper 
trees,  and  evergreen  oaks ;  even  the  carpet  of  odoriferous  herbs  which  clothes  the 
declivities,  and  upon  which  the  goat  brdwses,  has  in  many  instances  been  reduced 
to  a  few  miserable  patches.  Torrents  of  rain  have  carried  away  the  mould,  and 
the  naked  rock  appears  on  the  surface.  From  a  distance  we  only  see  greyish 
declivities,  dotted  here  and  there  with  a  few  wretched  shrubs.  Even  in  the  days 
of  Strabo  most  mountains  along  the  coasts  had  been  robbed  of  their  forests,  and  one 
of  our  modern  authors  says  that  "  Greece  is  a  skeleton  only  of  what  it  used  to  be  t " 
By  a  sort  of  irony,  geog^phical  names  derived  from  trees  abound  throughout 
Hellas  and  Turkey :  Caryse  is  the  "  town  of  walnut-trees, "  Yalanidia  that  of  the 
Yalonia  oaks,  Kypatrissi  that  of  cypresses,  Flatanos  or  Flataniki  that  of  plane- 
trees.  Everywhere  we  meet  with  localities  whose  appellation  is  justified  by 
nothing.  Forests  at  the  present  day  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  interior 
and  to  the  Ionian  coast.  The  (Eta  Mountains,  some  of  the  mountains  of  .^tolia, 
the  hills  of  Aoamania,  and  Arcadia,  Elis,  Triphylia,  and  the  slopes  of  the  Taygetus, 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  still  retain  their  forests.  And  it  is  only  in  these  forest 
districts,  visited  solely  by  herdsmen,  that  savage  animals,  such  as  the  wolf,  the  fox, 
and  the  jackal,  are  now  met  with.  The  chamois,  it  is  said,  still  haunts  the  recesses 
of  the  FinduB  and  (Eta  Mountains ;  but  the  wild  boar  of  the  Erymanthus,  which 
must  have  been  a  distinct  species  if  we  are  to  judg^  by  antique  sculptures,  exists 
no  more  in  Greece,  and  the  lion,  still  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  has  not  been  seen 
for  two  thousand  years.  Amongst  the  smaller  animals  there  is  a  turtle,  common 
in  some  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  which  the  natives  look  upon  with  the  same 
aversion  as  do  many  western  nations  upon  tilie  toad  and  the  salamander. 

Greece  is  a  small  country,  but  the  variety  of  its  climate  is  nevertheless  great. 
Striking  differences  in  the  climate  of  different  localities  are  produced  by  the 
contrasts  between  mountains  and  plains,  woodlands  and  sterile  valleys,  coasts 
having  a  northern  or  southern  aspect.  But  even  leaving  out  of  sight  these 
local  differences,  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  varieties  of  climate  which  we 
meet  with  in  traversing  Greece  from  north  to  south  are  scarcely  exceeded  in  any 
other  region.  The  mountains  of  ^tolia,  in  the  north,  whose  slopes  are  covered 
with  beech-trees,  remind  us  of  the  temperate  zone  of  Europe,  whilst  the  peninsulas 
and  islands  towards  the  east  and  south,  with  their  thickets  of  fig  and  olive  trees, 
their  plantations  of  oranges  and  lemons,  their  aloe  hedges  and  rare  palm-trees, 
belong  to  the  sub-tropical  cone.     But  even  neighbouring  districts  occasionally 


I 


s 


'II 


40 


OBEEOE. 


■  I 

I 


differ  strikingly  as  regards  climate.  In  the  anuient  lake  basin  of  Boeotia  the  winters 
are  cold,  the  summers  scorching,  whilst  the  temperature  of  the  eastern  shore  of 
Euboea  is  equable,  owing  to  the  moderating  influence  of  sea  breezes.  Within  a 
narrow  compass  Greece  presents  us  with  the  climates  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
earth,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  diversity  of  climate,  and  the  contrasts  of 
every  kind  springing  from  it,  must  have  favourably  influenced  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  Hellenes.  A  spirit  of  inquiry  was  called  forth  amongst  them 
which  reacted  upon  their  commercial  tastes  and  industrial  proclivities. 

The  diversity  of  the  climate  of  the  land,  however,  is  compensated  for,  in 
Greece,  by  a  uniformity  in  the  climate  of  the  maritime  districts.  As  in  a  mountain 
valley,  the  winds  of  the  ^gean  Sea  blow  alternately  in  contrary  directions. 
During  nearly  the  whole  of  summer  the  atmospheric  currents  of  Eastern  Europe  are 
attracted  towards  the  African  deserts-  The  winds  from  the  north  of  the  Archi- 
pelago and  Macedonia  then  speed  the  navigator  on  his  voyage  to  the  south,  and  on 
many  occasions  the  conquering  tribes  of  the  northern  shores  of  that  sea  have 
availed  themselves  of  them  in  their  improvised  attacks  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 
more  southern  districts  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Greece.  These  regular  northerly 
currents,  known  as  etesian  or  annual  winds,  cease  on  the  termination  of  the 
hot  season,  when  the  sun  stands  above  the  southern  tropic.  They  are,  moreover, 
interrupted  every  night,  when  the  cool  sea  air  is  attracted  by  the  heated  surface  of 
the  land.  When  the  sun  has  set  the  wind  gradually  subsides;  t!.  <'3  ip  a  calm, 
lasting  a  few  moments ;  and  then  the  air  begins  to  move  in  an  in."^  '> ruction — 
"the  land  begins  to  blow,"  as  the  sailors  say.  Nor  is  this  regult  ^^^  ^i  without 
its  counter-current,  known  as  the  embates,  or  propitious  south-easterly  breeze  of 
which  the  poets  sing.  General  winds  and  breezes,  moreover,  are  deflected  from 
their  original  directions  in  consequence  of  the  configuration  of  the  coast  and  the 
direction  of  mountain  chains.  The  Gulf  of  Corinth,  for  instance,  is  shut  in  by 
high  mountains  on  the  north  and  the  south,  and  the  winds  alternately  enter  it 
firom  the  east  or  west — a  phenomenon  likened  by  Strabo  to  the  breathing  of  an 
animal. 

The  rains,  like  the  winds,  deviate  in  many  places  from  the  vy^r^ge,  and  whilst 
the  water  pours  down  into  some  mountain  valleys  as  into  a  funnel,  elsewhere  the 
clouds  drift  past  without  parting  with  a  drop  of  their  humid  burden.  Contrasts 
in  the  amount  of  precipitation  are  thus  added  to  those  resulting  from  differences 
of  configuration  and  variety  of  climate.  As  a  rule,  rain  is  more  abundant  on  the 
western  shores  of  Greece  than  on  the  eastern,  and  this  fact  accounts  for  the  smiling 
aspect  of  the  hills  of  Elis,  as  compared  with  the  barren  declivities  of  Argolis  and 
Attica.  Thunder-storms,  driren  before  the  winds  of  the  Mediterranean,  likewise 
recur  with  greater  regularity  in  the  western  portion  of  the  peninsula.  In  Elis  and 
Acamania  the  roll  of  thunder  may  be  heard  in  spring  daily,  for  whole  weeks,  in 
the  afternoon.  No  sites  more  apposite  could  have  been  found  for  temples  dedicated 
to  Jupiter,  the  god  of  lightning. 


The  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Cyclades,  and  probably,  also,  those  of  the  coasts 


>^M 


J 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


41 


I  winters 
Ishore  of 

^ithin  a 
In  of  the 
itrosts  of 
Itellectual 
Lgst  them 

for,  in 

mountain 

iirections. 

luTope  are 

he  Archi- 

th,  and  on 

i  sea  have 

ints  of  the 

•  northerly 

ion  of  the 

moreover, 

i  surface  of 

if>  a  calm, 

u\>ction — 

V   without 

rly  breeze  of 

fleeted  from 

Mwt  and  the 

shut  in  by 

tely  enter  it 

ftthing  of  an 

B,  and  whilst 
ilsewhero  the 
^  Contrasts 
m  differences 
ndant  on  the 
ir  the  smiling 
'  Argolis  and 
lean,  likewise 
In  Elis  and 
lole  weeks,  in 
)les  dedicated 


of  the  coasts 


of  Hellas  and  Asia  Minor,  had  already  attained  a  considerable  amount  of  culture 
long  before  the  commencement  of  our  historical  records.  This  has  been  proved  by 
excavations  made  in  the  volcanic  ashes  of  Santorin  and  Therasia.  At  the  time 
their  houses  were  buried  beneath  the  ashes,  the  Santoriniotes  had  begun  to  pass 
from  the  age  of  stone  into  that  of  copper.  They  knew  how  to  build  arches  of 
stone  and  mortar,  they  manufactured  lime,  used  weights  made  of  blocks  of  lava, 
wove  cloth,  made  pottery,  dyed  their  stuffs,  and  ornamented  their  houses  with 
frescoes ;  they  cultivated  barley,  peas,  and  lentils,  and  had  begun  to  trade  with 
distant  countries. 

We  do  not  know  whether  these  men  were  of  the  same  race  as  the  Hellenes ; 
but  thus  much  is  certain — that  at  the  earliest  dawn  of  history  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  the  ^gean  Sea  were  peopled  by  various  families  of  Greeks,  whilst  the 
interior  of  the  country  and  the  western  shores  of  the  peninsula  were  inhabited  by 
Pelasgians.  These  Felasg^ans,  moreover,  were  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Greeks, 
and  they  spoke  a  language  derived  from  the*  same  source  as  the  dialects  of  the 
Hellenes.  Both  were  Aryans,  and,  xmless  natives  of  the  soil,  they  must  have 
immigrated  into  Greece  from  Asia  Minor  by  crossing  the  Hellespont,  or  by  way  of 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The  Pelasgians,  according  to-  tradition,  sprang 
from  Mount  LycsBus,  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  they  boasted  of  being 
"  autochthons,"  "  men  of  the  black  soil,"  "  children  of  oaks,"  or  "  men  bom  before 
the  moon."  All  around  them  lived  tribes  of  kindred  origin,  such  as  the  ^olians 
and  the  Leleges,  and  these  were  afterwards  joined  by  lonians  and  Achseans. 
The  lonians,  who,  in  a  subsequent  age,  exercised  so  great  an  influence  over  the 
destinies  of  the  world,  only  occupied  the  peninsula  of  Attica  and  the  neighbouring 
Euboea.  The  Achteans  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  a  preponderance,  and  in  the  end 
the  Greek  dans  collectively  became  known  by  that  name.  Later  on,  when  the 
Dorians  had  crossed  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  where  it  is  narrowest,  and  established 
themselves  as  conquerors  in  the  Peloponnesus^  the  Amphiotyons,  or  national 
councils,  sitting  alternately  at  Thermopyls  and  Delphi,  conferred  the  name  of 
Hellenes,  which  was  that  of  a  small  tribe  in  Thessaly  and  Phthiotis,  upon  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  and  the  islands.  The  name  of  Greek,  which 
signifies,  perhaps,  "mountaineer,"  "ancient,"  or  "son  of  the  soil,"  gradually 
spread  amongst  the  nation,  and  in  the  end  became  general.  The  lonians  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  Carians  of  the  Sporades,  emulated  the  Phoenicians  by  trading  from 
port  to  port  amongst  these  half-savage  tribes,  and,  like  bees  which  convey  the 
fecundating  pollen  from  flower  to  flower,  they  carried  the  civilisation  of  Egypt  and 
the  East  from  tribe  to  tribe. 

Phoenician  merchants  and  Roman  conquerors  scarcely  modified  the  elements 
composing  the  population  of  Hellas,  but  during  the  age  of  migrations  barbarians 
in  large  numbers  penetrated  into  Greece.  For  more  than  two  centuries  did  the 
Avares  maintain  themselves  in  the  Peloponnesus.  Then  came  the  Slavs,  aided,  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  by  the  plague  in  depopulating  the  country.  Greece  became 
a  Slavonic,  and  a  Slavonian  language,  probably  Servian,  was  universally  spoken, 
as  is  proved  by  the  majority  of  geographical  names.  The  superstitions  and  legends 


^1 


i»3S@fl 


IMN 


4a 


OREEOE. 


of  the  modern  Greeks,  as  has  been  remarked  bj  many  authors,  are  not  simply  a 
beritago  derived  from  the  ancient  Hellenes,  but  have  become  enriched  by  phantoms 

Fig>  9. — Mainoti  and  Spartan. 


!i  I 


and  vampires  of  Slav  invention.    The  dress  of  the  Greeks,  too,  is  a  legacy  of  their 
northern  conquerors.     But,  in  spite  of  this,  the  polished  knguage  of  the  Hellenes 


^nftm 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


48 


has  regained  by  deg^rees  its  ancient  preponderance,  and  the  race  has  so  thoroughly 
amalgamated  these  foreign  immigrants,  that  it  is  impossible  now  to  trace  any 
Servian  elements  in  the  population.  But  hardly  had  Hellas  escaped  the  danger  of 
becoming  Slav  when  it  was  threatened  with  becoming  Albanian.  This  occurred 
during  the  dominion  of  Venice.  As  recently  as  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century  Albanian  was  the  dominant  language  of  Elis,  Argos,  Boeotia,  and  Attica, 
and  even  at  the  present  day  a  hundred  thousand  supposed  Hellenes  still  speak 
it.  The  actual  population  of  Greece  is,  therefore,  a  very  mixed  one,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  say  in  what  .proportions  these  Hellenic,  Slav,  and  Albanian  elements 
have  combined.  The  Mainotes,  or  Maniotes,  of  the  peninsula  terminating  in 
Cape  Matapan,  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  Greeks  of  the  purest  blood. 
They  themselves  claim  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Spartans,  and  amongpst 
their  strongholds  they  still  point  out  one  which  belonged  to  "  Signer  Lyourgus." 
Their  Ciouncils  of  Elders  have  preserved  from  immemorial  times,  and  down  to 
the  war  of  independence,  the  title  of  Senate  of  Lacedsemonia.  Every  Mainote 
professes  to  love  unto  death  "  Liberty,  the  highest  of  all  goods,  inherited  from 
our  Spartan  ancestors."  Nevertheless,  a  good  many  localities  in  Maina  bear 
names  derived  from  the  Servian,  and  these  prove,  at  all  events,  that  the  Slavs 
resided  in  the  country  for  a  considerable  time.  The  Mainotes  practise  the 
vendetta,  as  if  they  were  Montenegrins.  But  is  not  this  a  common  custom 
amongst  all  uncivilised  nations  P 

However  this  may  be,  in  spite  of  invasions  and  intermixture  with  other 
races,  the  Ghreeks  of  to-day  agree  in  most  points  with  the  Greeks  of  the  past. 
Above  all  things,  they  have  preserved  their  language,  and  it  is  truly  matter 
for  surprise  that  the  vulgar  Greek,  though  derived  f^om  a  rural  dialect,  should 
differ  so  slightly  only  from  the  literary  language.  The  differences,  analogous 
to  what  may  be  observed  with  respect  to  the  languages  derived  from  the  Latin, 
are  restricted  almost  to  two  points,  viz.  the  contraction  of  non-accentuated 
syllables  and  the  use  of  auxiliary  verbs.  It  was,  therefore,  easy  for  the  modem 
Greeks  to  purify  their  language  from  barbarisms  and  foreign  terms,  and  to 
restore  it  gradually  to  what  it  was  in  the  time  of  Thucydides.  Nor  has  the 
race  changed  much  in  its  physical  features,  for  in  most  districts  of  modem 
Greece  the  ancient  types  may  yet  be  recognised.  The  Boeotian  is  still  distin- 
guished by  that  heavy  gait  which  made  him  an  object  of  ridicule  amongst 
the  other  Greeks ;  the  Athenian  youth  possesses  the  suppleness,  grace  of  move- 
ment and  bearing  which  we  admire  so  much  in  the  horsemen  sculptured  on 
the  friezes  of  the  Parthenon ;  the  Spartan  women  have  preserved  that  haughty 
and  vigonms  beauty  which  constituted  the  charm  of  the  virgins  of  Doris.  Ajb 
regards  morals,  the  descent  of  the  modem  Hellenes  is  equally  evident.  Like 
their  ancestors,  they  are  fond  of  change,  and  inquisitive ;  as  the.  descendants 
of  free  citizens,  they  have  preserved  a  feeling  of  equality ;  and,  still  infatuated 
with  dialectics,  they  hold  forth  at  all  times  as  if  they  were  in  the  ancient 
market-place,  or  Agora.  They  frequently  stoop  to  flattery:  like  the  ancient 
Greeks,  too,  they  are  apt  to  rate  intellectual  merit  !>bove  purity  of  morals. 


':. 


i 


1  I 


i 


""^ 


mmmm 


44 


OBEECE. 


Like  sage  Ulyases  of  the  Homeric  poem,  they  well  know  how  to  lie  and  cheat 
with  grace ;  and  the  truthful  Acarnanian  and  the  Mainote,  who  are  "  slow  to 
promise,  but  sure  to  keep,"  are  looked  upon  as  rural  oddities.  Another 
trait  in  the  character  of  the  modern  and  ancient  Oreeks,  and  one  which 
distinguishes  them  from  all  other  Europeans,  is  this — that  they  do  not  allow 
themselves  to  be  carried  away  by  passion,  except  in  the  cause  of  patriotism. 
The  Greek  is  a  stranger  to  melancholy :  he  loves  life,  and  is  determined  to  enjoy 
it.  In  battle  he  may  throw  it  away,  but  suicide  is  a  species  of  death 
unknown  amongst  the  modem  Greeks,  and  the  more  unhappy  they  are,  the 
more  they  cling  to  existence.     They  are  very  seldom  afflicted  with  insanity. 


Fig.  10. — FoniioN  Ei.mRim  nf  thb  Potviation  op  Omicb. 


cam  Albanian* 


I  Franck .  Italians 


•  "Airks 


W< 


In  spite  of  the  diverse  elements  which  compose  it,  the  Greek  nationality  is 
one  of  the  most  homogeneous  in  Europe.  The  Albanians,  of  Felasgian  descent 
like  the  Greeks,  do  not  cede  to  the  latter  in  patriotism ;  and  it  was  they — the 
Suliotes,  Hydriotes,  Spezziotes — ^who  fought  most  valiantly  for  national  independ- 
ence. The  eight  himdred  families  of  Rumanian  or  Eutzo-Wallachian  Zinzares 
who  pasture  their  herds  in  the  hills  of  Acarnania  and  .^tolia,  and  are  known  as 
Kara-Gxinis,  or  "  black  cloaks,"  speak  the  two  languages,  and  sometimes  marry 
Greek  girls,  though  they  never  give  their  own  daughters  in  marriage  to  the 
Greeks.  Haughty  and  free,  they  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  be  of  any  great 
importance.  To  foreigners  the  Greeks  are  rather  intolerant,  and  they  take  no 
pains  to  render  their  stay  amongst  them  agreeable.  The  Turks — who  were 
numerous  formerly  in  certain  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  Boeotia,  and  in  the 


CONTINENTAL  OBEEOE. 


4B 


island  of  Euboea,  and  whose  presence  recalled  an  unhappy  period  of  servitude — 
have  fled  to  a  man,  and  only  the  fez,  the  narghile,  and  the  slippers  remind  us  of 
their  former  presence.  The  Jews,  though  met  with  in  every  town  of  the  East, 
whether  Slav  or  Mussulman,  dare  hardly  enter  the  presence  of  the  Greeks,  who 
are,  moreover,  their  most  redoubtable  rivals  in  matters  of  finance  :  they  are  to  be 
found  only  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  where  they  managed  to  get  a  footing  during 
the  British  Protectorate.  In  this  same  Archipelago  we  likewise  meet  with  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Venetian  colonists,  and  with  emigrants  from  all  parts 
of  Italy.  Freilch  and  Italian  families  still  form  a  distinct  element  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Naxos,  Santorin,  and  Syra.  As  to  the  Maltese  porters  and  gardeners 
at  Athens  and  Oorfu,  they  continue  for  the  most  part  in  subordinate  positions, 
and  never  associate  with  the  Greeks. 

The  homogeneous  character  of  the  population  of  Greece  does  not  admit  of 
that  country  being  divided  into  ethnological  provinces,  like  Turkey  or  Austro- 
Hungary,  but  it  consists  geographically  of  four  distinct  portions.  These  are 
(1),  continental  Hellas,  known  since  the  Turkish  invasion  as  Bumelia,  in 
remembrance  of  the  "  Roman  "  empire  of  Byzantium ;  (2),  the  ancient  Pelopon- 
ne«as,  now  called  the  Morea,  perhaps  a  transposition  of  the  word  "  Romea,"  or 
from  a  Slav  word  signifying  "  sea  coast,"  and  applied  formerly  to  Elis ; 
(3),  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea ;  (4),  the  Ionian  Islands.  In  describing  the 
various  portions  of  Greece  we  shall  make  use,  in  preference,  of  the  ancient  names 
of  mountains,  rivers,  and  towns ;  for  the  Hellenes  of  our  own  day,  proud  of  the 
glories  of  the  past,  are  endeavouring  gradually  to  get  rid  of  names  of  Slav  or 
Italian  origin,  which  still  figure  upon  the  maps  of  their  country.* 


II. — Continental  Grbecb. 

The  Findus,  which  forms  the  central  chain  of  Southern  Turkey,  passes  over 
into  Greece,  and  imparts  to  it  an  analogous  orog^phioal  character.  On  both 
sides  of  this  conventional  boundary  we  meet  with  the  same  rocks,  the  same 
vegetation,  the  same  landscape  features,  and  the  same  races  of  people.  By 
dividing  the  Epirus  and  handing  over  Thessaly  to  the  Turiu,  European  diplomacy 
has  paid  no  attention  to  natural  features.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  boundary 
is  made  to  follow  the  line  of  water  parting  over  the  range  of  the  lofty  Oi .^rys, 
commanding  the  plain  of  the  Sperchius.    Westward  of  the  Pindus  the  boundary 


*  Oieoce  within  its  poUtioallimiU:— 


Continental  Greece 
Fbloponnenu  . 
JBgwa  Iilands 
Ionian  Idanda 
Army,  navy,  and  aailoni 


Aim. 
Bq.  m. 
7,568 
8,388 
2,fi00 
1.007 


Total 


10,363 


Fopobtion 
(1870). 
466,018 
646,380 
206,840 
818,870 
20,868 

1,457,804 


OMIiitjr. 

62 

66 

82 

217 


76 


f 


I 


BtBUWBr—^ 


I  II  I  ii'iiii  mm    i"il/  Hi 


46 


QBEEOE. 


crosses  transversely  the  valley  of  the  Achelous,  and  the  hills  which  seiiarate  it 
from  the  Qulf  of  Arta. 

The  isolated  summit  of  Mount  Tymphrestus,  or  Yelukhi,  which  rises  where 
the  grand  chain  of  the  Othrys  branches  off  from  the  Pindus,  is  not  the  culmi- 
nating point  of  continental  Greece,  but  it  is  a  centre  from  which  the  principal 
mountain  spurs  and  rivers  radiate.  Within  its  spurs  lies  hidden  the  charming 
valley  of  Karpenisi,  and  an  elevated  ridge  joins  them,  towards  the  south-east, 
to  the  most  important  mountain  mass  of  modem  Greece,  viz.  the  group  sur- 
mounted by  the  snow-clad  pyramids  of  the  Yardusia  and  Ehiona,  whose  slopes 
are  covered  with  dark  firs,  and  to  the  superb  Eatavothra,  the  (Eta  of  the 
ancients,  on  which  Hercules  built  his  funeral  pile.     The  mountains  of  Yardusia 


Fig.    11.— MOVMT  FARNAMVa  AND  DbLPHI. 

I^HfiT'CI 

^''' 

ma:^i 

-- 

'if  J  ;«'->■  1* 

■Aih/% 

m^^mr  *  ^Mm*t 

mL                ^                                      t'     r-* 

and  EhioDu  are  lace  to  face  with  the  fine  mountain  masses  of  Northern  Mona, 
likewise  T/ooded  and  covered  with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

The  iiountalns  »f  ^tolia,  to  the  west  of  the  Yelukhi  and  the  Yardusia,  are 
far  less  elevated,  Fyut  they  are  rugged,  and  form  a  veritable  chaos  of  rocks, 
savage  det'les,  and  thickets,  into  which  only  WsUachian  herdsmen  venture.  In 
Southern  ibltolia,  en  the  shores  of  the  lakep  and  tlong  the  rivers,  the  country  is 
more  accessible,  hut  mountains  rise  there  likewiM,  and  by  tortuous  ridges  ihvj 
are  brought  into  connection  with  the  system  of  the  Pindus.  Those  on  the  coast 
of  Acamania,  opposite  to  the  Ionian  Islands,  are  steep,  covered  with  trees  and 
•hrubs ;  they  are  the  mountains  of  the  "  Black  Continent "  mentioned  by  Ulys8e& 


bfSiS 


CONTINENTAL  GREECE. 


47 


To  the  east  of  the  Achelous  there  i«  another  couat  chain,  well  known  to  mariners : 
this  is  the  Zygos,  the  southern  slopes  of  which,  arid  and  austere,  are  seen  from 
off  Missolonghi.  Still  further  to  the  east  another  range  cornea  down  to  the 
Heashore,  and,  together  with  the  promontories  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Morea, 
forms  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Oorinth.  Close  to  this  entrance,  on 
the  ^tolian  side,  there  naes  hold  Mount  Yarassova,  a  huge  block  of  rock.  Local 
tradition  tells  ua  that  the  Titans  endeavoured  to  throw  this  rook  into  the  seb,  so 
that  it  might  form  a  bridge  between  the  two  coasts ;  but  the  rock  proved  too 
heavy,  and  it  was  dropped  where  we  now  see  it. 

Towards  the  ^gean  Sea  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Eatavothra  is  continued 
by  a  coast  range  running  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  mountaina  of  the  island  of 
Euboea.  Thia  range  ahould  be  described  rather  aa  a  series  of  mountain-groups 
separated  from  each  other  by  deep  hollows  >xtensive  depressions,  and  even  by 
river  valleys.  These  mountains,  though  lew  and  intersected  by  numerous  roads, 
an  nevertheless  difficult  of  access,  for  their  slopes  are  steep,  their  promontories 
abr  ipt,  and  their  precipices  sudden,  and  in  the  times  of  the  ancient  Greeks  a 
small  number  of  men  repeatedly  defended  them  against  large  armies.  At  one 
extrtmity  of  thia  range  ia  the  passage  of  ThermopylsB;  at  the  other,  on  the 
eastevn  foot  of  the  Pentelious,  the  famous  pLiin  of  Marathon. 

Th  9  mountain  groups  on  the  northern  sliore  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  and  to 
the  south  of  Boeotia,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  range  running  parallel  with  that 
fbllowing  the  channel  of  Euboea,  but  far  mora  beautiftU  and  pictureaque.  Every 
one  of  ita  anmmita  recalla  the  sweet  memories  of  poetry,  or  conjures  up  the 
image  of  some  ancient  deity.  To  the  west  we  find  ourselves  in  the  pre- 
sence of  "  double-headed  "  Parnassus,  to  which  fled  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha,  the 
anoeatora  of  the  Greeka,  and  where  the  Athenians  celebrated  their  torchlight 
dances  in  honour  of  Bacchus.  From  the  summits  of  the  Parnassus,  which  rival 
in  height  thoae  of  the  Ehiona,  raiaing  ita  pyramidal  head  towards  the  north-west, 
nearly  the  whole  of  Greece,  with  its  gulfs,  islands,  and  mountains,  lies  spread  out 
below  us,  from  the  .Thessalian  Olympus  tu  the  Taygetus,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Peloponnesus ;  and  close  by,  at  our  feet,  lies  the  admirable  basin  of  Delphi,  the 
place  of  Peace  and  Concord,  where  Greeks  forgot  their  animosities.  The 
mountain  group  towards  the  east  next  td  Pamasaus  ia  quite  equal  to  it.  The 
valleya  of  the  Helicon,  the  seat  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  are  still  the  most 
verdant  and  the  most  smiling  in  all  Gbeece.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  Helicon  is 
more  eapeoially  distinguished  for  its  charming  beauty,  its  woods,  its  verdant 
paaturea,  gardena,  and  murmuring  apringa,  which  contrast  moat  &vourably  with  the 
bare  and  arid  plaina  of  Boeotia.  If  Mount  Pamaasus  may  boaat  of  the  Castalian 
spring.  Mount  Helicon  possesses  that  of  Hippoorene,  which  burst  forth  from  the 
ground  when  struck  by  the  hoof  of  Pegasus.  The  elongated  summit  of  the 
Cithsaron,  the  birthplace  of  Bacchus,  joins  the  mountains  of  Southern  Boeotia 
to  those  of  Attica,  whose  marble  has  become  famous  through  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  which  they  shelter.  Mount  Pames  rises  to  the  north  of  Athens ; 
to  the  east  of  it,  like  the  pediment  of  a  temple,  rises  the  Pentelicus,  in  which  are 


' 


i 


,  J 


iSBHi 


48 


OBEECE. 


the  quarries  of  Pikormi,  rendered  famoua  through  their  fosnil  honei;  on  the 
south  appears  Mount  Hymettus,  celebrated  for  its  flowers  and  its  bees.  Farther 
away,  the  Ijaurium,  with  its  rich  argentiferous  slags,  stretches  towards  the  south* 
east,  and  terminates  in  Oape  Sunium,  consecrated  in  other  days  to  Minerva 
and  Neptune,  and  still  surmounted  by  fifteen  columns  of  an  ancient  temple. 

Another  isolbted  mountain  group  to  the  south  of  Attica,  and  occupying  the 
entire  width  of  the  Isthmus  of  Mcgara,  served  the  Athenians  as  a  rampart  of 
defence  against  their  neighbours  of  the  Peloponnesus.  This  is  the  mountain 
group  of  Gerania,  the  modem  Pera  Ehora.*  Having  passed  beyond  it,  we  find 
ourselves  upon  the  Isthmus  of  Oorir''  .  properly  so  called,  confined  between  the 
Oulfs  of  Athens  and  of  Corinth.  It  is  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  scarcely  five  mile* 
across,  whose  arid  limestone  rooks  hardly  rise  two  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
neutral  bit  of  territory,  lying  between  two  distinct  geographical  regions,  naturally 
became  a  place  for  meetings,  festivals,  and  markets.  The  remains  of  a  wall 
built  by  the  Peloponnesians  across  the  isthmus  may  still  be  traced,  as  may  also 
the  canal  commenced  by  order  of  Nero. 

The  limestone  mountains  of  Greece,  as  well  as  those  oi  the  Epirus  and  of 
Thessaly,  abound  in  lakes,  but  all  the  rivers  are  swallowed  up  in  "  sinks,"  or 
katavothras,  leaving  the  land  dry  and  arid.  Southern  Acamania,  a  portion  of  which 
is  known  as  Xeromeros,  or  the  "  arid  country,"  on  account  of  the  absence  of  run- 
ning water,  abounds  in  lake  basins  of  this  kind.  To  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
Arta,  which  may  not  inaptly  be  described  as  a  sort  of  lake  communicating  with  the 
sea  through  a  narrow  opening,  there  are  several  sheets  of  water,  the  remains  of  an 
inland  sea,  silted  up  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Achelous.  The  largest  of  these 
lakes  is  known  to  the  natives  as  Pelagos,  or  "big  sea,"  because  of  its  extent  and 
the  agitated  state  of  its  waters,  which  break  against  its  coasts.  This  is  the 
Trichonius  of  the  ancient  ^tolians.  Reputed  unfathomable,  it  is,  in  truth,  very 
deep,  and  its  waters  are  perfectly  pure ;  but  they  are  discharged  sluggishly  into 
another  basin  far  less  extensive,  atid  surrounded  by  pestilential  marshes,  and 
through  a  turgid  stream  they  even  find  their  way  into  the  Achelous.  The  hills 
surrounding  Lake  Triohonis  are  covered  with  villages  and  fields,  whilst  the  locality 
around  the  lower  lake  has  been  depopulated  by  fever.  The  country,  nevertheless, 
is  exceedingly  beautiful  to  look  upon.  Hardly  have  we  passed  through  a  narrow 
gorge,  or  klimra,  of  Mount  Zyg^s  before  we  enter  upon  a  bridge  over  a  mile 
in  length,  which  a  Turkish  governor  caused  to  be  thrown  across  the  swamps 
separating  the  two   lakes.     This  viaduct  has  sunk   down  more  than  half  its 


*  Altitadea  of  moantains  in  continental  Oreeca  (in  feet) : — 


Gerakavuni  (Othryi)     . 
Yelukhi  (Tymphreiitui) 
Rhonia  .... 
Yarduna 
Katavothn  ((£u) 
Honntaint  of  Acarnania 
VaranoTa 


8,(J78 
7,610 
8,186 
8,242 
6,660 
6.216 
3,010 


Liaknn  (ParnaHus) 
FalnoTOuni  (Helicon) 
Elatea  (Cithnron)  . 
Fames    . 

Pentelicui       .        . 
Hymettua 
Oerania  (Pera  Khora) 


8,068 
6.7a8 
4,630 
4,646 
S,69S 
3,400 
4,482 


CONTINENTAL  OREECB. 


4» 


height  into  the  mud,  but  it  ia  still  sufficiently  elevated  to  enable  the  eye  freely 
to  sweep  oTer  the  surface  of  the  waters,  and  to  trace  the  coasts  which  bound  them. 
Oaks,  planes,  and  wild  olive-trees  intermingle  beneath  us,  their  branches  hung 
with  festoons  of  wild  vine,  and  these,  with  the  blue  waters  of  the  lake  and 
the  mountains  rising  beyond  it,  form  a  picture  of  great  bcuuty. 

Another  lake  busin  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Zygos,  between  the  alluvial 
lands  of  the  Achelous  and  the  Fidari.  It  is  occupied  by  a  swamp  filled  with  fresh, 
brackish,  or  salt  water;  and  since  tho  days  of  ancient  Greece,  this  swamp, 
owing  to  the  apathy  of  the  inhabitants,  has  continued  to  increase  in  extent  at 
the  expense  of  the  cultivated  land.  Missolonghi  the  heroic  is  indebted  for  its 
name  to  its  position  near  these  marsb'  s,  for  the  meaning  of  it  is  "  centre  of 
marshes."    A  barrier,  or  ramma,  here  and  there  broken  through  by  the  floods, 

Rg.  11— LoWBR  AOABNUIU. 

8<nU  I  :  800,0ga 


t 


i 


h 


.KMllM. 


separates  the  basin  uf  Missolonghi  from  the  Ionian  Sea.  During  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence every  opening  in  this  barrier  wvs  protected  by  redoubts  or  stockades, 
but  at  present  the  only  obstruction  consists  of  the  reed  barriers  of  the  fishermen, 
which  are  opened  in  spring  to  admit  the  fish  from  the  sea,  and  closed  in  summer 
to  prevent  their  escape.  Missolonghi,  though  surrounded  by  brackish  water,  is  a 
healthy  place,  thanks  to  the  breezes  from  the  sea;  whilst  a  heavy  atmosphere 
charged  with  miasmata  hangs  perpetually  over  the  bustling  little  town  of 
^toliko  (Anatolikon),  which  lies  farther  to  the  north-west  in  the  midst  r>£  the 
swamps,  and  is  joined  to  the  dry  land  by  two  bridges.  Between  iEtoliko  and 
the  river  Achelous  may  be  observed  a  large  number  of  rooky  eminences,  rising 
like  pyramids  above  the  plain.  These  are  no  doubt  ancient  islands,  such  as 
still  exist  between  the  mainland  and  the  island  of  St.  Mauro.  The  mud  brought 
down   by  the  Achelous  has  gpradually  converted  the   intervals   between   these 


M  OREEOE. 

rooks  into  dry  Und.  In  former  times  the  commercial  city  of  (Eniodao  occupied 
one  of  these  islets.  The  geological  changes  already  noticed  by  Herodotus  are 
thus  still  going  on  under  our  eyes,  and  the  muds  of  the  Aohelous,  to  which  it 
owes  its  modem  name  of  Aspro,  or  "  white,"  incessantly  extend  the  land  at  the 
expense  of  the  sea. 

The  Aohelous,  which  the  ancients  likened  to  a  savage  bull,  owing  to  its 
rapid  current  and  great  volume,  is  by  far  the  most  important  river  of  Oreeoe. 
One  of  the  great  feats  ascribed  to  Hercules  consisted  in  breaking  off  one  of 
the  horns  of  this  bull ;  that  is  to  say,  he  embanked  the  river,  and  thus  protected 
the  lands  which  it  used   to  inundate.     The  neighbours  of  the  Achelous,  the 


Fig.  13.— Thieiioptljr 
n«m  tiMlViiMh  Staff  Map 'laet).   SaOel: 


I  iMw4«f  toLMte 


10 


rapid  Fidari  (Evenus,  on  the  banks  of  which  Hercules  killed  the  centaur 
Nessus,  for  offering  violence  to  Dejaiira)  and  the  Momos,  which  rieee  in  the 
snows  of  the  (Eta,  cannot  compare  With  it.  Still  less  is  it  equalled  by  the 
Oropus,  the  Oephissus,  and  the  Ilissus,  "wet  only  when  it  rains,"  which  flow 
eastward  into  the  ^gean  Sea.  The  principal  river  of  Eastern  Greece,  the 
SperchiuB,  is  inferior  to  the  Achelous,  but,  like  it,  has  extensively  changed  the 
aspect  of  the  plbin  near  its  mouth.  When  Leonidas  and  hia  three  hundred  heroes 
guarded  the  defiles  of  Thermopylae  against  the  Persians,  the  Gulf  of  Lamia 
extended  much  farther  into  the  land  than  it  does  now.  But  the  alluvial  deposits 
of  the  river  have  extended  its  delta,  and  several  rivulets  which  formerly  flowed 


I'Vi^iW 


CONTINENTAL  OBEEOB. 


51 


directly  into  the  sea  have  now  to  bo  numbered  amongat  iti  tributaries ;  the  Ma  has 
retired  Ax>m  the  foot  of  the  Callidromui  for  a  distance  of  soYerul  miles ;  and  the 
narrow  pass  of  Thermopylae  has  been  converted  into  a  plain  sufficiently  wide 
to  enable  an  entire  army  to  mancouvre  upon  it.  The  hot  springs  which  gush 
from  the  rooks,  by  forming  deposits  of  calcareous  tufa,  may  likewise  hare  con* 
tributed  towards  thin  change  of  coast*line;  nor  are  more  violent  convulsions  of 
naturO  precluded  in  a  volcanic  region  like  this,  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes. 
Sailors  slill  point  out  a  small  island  in  this  neighbourhood,  formed  of  soorisD, 
from  which  the  incensed  Hercules  hurled  his  companion,  Lichas,  into  the  ocean. 
Hot  springs  abound  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Eubooa,  and  the  incrustations 
formed  by  them  are  so  considerable  as  to  assume  the  appearance  of  glaciers 
when  seen  f^m  a  distance.  A  bathing  establishment  exists  now  near  the  hot 
sulphur  springs  of  Thermopylas,  and  strangers  are  thus  enabled  to  explore  this 
region,  so  rich  in  memories  of  a  great  past.  The  pedestal,  however,  upon 
which  reposed  the  figure  of  a  marble  lion,  placed  there  in  honour  of  Leonidas, 
has  been  destroyed  by  ruthless  hands,  lud  utilised  in  the  construction  of  a 
mill! 

The  basin  of  the  Oep'aissus,  snoloscl  by  the  chains  of  the  (Eta  and  Parnassus, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  from  un  hydrologioal  point  of  view.  The  river 
first  flows  through  a  bottom-land  frnmerly  a  lake,  nnd  then,  forcing  for  itself  a 
passage  through  a  narrow  defile  commander  oy  the  spurs  of  Mount  P;massus, 
it  winds  round  the  rook  upon  which  sto  ^  .*i4  ancient  city  of  Orchomenus,  and 
enters  upon  a  vast  plain,  where  "wamps  lUid  lakef  <«re  embedded  amidst  culti- 
vated fields  and  reed-banks,  'i'lirja)  swamps  are  '^;d,  likewise,  by  numerous 
torrents  descending  from  the  Helicon  and  other  mountains  in  it«  vicinity. 
One  of  these  is  the  torrent  of  Livadia,  into  which  th^  ^»  unteous  springs 
of  Memory  and  Oblivion — Mnem<>syne  and  Lethe — discharge  themselves.  In 
summer  a  large  portion  of  the  plain  is  dry,  and  it  yields  a  bountiful  harvest 
of  maiae,  the  stalks  of  which  t:A  sweet  like  sugar-cane.  But  after  the  heavy 
rains  of  autumn  and  winter  the  waters  rise  twenty,  and  even  twenty-five  feet, 
and  the  plain  is  converted  into  a  vast  lake,  ninety-six  square  miles  in  extent.  The 
myth  of  the  deluge  of  Ogyges  almost  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  rising  floods 
occasionally  invaded  every  valley  which  debouches  into  this  basin.  To  tho 
anoienta  the  shall  ^er  part  of  this  lake  was  known  as  Oephissua,  and  its  deep 
eastern  portion  ab  ;jaii,  from  Copae,  a  town  occupying  a  promontory  on  its 
northern  shore,  and  now  called  Topolias. 

The  importiuioe  of  regulating  the  floods  just  referred  to,  and  of  preventing 
the  sudden  overflow  of  the  waters  to  the  destmotioii  of  the  cultivated  fields, 
may  readily  be  imagined.  The  ancient  Greeks  made  an  effort  to  accomplish  this 
task.  To  the  east  of  the  large  Lake  of  Copais  there  is  another  lake  basin,  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  lower,  and  encompassed  by  precipitous  rooks,  incapable 
of  cultivation.  This  basin,  the  Hylice  of  the  Bceotiana,  appears  to  be  made  by 
nature  for  receiving  the  superabundant  waters  of  the  Oopais.  The  remains  of  a 
canul  uiay  still  be  traced  in  the  plain,  which  was  evidently  intended  to  oonvey  into 


1  ' 


» 


i 


t 


'II 


52 


GREECE. 


it  the  floods  of  the  Copais,  but  it  appears  never  to  have  been  completed.  No 
doubt  care  was  taken  to  keep  open  the  various  kataaothras,  or  subterranean 
channels,  through  which  the  waters  of  the  Copaic  lake  discharge  themselves  into 
the  sea.  One  of  these,  on  the  north-western  shore  of  the  lake,  and  close  to 
the  rock  of  Orchomenus,  swallowed  up  the  river  Melas,  and  conveyed  its  waters 
to  the  Gulf  of  Atalanta.  Farther  to  the  east  other  subterranean  channels  flow 
towards  Lakes  Hylice  and  Faralimni,  but  the  most  important  of  these  channels 
are  towards  the  north-east,  in  the  Gulf  of  Kokkino.  In  that  extreme  angle  of 
the  lake,  the  veritable  Copais,  the  waters  of  the  Gephissus  rush  against  the  foot 
of  Mount  Skroponeri,  and  are  swallowed  up  by  the  ground  so  as  to  form  a  sub- 
terranean delta.  To  the  south  there  is  a  cavernous  opening  in  the  rock,  but 
this  is  merely  a  sort  of  tunnel  passing  underneath  a  promontory,  and,  except 


Fig.  14.— Lakb  Copais, 
Stem  the  nenoh  Staff  Map.   So*l«  1 :  80(^000. 


K.  KataToUma. 


IOXOm. 


during  the  rainy  season,  it  may  be  traversed  dry-shod.  Beyond  this,  another 
opening  swallows  up  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  Gephissus, 
which  makes  its  reappearance  in  the  shape  of  bounteous  springs  pouring  their 
waters  into  the  sea.  Two  other  branches  of  the  river  disappear  in  the  rocks 
about  a  mile  farther  north.  They  join  soon  afterwards,  and  flow  northwards 
beneath  the  bottom  of  a  sinuous  valley.  The  old  Greek  engineers  dug  pits  in  this 
valley,  which  enabled  them  to  descend  to  the  subterranean  waters,  and  to  clear  away 
obstructions  interfering  with  their  flow.  Sixteen  of  these  pits  have  been  discovered 
between  the  opening  of  the  katavothra  and  the  place  where  the  waters  reappear. 
Some  of  these  are  still  thirty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  depth  ;  but  most  of  them  have 
become  choked  up  with  stones  and  earth.  These  ancient  engineering  works,  which 
Grates  vainly  endeavoured  to  restore  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  may  possibly  date 


--i'Wri(l^iff!&0^i:^ 


1 


.|i<'''  •''-''-■_  IjiirHiCf''-  ";''"'"■' ■"■"■■■-"  '  1111. »,....- ~ .*««*«( 


nuBAinn 


nrmom 


CONTINENTAL  OHEEOE. 


M 


from  the  mythical  age  of  King  Minyas  of  Orchomenus,*  and  the  successful  drain- 
ing of  these  marshes  may  account  for  the  well-filled  treasury  cl  that  king  spoken 
of  by  Homer.  Thus  the  ingenuity  of  the  Homeric  age  had  succeeded  in  accom- 
plishing  a  work  of  the  engineering  art  which  baffles  our  modern  men  of  science  I 


The  whole  of  Western  Greece,  filled  as  it  is  by  the  mountains  of  Acamania, 
^tolia,  and  Phocis,  is  condemned  by  nature  to  play  a  very  subordinate  part  to 
the  eastern  provinces.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  Greeks  these  provinces  were 
looked  upon  almost  as  a  portion  of  the  world  of  the  barbarians,  and  even  in  our 
own  days  the  ^tolians  are  the  least  cultivated  of  all  the  Greeks.  There  is  no 
commerce  except  at  a  few  privileged  places  close  to  the  sea,  such  as  Missolonghi, 
.^toliko,  Salona,  and  Galaxidi.  The  latter,  which  is  situated  on  a  bay,  into 
which  flows  the  Pleistus,  a  river  at  one  time  consecrated  to  Neptune,  although 
quite  dry  during  the  gpreater  part  of  the  year,  was,  up  to  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, the  busiest  seapor  ton  the  Gulf  of  Oorinth.  As  for  Naupactus,  or  Epakto, 
(called  Lepanto  by  the  Italians),  it  was  important  merely  from  a  strategical  point 
of  view,  on  account  of  its  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Oorinth,  which 
is  sometimes  named  after  it.  Many  naval  engagements  were  fought  to  force  the 
entrance  into  the  g^lf,  defended  by  the  castles  of  Bumelia  and  Morea — ^the  ancient 
Rhium  and  Anti-Rhium.  A  curious  phenomenon  has  been  observed  in  connection 
with  the  channel  which  forms  the  entrance  to  the  Ghilf  of  Corinth.  Nowhere 
more  than  36  fathoms  in  depth,  it  is  subject  to  perpetual  changes  in  its  width, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  alluvial  deposits  by  maritime  currents.  What  one 
current  deposits  is  carried  away  by  the  other.  At  the  epoch  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  this  channel  was  7  stadia,  or  about  1,200  yards,  wide;  at  the  time  of 
Strabo  its  width  was  only  5  stadia ;  whilst  in  our  own  days  it  is  no  less  than 
2,200  yards  from  promontory  to  promontory.  The  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Arta, 
between  the  Turkish  Epiriis  and  Greek  Acamania,  does  not  present  the  same 
phenomena,  and  its  present  width  is  about  equal  to  that  assigned  to  it  by  every 
ancient  author ;  that  is  to  say,  about  1,000  yards. 

The  valleys  and  lake  basins  of  Eastern  Greece,  and  more  especially  its  position 
between  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  the  channel  of  Eubosa,  which 
almost  convert  it  into  a  peninsula,  sufficiently  account  for  the  prosperity  of  that 
country.  With  its  cities  of  Thebes,  Athens,  and  Megara,  it  is  essentially  a 
land  of  historical  reminiscences.  The  coutrast  between  the  two  most  important 
districts  of  this  region — ^Boeotia  and  Attica — is  very  striking.  The  first  of  these 
is  an  inland  basin,  the  waters  of  which  are  collected  into  lakes,  where  mists 
accumulate,  and  a  rich  vegetation  springs  forth  from  a  fat  alluvial  soil.  Attica, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  arid.  A  thin  layer  of  mould  covers  the  terraces  of  its  rocky 
slopes ;  its  valleys  open  out  into  the  sea ;  the  summits  of  its  mountains  rise  into 
an  azure  sky;  and  the  blue  waters  of  the  ^gean  wash  their  base.  Had  the 
Greeks  been  fearful  of  the  sea ;  had  they  confined  themselves,  as  in  the  earliest 

*  Onhomemu,  a  town  on  the  CephiMOB,  the  wpitel  of  Northern  Bfleotia,  deitroyed  h^  the  Thebaas 

871  B.O. 

4 


^;^, 


i.->j— AT.«..-Jm<.«fB>*'-^>ltiMM**liM#Aa*i 


aiaBta 


msifi 


64 


GBEKUB. 


ages,  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  Boeotia,  no  doubt,  would  have  retained  the 
preponderance  which  it  enjoyed  in  the  time  of  the  Minyao  of  wealthy  Orohomenus. 
But  the  progress  of  navigation  and  the  allurements  of  commerce,  which  proved 
irresistible  to  the  Greeks,  were  bound  by  degrees  to  transfer  the  lead  to  the 
men  of  Attica.  The  city  of  Athens,  which  arose  in  the  midst  of  the  largest 
plain  of  this  peninsula,  therefore  occupied  a  position  which  assured  to  it  a  grand 
future. 

The  choice  of  Athens  as  the  modem  capital  of  Greece  has  been  much 
criticized.  Times  have  changped,  no  doubt,  and  the  natural  centres  of  commerce 
have  become  shifted,  in  consequence  of  the  migrations  of  nations.     Corinth,  on 


Fig.  16.— Thb  Aobopolu  or  Athbms. 


the  isthmus  joining  continental  Greece  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  commanding  two 
seas,  undoubtedly  deserved  the  preference.  Its  fiusilities  for  communicating  with 
Oonstantinople  and  the  Greek  maritime  districts  still  under  the  rule  of  the 
Osmanli,  on  the  ouu  hand,  and  with  the  western  world,  from  which  now  proceed 
all  civilising  impulses,  on  the  other,  are  certainly  greater  than  those  of  Athens. 
If  Greece,  instead  of  a  small  centralised  kingdom,  had  become  a  federal  republic, 
which  would  have  been  more  in  accordance  with  her  genius  and  traditions,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  other  towns  of  Ghreece,  more  favourably  situated  than  Athens 
for  establishing  rapid  commimications  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  would  soon  have 
surpassed  that  town  in  population  and  commercial  wealth.  Athens,  however, 
has  grown  upon  its  plain,  and,  by  the  construction  of  a  railway,  it  has  become  even 


CONTINENTAL  OBEECE. 


M 


a  maritime  city,  as  in  ancient  days,  when  its  triple  walls  joined  it  to  the  ports  of 
the  Piraeus  and  Phalerum. 

But  how  great  the  difference  between  the  monuments  of  the  ancient  city  and 
of  the  modem !  The  Parthenon,  though  gutted  by  the  shells  of  the  Venetian 
Morosini,  and  robbed  since  of  its  finest  sculptures,  still  retains  its  pure  and  simple 
beauty,  which  agrees  so  well  with  the  sobriety  of  the  surrounding  landscape — still 
remains  the  finest  architectural  work  of  the  world.  By  the  side  of  this 
majestic  ruin,  on  the  same  plateau  of  the  Acropolis,  where  the  mariner  in  the 
Gulf  of  ^gina  saw  the  gilt  spear-head  of  Athene  Promaohos  glitter  in  the  sun, 
there  rise  other  monuments,  the  Erechtheum  and  the  Propyleea,  hardly  inferior 
to  it,  and  dating  likewise  from  the  great  period  of  art.     Outside  the  city,  on  a 

Fig.  16. — Athiks  and  its  LoNn  Walls. 
AooordiDgtoKtopMrlaiidSchtniaL    Bwla  1 :  114,000. 


SIfilM. 


promontory,  rises  the  temple  of  Theseus,  the  best-preserved  monument  of  Greek 
antiquity.  Elsewhere,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hissus,  a  group  of  columns 
marks  tho  site  of  the  magnificent  temple  of  Olympian  Jupiter,  which  it  took  the 
Athenians  seven  hundred  years  to  build,  and  which  their  degenerate  descendants 
made  use  of  as  a  quarry.  Remarkable  remains  have  been  discovered  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  ancient  city,  and  the  least  of  them  are  of  interest,  for  they 
recall  the  memory  of  illustrious  men.  On  such  a  rook  sat  the  Areopagus  which 
condemned  Socrates ;  from  this  stone  tribune  Demosthenes  addressed  the  multi- 
tude ;  and  here  walked  Plato  with  his  disciples ! 

A  similar  historical  interest  attaches  to  nearly  every  part  of  Attica,  whether 
we  visit  the  city  of  Eleusis,  where  the  mysteries  of  Geres  were  celebrated,  or  the 


9^'W.- ^ '??i^)B-^  '-l*-<> J.WM'"'''**-' 


"lll«iH)','.»i'j.HU 


MMMHMMi 


BC^ 


se 


OBEEOE. 


city  of  Megara,  with  its  double  Acropolis,  or  whether  we  explore  the  field  of 
Marathon  and  the  shores  of  the  island  of  Salamis.  Even  beyond  Attica  the 
memories  of  the  past  attract  the  traveller  to  Platoia,  to  Leuotra,  Ghwronea,  Thebes 
of  QHdipus,  and  Orchomenus  of  Minyas,  though,  in  comparison  with  what  these 
districts  were  in  other  times,  they  are  now  deserts.  In  addition  to  Athens  and 
Thebes,  there  are  now  only  two  cities  in  eastern  continental  Greece  which  are  of 
any  importance.  These  are  Lamia,  in  the  midst  of  the  low  plains  of  the 
Sperchius,  and  Livadia,  in  Boeotia,  at  one  time  celebrated  for  the  cavern  of 
Trophonius,  which  archaeologists  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  identifying.  The 
island  of  ^gina,  which  belongs  to  Attica,  ofiEers  the  same  spectacle  of  decay  and 
depopulation  as  the  mainland.  Anciently  it  supported  more  than  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants ;  at  present  it  hardly  numbers  six  thousand.    But  the  island 


Fig.  17. — Amcibnt  Athbns. 
Aoeotdiag  to  Kiepert  and  SohmidL     Scale  1 :  80^000. 


iMik. 


still  retains  the  picturesque  ruin  of  its  temple  of  Minerva,  and  the  prospect  which 
it  affords  of  the  amphitheatre  of  hills  in  Argolis  and  Attica  is  as  magnificent 


as  ever. 


ni. — ^The  Morea,  or  Peloponnesus. 

Geooraphicallt  the  Peloponnesus  well  deserves  the  name  of  island,  which  was 
bestowed  upon  it  by  the  ancients.  The  low  Isthmus  of  Corinth  completely  severs 
it  from  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Greece.  It  is  a  world  in  itself,  small 
enough  as  far  as  the  mere  space  is  concerned  which  it  occupies  upoa  the  map, 
but  great  on  account  of  the  part  it  has  played  in  the  history  of  humanity. 


mm 


w 


THE  MOBEA,  OB  PELOPONNESUS. 


07 


On  entering  the  Peloponnesus  from  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  we  see  rising  in 
front  of  us  the  mountain  rampart  of  Oneium,  which  defended  the  entrance  of  the 
peninsula,  and  upon  one  of  whose  promontories  was  built  the  nearly  impregnable 
citadel  of  Corinth.  These  mountains  form  part  of  the  general  mountain  system  of 
the  whole  island,  and,  sheltered  by  them,  its  inhabitants  could  live  in  security. 
The  principal  mountain  mass,  whence  all  other  chains  radiate  towards  the 
entrances  of  the  peninsula,  is  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  about 
forty  miles  to  the  west  of  Corinth.  There  Mount  Cyllene  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
or  Zyria,  rises  into  the  air,  its  flanks  covered  with  dark  pines  ;  and  farther  away 
still,  the  Ehelmos,  or  Aroanian  Mountain,  attains  even  a  more  considerable 
height,  its  snows  descending  into  a  valley  on  its  northern  slope,  where  they  give 
rise  to  the  river  Styx,  the  cold  waters  of  which  prove  fatal  to  perjurers,  and  dis- 
appear in  a  narrow  chasm,  one  of  the  entrances  to  Hades.  A  range  of  wooded 
peaks,  to  the  west  of  the  Ehelmos,  connects  that  mountain  with  the  Olonos  (Mount 
Erymanthus),  celebrated  as  the  haunt  of  the  savage  boar  destroyed  by  Hercules. 
All  these  mountains,  from  Corinth  as  far  as  Patras,  form  a  rampart  running 
parallel  with  the  southern  shore  of  the  gulf,  in  the  direction  of  which  they  throw 
o£P  spurs  enclosing  steep  valleys.  In  one  of  these — that  of  Buraikos — we  meet 
with  the  grand  caverns  of  Mega-Spileon,  which  are  used  as  a  monastery,  and 
where  the  most  curious  structures  may  be  seen  built  up  on  every  vantage-ground 
offered  by  the  rocks,  suggesting  a  resemblance  to  the  cells  of  a  vast  nest  of 
hornets. 

The  table-land  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  thus  bounded  towards  the  north  by  an 
elevated  coast  range.  Another  chain  of  the  same  kind  bounds  it  on  the  east. 
It  likewise  starts  from  Mount  Cyllene,  and  extends  southward,  itis  various  portions 
being  known  as  Gaurias,  Malevo  (Mount  Artemisium),  and  Parthenion.  It  is  then 
broken  through  by  a  vast  depression,  but  again  rises  farther  south  as  the  range 
of  Hagios  Petros,  or  Pamon,  to  the  east  of  Sparta.  Getting  lower  by  degrees,  it 
terminates  in  the  promontory  of  Malea,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Cerigo.  It  was 
this  cape,  tradition  ^lls  us,  which  formed  the  last  refuge  of  the  Centaurs ;  that 
is  to  say,  of  the  barbarian  ancestors  of  the  modem  Tsakonituiu.  No  promontory 
was  more  dreaded  by  Greek  navigators  than  this  Cape  Malea,  owing  to  sudden 
gusts  of  wind,  and  an  ancient  proverb  says,  '^When  thou  hast  doubled  the  cape 
forget  the  name  of  thy  native  land." 

The,  mountains  of  Western  Morea  do  not  present  the  regularity  of  the  eastran 
chain.  They  are  out  through  by  rivers,  and  to  the  south  of  the  Aroanian  Moun- 
tains and  the  Erymanthus  they  ramify  into  a  multitude  of  minor  chains,  which 
now  and  then  combine  into  mountain  groups,  and  impart  the  most  varied  uspeot 
to  that  portion  of  the  plateau.  Everywhere  in  the  valleys  we  come  unexpectedly 
upon  landscapes  to  which  an  indescribable  charm  is  imparted  by  a  group  of  trees, 
a  spring,  a  flock  of  sheep,  or  a  shepherd  sitting  upon  a  heap  of  ruins.  We  are  in 
beautiful  Arcadia,  sung  by  the  poets.  Though  in  great  port  deprived  of  its  woods, 
it  is  still  a  beautiful  country ;  but  more  charming  still  are  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
plateau,  which  descend  towards  the  Ionian  Sea.      There  luxuriant  forests  and 


-i 


|'!!!feki;jiJilit,!.i'gJ!!'''''  -  ^iMwm'W.' 


iiiiiiiwiiiuuiLLj.m...^, ..j-jj^  .  n'juwuwm'.'-ai.maiyn'u 


■■iiiMMnniiniiii  a 


06 


OBEEOB. 


sparkling  rivuleto  add  an  element  of  beauty  to  blue  waves,  distant  islands,  and  a 
transparent  sky,  which  is  wanting  in  nearly  every  other  part  of  maritime  Greece. 
The  table-land  of  Arcadia  is  commanded  on  the  west  by  pine-ola  I  Msenalua» 
and  bounded  on  the  south  by  several  mountain  groups  which  fp.\e  birth  to 
separate  mountain  chains.  One  of  these  mountain  masses — the  E)tylion,  or 
Paleeooastro — thus  gives  rise  to  the  mountains  of  Messenia,  amongst  which  rises  the 
famous  Ithome,  and  to  those  of  ^galseus,  which  spread  over  the  peninsula  to  the 
west  of  the  Gulf  of  Coron,  and  reappear  in  the  sea  as  the  rooky  islets  of  Sapiensa, 

Hg.  18. — ^MovNT  TATomn^ 


Cabrera,  and  Yenetikon.  Another  mountain  mass,  the  LycsBus,  or  Diaforti — the 
Arcadian  Olympus,  which  the  Pelasgians  claim  for  their  cradle — and  which  rises 
almost  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus,  is  continued  westward  of  Laconia  by  an 
extended  mountain  chain,  the  most  elevated  and  most  characteristic  of  all  the 
Horea.  The  highest  crest  of  these  mountains  is  the  famous  Taygetus,  known  also 
as  Pentedactylos  (five  thumbs),  because  of  the  five  peaks  which  surmount  it ;  or  as 
St  Elias,  in  honour,  no  doubt,  of  Helios,  the  Dorian  sun-god.  A  portion  of  the 
lower  slopes  of  this  mountain  is  clothed  with  forests  of  chestnuts  ;*ui  walnuts^ 


\i  ] 


i'|J 


THE  MOBEA,  OB  PELOPONNESUS.  •• 

interspersed  with  cypresses  and  oaks ;  but  its  orest  is  bare,  and  snow  remains 
upon  it  during  three-fourths  of  the  year.  The  snows  of  Taygetus  direct  the 
distant  mariner  to  the  shores  of  Greece.  On  approaching  the  coast,  he  sees  rising 
above  the  blue  wateri'  the  spurs  and  outlying  ridges  of  the  Eakavuni,  or  "  bad 
mountain."  Soon  afUTwards  he  comes  in  sight  of  the  promontory  of  Tainaron, 
with  its  two  capes  of  Matapan  and  Qrasso — immense  blocks  of  white  marble  more 
than  six  hundred  feet  in  height,  upon  which  the  quails  settle  in  millions  after  their 
fatiguing  journey  across  the  sea.  Into  the  caverns  at  its  foot  the  waters  rush 
with  a  dull  noise  which  the  ancients  mistook  for  the  barking  of  Gerberua. 
Cape  Matapan,  like  Malea,  is  dreaded  amongst  mariners  as  a  great  "  destroyer 
of  men." 

The  three  southern  extremities  of  the  Peloponnesus  are  thus  occupied  by  high 
mountains  and  rooky  declivities.  The  peninsula  of  Argolis,  in  the  east,  is  likewise 
traversed  by  mountain  ranges,  which  start  from  Mount  Oyllene,  similarly  to  the 
Oaurias  and  the  mountains  of  Arcadia.  The  whole  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  thus 
a  country  of  table*lands  and  mountain  ranges.  If  we  except  the  plains  of  Elis, 
which  have  been  formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  carried  down  by  the  rivers  of 
ArOadia,  and  the  lake  basins  of  the  interior,  which  have  been  filled  up  in  the 
course  of  ag^s,  we  meet  with  nothing  but  mountains.*  The  principal  mountain 
masses — the  Oyllene,  the  Taygetus,  and  Pamon — are  composed  of  crystalline 
schists  and  metamorphic  marbles,  as  in  continental  Greece.  Strata  of  the  Jurastio 
age  and  beds  of  cretaceous  limestone  are  here  and  there  met  with  at  the  foot 
of  these  Aiore  ancient  rooks.  Near  the  coast,  in  Argolis,  and  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Taygetus,  irruptions  of  serpentines  and  porphyries  have  taken  place,  whilst 
on  the  north*eastem  coast  of  Argolis,  and  especially  on  the  unall  peninsula  of 
Methone,  there  exist  recent  volcanoes — amongst  others,  the  Kaimenipetra,  which 
M.  Fouqud  identifies  with  the  fire-vomiting  mouths  of  Strabo,  and  which  had  its 
last  irruption  twenty-one  centuries  ago.  These  volcanoes  ^re,  no  doubt,  the  vents 
of  a  submarine  area  of  disturbance  which  extends  through  Milos,  Santorin,  and 
Nisyros,  to  the  south  of  the  ^gean  Sea. 

The  sulphur  springs  which  abound  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Peloponnesas 
are,  perhaps,  likewise  evidences  of  a  reaction  of  the  interior  of  the  earth. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  several  geologists  th&t  the  coasts  of  Western  Greece  are 
being  insensibly  upheaved.  In  many  places,  and  particularly  at  Oorinth,  we  meet 
with  ancient  caverns  and  sea  beaches  at  an  elevation  of  several  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  It  is  this  upheaval,  and  not  merely  the  alluvial  deposits  brought  down  by 
rivers,  which  explains  the  encroachment  of  the  land  upon  the  sea  at  the  niouth  of  the 
Aohelous  and  on  the  coast  of  Elis,  where  four  rooky  islets  have  been  joined  to  the 
land.    Elsewhere  a  subsidence  of  the  land  has  been  noticed,  as  in  the  Gulf  of 


*  Heigbto  of  the  principal  monuUdiM  in  tlie  Pabponneaiu  (in  English  feet)  :— 


OyUene  (Zyria)         ....  8,940 

Aiwniur  Moontein  (Khefanoi) .       .  7,726 

Xryaumthsa  (Olonot)        .       .       .  7,297 

Artwaiw'um  (MatoTo)        .       .       .  6fili 

Plunon  (HagiM  PetiM)    .       .       .  6,365 


LyctBoa  (Diafinti} 
Itiiome 
Tmygvtui  . 
Araohnanu  (Argolia) 
Masa  height  of  peninwila 


4,660 
2,680 
7,904 
3,935 
3,000 


m't/mcuuMiiMmm 


LI  i!ii«BRui«ii  mm 


mmi»aaMttam 


60 


GBEEOE. 


Marathonisi  and  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Oreeoe,  where  the  ancient  peninsula  of 
Elaphonisi  has  been  converted  into  an  island.  But  even  there  the  fluvial  deposits 
have  encroached  upon  the  sea.  The  city  of  Oalamata  is  twice  as  distant  from  the 
seashore  now  as  in  the  dayn  of  Strabo,  and  the  traces  of  the  ancient  haven  of 
Helos,  on  the  coast  of  Laconia,  are  now  far  inland. 

The  limestone  rocks  of  the  interior  of  the  Peloponnesus  abound  as  much  in 
chasms,  which  swallow  up  the  rivers,  as  do  Boootia  and  the  western  portion  of  the 
whole  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Some  of  these  katavothras  are  mere  sieves,  hidden 
beneath  herbage  and  pebbles,  but  others  are  wide  chasms  and  caverns,  through  which 
the  course  of  the  undergnmnd  waters  may  be  readily  traced.  In  winter  wild  birds 
poHt  themselves  at  the  entrances  of  these  caverns,  in  expectation  of  the  prey  which 
the  river  is  certain  to  carry  towards  them;  in  summer,  after  the  waters  have 
retired,  foxes  and  jaokabi  again  take  possession  of  their  aooustomed  dens.     The 


Fig.  10.— Lakih  Phinba  and  Stymphalvb. 
From  the  FKneh  BUfl  Hap.    6ml«  1 :  600,000. 


10  UUn. 


water  swallowed  up  by  these  chasms  on  the  plateau  reappears  on  the  other  side  of 
the  mountains  in  the  shape  of  springs,  or  kephalaria  {kephalovrysis).  The  water 
of  these  springs  has  been  purified  by  its  passage  through  the  earth,  and  its 
temperature  is  that  of  the  soil.  It  bursts  forth  sometimes  from  a  crevice  in  the 
rocks,  sometimes  in  an  alluvial  plain,  and  sometimes  even  from  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  The  subterranean  geography  of  Greece  is  not  yet  sufficiently  known  to 
enable  us  to  trace  each  of  these  kephalaria  to  the  katavothras  which  feed  them. 

The  ancients  were  most  careful  in  keeping  open  these  natural  funnels,  for,  by 
facilitating  the  passage  of  the  water,  they  prevented  the  formation  of  swamps. 
These  precautions,  however,  were  neglected  during  the  centuries  of  barbarism 
which  overcame  Greece,  and  the  waters  were  permitted  to  accumulate  in  many  places 
at  the  expense  of  the  salubrity  of  the  country.  The  plain  of  Pheneus,  or  Phonia,  a 
vast  chasm  between  the  Aroanian  Mountains  and  the  Cyllene,  has  thus  repeatedly 
been  converted  into  a  lake.    In  the  middle  of  last  century  the  whole  of  this  basin 


"T 


THE  MOaSA,  OB  PELOI>ONN£8UH.  || 

wan  filled  with  water  to  m  depth  of  more  than  300  feet.  In  1828,  when  this  sheet  of 
water  had  already  become  considerably  reduced,  it  was  still  6  miles  long  and  160  feet 
in  depth.  At  length,  a  few  years  afterwards,  the  subterranean  sluices  opened, 
the  waters  disappeared,  and  there  remained  only  two  small  marshes  near  the  places 
of  exit.  But  in  1850  the  lake  was  again  200  feet  in  depth.  Hercules,  we  are  told, 
constructed  a  canal  to  drain  this  valley  and  to  cleanse  its  subterranean  outlets,  but 
the  inhabitants  content  themselves  now  with  placing  a  grating  above  the  "  sink- 
holes," to  prevent  the  admission  of  trunks  of  trees  and  of  other  large  objects 
carried  along  by  the  floods. 

To  the  east  of  the  valley  of  Phraeos,  and  on  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Oyllene, 
there  is  another  lake  basin,  celebrated  in  antiquity  because  of  the  man-eating  birds 
which  infested  it,  until  they  were  exterminated  by  Hercules.  This  is  the 
Stymphalus,  alternately  lake  and  cultivated  land.  During  winter  the  waters 
cover  about  one-third  of  the  basin ;  but  it  happens  occasionally,  after  heavy  rains, 
that  the  lake  resumes  its  ancient  dimensions.  There  is  only  one  katavothra  through 
which  the  waters  can  escape,  and  this,  instead,  of  being  near  the  shore,  as  usual,  is 
at  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  It  swallows  up  not  only  the  water  of  the  lake,  but  like- 
wise the  vegetable  remains  carried  into  it,  and  the  mud  formed  at  its  bottom ;  and 
this  detritus  is  conveyed  through  it  to  some  subterranean  cavity,  where  it  putrefies 
slowly,  as  may  be  judged  f^m  the  fetid  exhalations  proceeding  f^om  the  kata- 
vothra. The  water,  however,  is  purified,  and  when  it  reappears  on  the  surface, 
dose  to  the  seashore,  it  is  as  clear  as  orystaL 

There  are  many  other  lake  basins  of  the  some  kind  between  the  mountains'  of 
Arcadia  and  the  chain  of  the  Gaurias.  They  all  have  their  swamps  or  temporary 
lakes,  but  the  katavothras,  in  every  instance,  are  sufficiently  numerous  to  prevent 
an  inundation  of  the  entire  valley.  The  moat  important  of  these  lake  basins  is 
formed  by  the  &mou8  plain  of  Montinea,  upon  which  many  a  battle  was  fought. 
From  an  hydrologioal  point  of  view  this  is  one  of  the  most  curious  places  in  the 
world ;  for  the  waters  which  collect  there  ore  discharged  into  two  opposite  seas — 
the  Gulf  of  Nauplia  on  the  east,  and  in  the  direction  of  the  Alpheus  and  the  Ionian 
Sea  towards  the  west.  There  may  exist  even  some  imbterranean  rivulet  which 
discharges  itself,  towards  the  south,  into  the  Eurotas  and  the  Gulf  of  Laconia. 

The  disappearance  of  the  waters  underground  has  condemned  to  sterility  several 
parts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  which  a  little  water  would  convert  into  the  most  fertile 
regions  of  the  globe.  The  surface  waters  quickly  suck  up  and  form  subterranean 
rivers,  hidden  from  sights  which  only  see  the  light  again,  in  most  instances,  near  the 
seashore,  when  it  is  impossible  to  utilise  them.  The  plain  of  Argos,  though  sur- 
rounded by  a  majestic  amphitheatre  of  well-watered  hills,  is  more  sterile  and  arid, 
even  than  are  Megara  and  Attica.  Its  soil  is  always  dry,  and  soaks  up  water  like 
a  sieve,  which  may  have  given  rise  to  ihe  fable  of  the  Danaids.  But  to  the  south 
of  that  plain,  where  there  is  but  a  narrow  cultivable  strip  of  land  between  the 
mountains  and  the  seashore,  a  great  river  bursts  lorth  from  the  rooks.  This  is  the 
Erasinus,  or  the  *'  amiable,"  tiius  called  on  account  of  the  purity  of  its  water. 
Other  springs  burst  forth  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  plain,  close  to  the  defile 
6 


:i 


,.-'v  .«'.^MeY«(,<LiUriAUM 


m  OBBEOB. 

of  Lerna,  which,  like  that  of  the  Eraiinua,  are  luppoeed  lo  be  fed  from  Lake  fitym- 
phaluH.  CloM  to  them  is  «  chasm  f^Ho?  .  ^L  water,  wtidto  be  unfathomable.  It 
abounds  in  tortoiaet,  and  venomoua  «c;'  .'^ti  inhabit  the  adjoining  manh.  Theae 
are  the  kephalaria,  or  "  headi,"  of  tl<  .c  at  hydru  of  Lorna,  which  Herculea 
found  it  ao  difficult  to  seize  hold  of.  Still  farther  Houth  there  is  another  spring 
which  rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  more  than  three  hundred  yards  firom  Um 


Ftf.  20.— Tmb  PiATiAc  or  MAimwBA. 
ftaa  the  rrMMh  SUf  Ifap-    >wl«  • :  MKKOOflk 


10 


shore.  This  spring — the  Doinse  of  the  ancients,  and  Anavnla  of  modem  Greek 
mariners — is,  in  reality,  but  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  liyers  swallowed  up  by  the 
katavothras  of  Mantinea.  When  the  sea  is  still  it  throws  up  a  jet  rising  to  a 
height  of  fifty  feet. 

Analogous  phenomena  may  be  witnessed  in  the  two  southern  Talleys  of  the 
peninsula,  those  of  Sparta  and  Massenia.  The  In,  or  Eurotas,  is,  in  reality,  but  a  large 
rivulet,  which  discharges  itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Marathcmisi,  at  the  end  of  a  gorgOi 


thniugh 

some  ao 

Bufficien 

river  "), 

from  thi 

consider) 

open,     d 

the  only 

and  it  c 

advantag 

fed  by  \ 


where 

and  the! 
ancients  J 

The 
likewise! 
Ruphia,! 
larger 
brated 
trana 
fed  by 
aportio 
The 


j^!^m^y'M;^im^ 


'"'"ppps?^ 


"tmnmi'*^- 


THE  MOREA,  OB  PELOPONNESUS.  M 

thivugh  whioh  the  wsten  of  the  liake  of  Spertn  forced  theiDMlvee  a  paiaage  during 
tome  ancient  deluge ;  but  it  ii  only  on  rare  occaaioni  that  it*  volume  of  water  ia 
■ufficient  to  remore  the  bar  which  obetruota  ii«  mouth.  The  yaaili>rotamo  ("  royal 
river  "),  on  the  other  hand,  whioh  burata  forth  at  the  foot  of  a  rook  a  abort  diatance 
from  the  Eurotaa,  though  ita  whole  courae  doee  not  exceed  five  milea,  diaohargea  a 
conaiderable  volume  of  water  throughout  the  year,  and  ita  mouth  ii  at  all  timea 
open.  Aa  to  the  river  of  Meaaenia,  the  ancient  Pamiaua,  now  called  Piniatia,  it  ia 
the  only  river  of  Greece,  beaidea  the  Alpheua,  whioh  forma  a  harbour  at  ita  mouth, 
and  it  can  be  aaoended  by  email  veaaela  for  a  diatance  of  eight  milea ;  but  tbia 
advantage  it  owea  ezcluaively  to  the  powerful  apringi  of  Hagioa  Floroa,  which  are 
fed  by  the  mountains  on  the  east.    These  springs,  which  form  a  lurge  swamp 

Fif.  21.— BipVBCATioH  or  thb  OAnvMt. 
ftom  th«  rNMh  Star  Map.    8«d*  1 1  WtfiO0> 


10 


where  they  rise  to  the  sorfiMse,  are  the  real  river,  if  volume  of  water  is  to  be  decisive, 
and  the  country  watered  and  fertilised  by  them  was  called  the  "  Happy  "  by  the 
ancients,  on  account  of  its  fertility. 

The  western  regions  of  the  Peloponnesus  receive  more  rain,  and  they  are 
likewise  in  the  possession  of  the  most  considerable  river,  the  Alpheus,  now  called 
Ruphia,  firom  one  of  its  tributaries.  The  latter,  the  ancient  Lodon,  conveys  a 
larger  volame  of  water  towards  the  sea  than  the  Alpheus.  It  was  as  cele- 
brated amongst  the  Greeks  as  was  the  Peneus  of  Theasaly,  on  account  of  the 
iransparenoy  of  its  waters,  and  the  smiling  scenery  along  its  banks.  It  is  partly 
fed  by  the  snows  of  Mount  Erymanthus,  and,  like  most  rivers  of  the  Morea,  derives 
a  portion  of  its  waters  from  subterranean  tributaries  rising  on  the  central  plateau. 
The  Ladon  thus  receives  the  waters  of  Lake  Fhenea,  whilst  the  Alpheus  proper 


:i 


iH^ 


64 


GREECE. 


is  fed  in  ?ta  upper  course  from  katavothras  on  the  shores  of  the  ancient  lakes 
of  OrchomenuB  nnd  Matinea.  Having  traversed  the  basin  of  Megalopolis,  anciently 
a  lake,  it  passes  vb^nugh  a  series  of  picturesque  gorges,  and  reaches  its  lower 
valley.  A  charming  tradition,  illustrative  of  the  ties  of  amity  which  existed 
between  Elis  and  Syracuse,  makes  this  river  plunge  beneath  the  sea  and  reappear 
in  Sicily,  close  to  the  fountain  of  his  beloved  Arethusa.  The  ancient  Greeks, 
who  witnessed  the  disappearance  of  so  many  rivers,  would  hardly  have  looked 
upon  this  submarine  course  of  the  Alpheus  as  a  thing  to  wonder  at. 

The  Alpheus  and  all  other  rivers  of  Elis  carry  down  towards  the  sea  immense 
masses  of  detritus,  which  they  spread  over  the  plains  extending  from  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  to  the  seashore.  The  ruins  of  Olympia  disappeared  in  this 
manner  beneath  alluvial  deposits.  They  have  all  frequently  changed  their  beds, 
and  not  one  amongst  them  has  done  so  more  frequently  than  the  Peneus,  or  river  of 
Qastuni.  Anciently  it  discharged  its  waters  to  the  north  of  the  rocky  promontory 
of  Chelonatas,  whilst  in  the  present  day  it  turns  abruptly  to  the  south,  and  enters 
the  sea  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  from  its  ancient  mouth.  Works  of  irrigation 
may  partly  account  for  this  change,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  nature  unaided 
has  by  degrees  much  modified  the  aspect  of  this  portion  of  Greece.  Iskinds 
originally  far  in  the  sea  have  been  joined  to  the  land ;  numerous  open  bays  have 
gradually  been  cut  o£f  from  the  sea  by  natural  embankments,  and  transformed 
into  swamps  or  lagoons.  One  of  the  latter  extends  for  several  leagues  to  the 
south  of  the  Alpheus,  and  is  divided  from  the  sea  by  a  fine  forest  of  pines. 
These  majestic  forests,  in  which  the  Triphylians  paid  honour  to  their  dead,  the 
surrounding  hills  dotted  over  with  clumps  of  trees,  and  Mount  Lycseus,  from 
whose  flanks  are  precipitated  the  cascades  dedicated  to  Neda,  the  nurse  of  Jupiter, 
render  this  the  most  attractive  district  of  all  the  Morea  to  a  lover  of  nature. 

The  Peloponnesus  presents  us  with  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  nature  ^of  the  country  upon  the  historical  development 
of  its  inhabitants.  Held  to  Greece  by  a  mere  thread,  and  defended  at  its  entrance 
by  a  double  bulwark  of  mountains,  this  "  isle  of  Pelops "  naturally  became  the 
seat  of  independent  tribes  at  a  time  when  armies  still  recoiled  from  natural 
obstacles.  The  isthmus  was  open  as  a  commercial  high-road,  but  it  was  dosed 
against  invaders. 

The  relief  of  the  peninsula  satisfactorily  explains  the  distribution  of  the 
tribes  inhabiting  it,  and  the  part  they  played  in  history.  The  whole  of  the  interior 
basin,  which  has  no  visible  outlets  towards  the  sea,  naturally  became  the  home 
of  a.  tribe  who,  like  the  Arcadians,  held  no  intercourse  with  their  neighbours,  and 
hardly  any  amongst  themselves.  Oorinth,  Sicyon,  and  Achaia  occupied  the  sea- 
shore on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  inountains,  but  were  separated  by  high  trans- 
versal chains.  The  inhabitants  of  these  isolated  valleys  long  remained  strangers 
to  each  other,  and  when  at  length  they  combined  to  resist  the  invader,  it  was 
too  late.  Elis,  in  the  west,  with  its  wide  valleys  and  its  insalubrious  plains 
extending  along  a  coast  having  no  havens,  naturally  played  but  a  secondary  part 


in  the 
to  their 
had  the 
by  convi 
of  Euro; 
days'  fei 
the  mou 
the  othe: 
Hence  tl 
in  the  1 
Greece, 
establish 
every  at 
establish* 
difficulty 
At  a  lati 
plains  of 
protected 
of  the  Sp 
At  lengtTi 
of  Sparta 
Greece.   ! 
to  Corint 
made  by 
The 
Attica, 
the  Pelo] 
where  th 
Attica,  t 
commerc 
dependei 
of  the  p 
which  01 
for  an 
sea  by 
issue,  pi 
the  soilJ 
Eurotasl 
distinct] 
by  whoij 

In 
on  the! 
in  the 
Lacoi 


'w^^wmM:^mwm^^mM 


THE  MOEEA,  OB  PELOPONNESUS. 


06 


in  tlie  history  of  the  peninsula.  Its  inhabitants,  exposed  to  invasions,  owing 
to  their  country  being  without  natural  defences,  would  soon  have  been  enslaved, 
had  they  not  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  all  the  rest  of  Oreece 
by  converting  their  plain  of  Olympia  into  a  place  of  meeting,  where  the  Hellenes 
of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  from  the  continent  and  from  the  islands,  met  for  a  few 
days'  festival  to  forget  their  rivalries  and  animosities.  The  basin  of  Argos  and 
the  mountain  peninsula  of  Argolis,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Peloponnesus,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  districts  having  natural  boundaries,  and  are  easily  defended. 
Hence  the  Argolians  were  able  to  maintain  their  autonomy  for  centuries,  and  even 
in  the  Homeric  age  they  exercised  a  sort  of  hegemony  over  the  remainder  of 
Oreece.  The  Spartans  were  their  successors.  The  country  in  which  they 
established  themselves  possessed  the  double  advantage  of  being  secure  against 
every  attack,  and  of  furnishing  all  they  stood  in  need  of.  Having  firmly 
established  themselves  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  they  foiind  no 
di£Sculty  in  extending  their  power  to  the  seashore,  and  to  the  unfortunate  Helos. 
At  a  later  date  they  crossed  the  heights  of  the  Taygetus,  and  descended  into  the 
plains  of  Messenia.  That  portion  of  Greece  likewise  formed  9  natural  basin, 
protected  by  elevated  mountain  ramparts ;  and  the  Messenians,  who  were  kinsmen 
of  the  Spartans  and  their  equals  in  bravery,  were  thus  able  to  resist  for  a  century. 
At  length  they  fell,  and  all  the  Southern  Peloponnesus  acknowledged  the  supremacy 
of  Sparta,  which  was  now  in  a  position  to  assert  its  authority  over  the  whole  of 
Oreece.  Then  it  was  that  the  mountain-girt  plateau  on  the  road  from  LacedsBmonia 
to  Corinth,  upon  which  stood  the  cities  of  Tegea  and  Mantinea,  and  which  was 
made  by  nature  for  a  field  of  Mars,  became  the  scene  of  strife. 

The  Peloponnesus,  with  its  sinuous  shores,  forms  a  remarkable  contrast  to 
Attica.  Its  characteristios  are  essentially  those  of  a  continent,  and  anciently 
the  Peloponnesians  were  mountaineers  rather  than  mariners.  Except  in  Corinth, 
where  the  two  seas  nearly  join,  and  a  few  towns  of  Argolis,  which  is  another 
Attica,  there  were  no  inducements  for  the  inhabitants  to  engage  in  maritime 
commerce ;  and  in  their  mountain  valleys  and  upland  plains  thay  were  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  husbandry,  Arcadia,  in  the  centre 
of  the  peninsula,  was  inhabited  only  by  herdsmen  and  labourers ;  and  its  name, 
which  originally  meant  "  country  of  bears,"  has  become  the  general  designation 
for  an  eminently  pastoral  oountry.  The  Laconians  also,  separated  from  the 
sea  by  rooky  mountains  which  hem  in  the  vaUey  of  the  Eurotas  at  its  point  of 
issue,  preserved  for  a  long  time  the  customs  of  warriors  and  of  cultivators  of 
the  soil,  and  took  to  the  sea  only  with  reluctance.  "When  the  Spartans  placed 
Eurotas  and  Taygetus  at  the  head  of  their  heroes,"  says  Edgar  Quinet,  "they 
distinctly  connected  the  features  of  the  valley  with  the  destinies  of  the  people 
by  whom  it  was  occupied." 

In  the  very  earliest  ages  the  Phoenicians  already  occupied  important  factories 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  They  had  established  themselves  at  Nauplia, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Argos ;  and  at  Cranse,  the  modem  Marathonisi  or  Gythion,  in 
Laconia,  they  purchased  the  shells  which  they  required  to  dye  their  purple 


66 


OBEEOE. 


cloths.  The  Greelrs  themselves  were  in  possession  of  a  few  busj  ports,  amongst 
which  was  "  sandy  P7I0S,"  the  capital  of  Nestor,  whose  position  is  now  held  by 
Nayarino,  on  the  other  side  of  the  gulf.  At  a  subsequent  date,  when  Greece  had 
become  the  centre  of  Mediterranean  commerce,  Corinth,  so  favourably  situated 
between  the  two  seas,  rose  into  importance,  not  because  of  its  political  influence, 
its  cultivation  of  the  arts,  or  love  of  liberty,  but  through  the  number  and  wealth 
of  its  inhabitants.  It  is  said  that  it  had  a  population  of  three  hundred  thousand 
souls  within  its  walls.  Even  after  it  had  been  razed  by  the  Romans  it  again 
recovered  its  ancient  pre-eminence.  But  the  exposed  position  of  the  town  has 
caused  it  to  be  ravaged  so  many  times  that  all  commerce  has  fled  from  it.  In  1858, 
when  an  earthquake  destroyed  Corinth,  that  once  famous  city  had  dwindled  down 
into  a  poor  village.  The  city  has  been  rebuilt  about  five  miles  from  its  ancient  site, 
on  the  shore  of  the  gulf  named  after  it,  but  we  doubt  whether  it  will  ever  resume 
its  ancient  importance  unless  a  canal  be  dug  to  connect  the  two  seas.  The  high- 
roads from  Marseilles  and  Trieste  to  Smyrna  and  Constantinople  would  then  lead 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  this  canal  might  attract  an  amount  of  shipping 
equal  to  that  which  frequents  other  ocean  channels  or  canals  similarly  situated. 
But  for  the  present  the  isthmus  is  almost  deserted,  and  only  the  passengers  who  are 
conveyed  by  Greek  steamers  to  the  small  ports  on  its  opposite  shores  cross  it. 
The  ancients,  who  had  failed  in  the  constructjj^n  of  a  canal,  and  who  made  no 
further  efibrt  after  the  time  of  Nero,  because  they  imagined  one  of  the  two  seas 
to  be  at  a  higher  level  than  the  other,  had  provided,  at  all  events,  a  kind  of 
tramway,  by  means  of  which  their  small  vessels  could  be  conveyed  from  the  Gulf 
of  Corinth  to  the  .^gean  Sea.* 

After  the  Crusades,  when  the  powerful  Republic  of  Yenice  had  gained  a 
footing  upon  the  coasts  of  Morea,  flourishing  commercial  colonies  arose  along 
them,  in  Arcadia,  on  the  island  of  Prodano  (Prote),  at  Navarino,  Modon,  Coron, 
Calamata,  Malvoisie,  and  Nauplia  in  Argolis.  At  the  call  of  these  Venetian 
merchants  the  Peloponnesus  again  became  a  seat  of  trade,  and  resumed,  to  some 
extent,  that  part  in  maritime  enterprise  which  it  had  enjoyed  in  the  time 
of  the  Phoenicians.  But  the  advent  of  the  Turk,  the  impoverishment  of  the  soil, 
and  the  civil  wars  which  resulted  therefrom,  again  forced  the  inhabitants  to  break 
off  all  intercom's  with  the  outer  world,  av.A  to  shut  themselves  up  in  their  island 
as  in  a  prison  Tripolis,  or  Tripolitza,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  peninsula,  and 
called  thus,  it  is  said,  becnuse  it  is  the  representative  of  three  ancient  cities — 
Mantiuea,  Tegea,  and  Pallantium — then  became  the  most  populous  place.  Since 
the  Greeks  have  regained  their  independence  life  again  fluctuates  towards  the  sea- 
shore as  by  a  sort  of  natural  sequence.  Patras,  close  to  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of 
Corinth,  and  near  the  most  fertile  and  best-cultivated  plains  on  the  eastern  shore, 
is  by  far  the  most  important  city  at  present,  and,  in  anticipation  of  its  future 
extension,  the  streets  of  a  new  town  have  been  laid  out,  in  the  firm  belief  that  it 
will  some  day  rival  Smyrna  and  Trieste  in  extent. 

*  The  iathmtw  is  6,496  yards  wide,  and  riiei  to  a  height  of  260  feet  where  it  is  narrowest,  iti  nman 
height  being  180  feet 


frequenj 

Turkisl 

1828. 

fertile 

always 

is  hard 

which 

to  exi 

durinf 


"I  ."li'iwty<"llf!W'..'i' 


i|P'^PFfge-!«*SS*iSia|f»Wff^jirf«ii 


•«pa 


THE  MOBEA,  OB  PELOPONNESUS. 


67 


The  otber  towns  of  the  peninsula,  even  those  which  exhibited  the  greatest 
activity  during  the  dominion  of  the  Venetians,  are  but  of  very  secondary 
importance,  if  we  compare  them  with  this  emporium  of  the  Peloponnesus,  ^(jium, 
or  Yostitza,  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  is  a  poor  port,  less  celebrated  on  account 
of  its  commerce  than  in  consequence  of  a  magnificent  plane-tree,  more  than 
fifty  feet  in  girth,  the  hollow  trunk  of  which  was  formerly  used  as  a  prison. 
Fyrgos,  close  to  Alphea,  has  no  port  at  all.  The  fine  roadstead  of  Kavarino, 
defended  against  winds  and  wavss  by  the  rocky  islet  of  Sphacteria,  is  but  little 


Fig.  22.— Tu  Vaxxbt  op  thx  Eubotas. 
Vtcm  the  Prmoh  Staff  Ifap.    S«de  1 ;  870.00C. 


1       rfli.Tlrffc 

«*l». 

-       -STC 1 

■  f 

z  ■ 

''  ■."  I, i\. 

% 

■Bl^'^ 

sj|»  if 

fmS^- 

^'^t-.llml^i. 

hi-- 

■k.      V      \.'' 

mm 

1  -1-                                                 -«-                                                -H.                                 I 

10 


frequented,  and  the  merchantmen  riding  at  anchor  there  never  outnumber  the 
Turkish  men-of-war  at  tlie  bottom,  where  they  have  lain  since  the  battle  fought  in 
1828.  Modon  and  Coron  have  likewise  fallen  off.  Calamata,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
fertile  valleys  of  Messenia,  has  an  open  roadstead  only,  and  vessels  cannot 
always  ride  in  safety  upon  it.  The  celebrated  Malvoisie,  now  called  Monemvasia, 
is  hardly  more  than  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  the  vineyards  in  its  neighbourhood, 
which  furnished  the  exquisite  wii.?  named  after  the  town,  have  long  ceased 
to  exist.  Nauplia,  which  was  the  capital  of  the  modem  kingdom  of  Greece 
during  the  first  few  yean  of  its  existence,  possesses  the  advantage  of  a  well- 


OBEEOE. 


sheltered  port ;  but  its  walls,  its  bastions,  and  its  forts  give  it  the  character  of  a 
military  town  rather  than  of  a  commercial  one. 

The  towns  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  whatever  glories  may  attach  to  them, 
are  hardly  more  now  than  large  villages.  The  most  celebrated  of  all,  Sparta,  thanks 
to  the  fertility  of  its  environs,  promises  to  become  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
cities  of  the  interior  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Sparta — that  is,  the  "  scattered  city," 
.  — was  named  thus  because  its  houses  were  scattered  over  the  plain,  defended  only 
by  the  valour  of  their  inhabitants,  and  not  by  walls.  In  the  Middle  Ag^s  Sparta 
was  supplanted  by  the  neighbouring  Mistra,  whose  decayed  Gothic  buildings  and 
castles  occupy  a  steep  hill  on  the  western  side  of  the  Eorotas ;  but  it  has  now  reco- 
vered its  supremacy  amongst  the  towns  of  Lusonia.  Argos,  which  is  more  ancient 
even  than  the  city  of  Lacedremon,  has  likewise  risen  anew  from  its  ruins ;  for  the 
plain  in  which  it  lies,  though  occasionally  dried  up,  is  of  great  natural  fertility. 

Strangers,  however,  who  explore  the  countries  of  the  Peloponnesus,  do  not  go 
in  search  of  these  newly  risen  cities,  where  a  few  stones  only  remind  them  of 
the  glories  of  the  past,  but  are  attracted  by  the  ancient  monuments  of  art. 
In  that  respect  Argolis  is  one  of  the  richest  provinces  of  Greece.    Near  to  Argos 
the  seats  of  an  amphitheatre  are  cut  into  the  steep  flanks  of  the  hill  of  Larissa. 
Between  Argos  and  Nauplia  a  small  rock  rises  in  the  middle  of  the  plain,  which 
is  surmounted  by  the  ancient  Acropolis  of  Tirynthus,  the  Cyclopean  walls  of  which 
are  more  than  fifty  feet  in  thickness.    A  few  miles  to  the  north  of  Argos  are  the 
ruins  of  Mycenee,  the  city  of  Agamemnon,  where  the  celebrated  "  Gfate  of  Lions," 
coarsely  sculptured  when  Greek  art  first  dawned,  and  the  vast  vaults  known  as 
the  Treasury  of  the  Atrides,  mainly  attract  the  attention  of  visitors.     These 
ifaults  are  amongst  the  oldest  and  best-preserved  antiquities  of  Greece.    They 
exhibit  most  solid  workmanship,  and  one  of  the  stones,  which  does  duty  as  a  lintel 
over  the  entrance-gate,  weigl  ->  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  tons.    At 
Epidaurus,  in  Argolis,  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  ^gina,  and  close  to  the  most 
famous  temple  of  -J.  cul&pius,  we  still  meet  with  a  theatre  which  has  suffered 
less  from  time  thau  auy  other  throughout  Greece.     Shrubs,  interspersed  with 
small    trees,  surround  it;    but  we  can  still  trace  its  fifty-four  rows  of  white 
marble  seats,  capable  of  affording  accommodation  to  twelve  thousand  sp'.  rtutors. 
Amongst  other  &mous  ruins  of  Avgolis  are  the  beautiful  remains  of  a  temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Nemea,  and  the  seven  Doric  columns  of  Corinth,  said  to  be  the  oldest 
in  all  Greece.    But  the  most  beautiful  edifice  of  the  peninsula  must  be  sought  for 
near  Arcadian  Phigalia,  in  the  charming  valley  of  the  Neda.     This  is  the  temple 
of  Basse,  erected  by  Ictinus  in  honour  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  and  its  beauty 
is  enhanced  by  the  oaks  and  rocks  which  surround  it. 

Citadels,  however,  are  the  buildings  we  most  frequently  meet  with ;  and  many 
a  fortified  place,  with  its  walls  and  acropolis,  yet  exists  as  in  the  days  of 
ancient  Greece.  The  walls  of  Phigalia  and  Messenia  still  have  their  ancient 
towers,  gates,  and  redoubts.  Other  fortifications  were  utilised  by  the  Crusaders, 
Venetians,  or  Turks,  and  by  them  furnished  with  crenellated  walls  and  keeps, 
which  add  another  picturesque  feature  to  the  landscape.     One  of  these  ancient 


fortresses, 
the  Peloi 
manding  < 

Severa 

encies  of  t 

The  ii 

seamen,  w 

Hellenic  i 

Poros,  a  SI 

revolted  { 

it  has  an  € 

naval  stat 

of  Spezzia 

islands,  wi 

population 

the  exacti( 

They  were 

commerce- 

and  immec 

nearly  400 

vessels,  ai 

in  this  stri 

ruin.    No  I 

was  transf 

Cythe^ 

better  knc 

Republic,] 

the  Peloj 

groves  hiJ 

rocks,     ij 

olive-tree 

important 

but  Cai 

island  is 

facturersi 

who  int 


Islands  I 
name  oj 

appear ; 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ^OEAN  SEA. 


e» 


fortresses,  transformed  during  the  Middle  Ages,  rises  at  the  yery  gates  of 
the  Peloponnesus — namely,  the  citadel  of  Corinth,  the  strongest  and  most  com- 
manding of  all. 

Several  of  the  islands  of  the  ^^gean  Sea  must  he  looked  upon  as  natural  depend- 
encies of  the  Peloponnesus,  to  which  suhmarine  ledges  or  shoals  attach  them. 

The  islands  along  the  coast  of  Argolis,  which  are  inhabited  by  Albanian 
seamen,  who  were  amongst  the  foremost  to  fight  the  Turk  during  the  struggle  for 
Hellenic  independence,  have  lost  much  of  their  former  commercial  importance. 
Poros,  a  small  Albanian  town  on  a  volcanic  island  of  the  same  name,  which  the 
revolted  people  chose  for  their  capital,  is,  however,  still  a  bustling  place,  for 
it  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  the  Greek  Government  has  made  it  the  principal 
naval  station  of  the  kingdom.  Hydra,  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  small  island 
of  Spezzia,  next  to  it,  have  lost  their  former  importance.  They  are  both  rocky 
islands,  without  arable  soil,  trees,  or  water,  and  yet  they  formerly  supported  a 
population  of  fifty  thousand  souls.  About  1730  a  colony  of  Albanians,  weary  of 
the  exactions  of  some  Turkish  pasha  on  the  mainland,  fled  to  the  island  of  Hydra. 
They  were  left  in  peace  there,  for  they  agreed,  to  pay  a  trifling  tribute.  Their 
commerce — leavened,  to  be  sure,  with  a  little  piracy — assumed  large  dimensions, 
and  immediately  before  the  war  of  indq)endenoe  the  Albanians  of  Hydra  owned 
nearly  400  vessels  of  100  to  200  tons  each,  and  they  were  able  to  send  over  200 
vessels,  armed  with  200  guns,  against  the  Turks.  By  engaging  so  enthusiastically 
in  this  struggle  for  liberty,  the  Hydriotes,  without  suspecting  it,  wrought  their  own 
ruin.  No  sooner  was  the  cause  of  Greece  triumphant  than  the  commerce  of  Hydra 
was  transferred  to  Syra  and  the  Pineus,  which  are  more  favourably  situated. 

Oythera  of  Laconia,  a  far  larger  island  than  either  of  those  mentioned,  acd 
better  known  by  the  Italian  name  of  Cerigo,  formed  a  member  of  the  Septinsular 
EepubUc,  although  not  situated  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  and  clearly  a  dependency  of 
the  Peloponnc6us.  Cythera  is  no  longer  the  island  oi  Yenus,  and  its  voluptuous 
groves  hbve  disappeared.  Seen  from  the  north,  it  resembles  a  pile  of  sterile 
rooks.  It  nevt^rtheless  yields  abundant  harvests,  possesses  fine  plantations  of 
olive-trees,  cad  populous  villages.  Cerigo,  in  former  times,  enjoyed  considerable 
importance,  owing  to  its  position  between  the  -  Ionian  Sea  and  the  Archipelago ; 
but  Cape  Malea  has  lost  its  terrors  now,  and  the  harbour  of  refiige  on  the 
island  is  no  longer  sought  after.  Heaps  of  shells,  left  there  by  Phoenician  manu> 
facturers  of  purple,  have  been  found  on  the  island ;  and  it  was  the  Phoenicians 
who  introduced  the  worsiup  of  Yenus  Astarte. 


lY. — ^Thb  Islands  of  the  ^oban  Sea. 

T°LANi>8  and  islets  are  scattered  in  seeming  disorder  over  the  ^gean  Sea,  the 
name  of  which  may  probably  mean  "sea  of  goats,"  because  these  islands 
appca?  cd  at  a  distance  like  goats.    By  e  singular  misapplication  the  modem  term 


r.ir':»ai». 


70 


OBEECE. 


i 


Hi 


Archipelago,  instead  of  sea,  is  now  used  to  designate  these  groups  of  islanda. 
The  Sporades,  ^n  tlie  north,  form  a  long  range  of  islands  stretching  in  the 
direction  of  Mount  Athos.  The  island  of  Scyros,  farther  south,  the  hirthplace  of 
Achilles  and  place  of  exile  of  King  Theseus,  occupies  an  isolated  position ;  the 
large  island  of  Euhoea  extends  along  the  coast  of  the  continent;  and  in  the 
distance  rise  the  white  mountains  of  the  Cyclades,  likened  hj  the  ancient  Greeks 
to  a  circle  of  Oceanides  dancing  around  a  deity. 

All  these  islands  are  so  many  fragments  of  the  mainland.    This  is  proved  by 

Fig.  28.— EuBiPVB  AMD  Chalois. 
BmOb  1 :  890,000. 


SHilM. 


their  geological  structure,  or  by  shoals  which  attach  them  to  the  nearest  coast.  The 
Northern  Sporades  are  a  branch  of  Mount  Felion.  Euboea  is  traversed  by  limestone 
mountains  of  considerable  height,  running  parallel  to  the  chains  of  Attica, 
Argolis,  Mount  Olympus,  and  Mount  Athos.  Scyros  is  a  rocky  mountain  mass, 
whose  axis  runjs  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  central  chain  of  Eubcea. 
The  summits  of  the  Cyclades  continue  the  ranges  of  Eubcea  and  Attica  towards 
the  south-east,  and  the  same  micaceous  and  argillaceous  schists,  limestones,  and 
crystalline  marbles  are  found  in  them.     They  are,  indeed,  "  mountains  of  Greece 


scattered  < 
the  Cycla< 
ones  of  I 
Curious  a 
Antiparos, 
Sillaka,  o 
Granite  is 
Delos,  de< 
the  Cyola 
peninsula  i 
Euhoea 
which  sepi 
and  is  no 
than  two 
Chalcis,  tl 
The  irreg 
marvellous 
because  h( 
island,  Nej 
name  the  s 
has  at  all  i 
and  BoeotI 
of  Euboea- 
prosperity 
when  invj 
participat( 
In  No 
the  villag 
what  we  1 
charming 
spots.     A 
nate,  and 
oaks,  pini 
islands  a 
The  hig 
Elias,  thj 
sun  reif 
vestige  ol 
Antii 
to  the  wi 
Europe,  i 
haunt  tl 
in  the 
The  and 


"'~':WSS$^ 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  JEOEAN  SEA. 


71 


scattered  over  the  aea."  If  Athens  may  boast  of  the  quarries  of  Mount  Pentelicus, 
the  Cyclades  produce  the  glittering  marbles  of  Naxos,  and  the  still  more  beautlM 
ones  of  Pares,  from  which  were  chiselled  the  statues  of  heroes  and  of  gods. 
Curious  caverns  are  met  with  in  the  limestone  of  the  islands,  especially  that  of 
Antiparos,  the  existence  of  which  was  not  known  to  the  ancients,  and  the  Cave  of 
Sillaka,  on  the  island  of  Oythnos,  or  Thermia,  celebrated  for  its  hot  springs. 
Granite  is  found  on  some  of  the  islands,  and  particularly  in  the  small  island  of 
Delos,  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  In  the  south,  finally, 
the  C^olades  are  traversed  by  a  chain  of  volcanic  islands,  extending  J!rom  the 
peninsula  of  Methana,  in  Arg^lis,  to  Oos  and  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor. 

Euboea  may  be  looked  upon  almost  as  a  portion  of  the  continent,  for  the  striait 
which  separates  it  from  the  mainland  resembles  a  submerged  longitudinal  valley, 
and  is  nowhere  of  great  depth  or  width.  At  its  narrowest  part  it  is  no  more 
than  two  hundred  and  fourteen  feet  across,  and  from  the  most  remote  times, 
Chalcis,  the  capital  of  the  island,  has  been  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  bridge. 
The  irregular  tidal  currents  flowing  through  this  strait  were  looked  upon  as 
marvellous  by  the  Greeks,  and  Aristotle  is  said  to  have  flung  himself  into  it 
because  he  was  unable  to  explain  this  phenomenon.  The  Italian  name  of  the 
island,  Negroponte,  is  formed  by  a  series  of  corruptions  from  Euripus,  by  which 
name  the  ancients  knew  the  strait  between  the  island  and  the  mainland.  Euboea 
has  at  all  times  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  of  the  neighbouring  provinces  of  Attica 
and  Boectia.  When  the  cities  of  Greece  were  at  the  height  of  their  glory,  those 
of  Euboea — Chalcis,  Eretria,  and  Cerinthus — enjoyed  likewise  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity,  and  dispatched  colonies  to  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Later  on, 
when  invaders  ravaged  Attica,  Euboea  shared  the  same  fate,  and  at  present  it 
participates  in  every  political  and  social  movement  of  the  neighbourmg  continent. 

In  Northern  Euboea  there  are  forests  of  oaks,  pines,  elms,  and  plane-trees ; 
the  villages  are  embedded  in  orchards ;  and  the  surrounding  country  resembles 
what  we  have  seen  in  Elis  and  Arcadia.  But  in  the  Cyolades  we  look  in  vain  for 
charming  landscapes.  Foliage  and  running  water  abound  only  in  a  very  few 
spots.  Arid  rocks,  more  arid  even  than  those  on  the  coast  of  Greece,  predomi- 
nate, and  only  in  a  few  favoured  spots  do  we  meet  with  a  few  olive-trees,  valonia 
oaks,  pines,  and  fig-trees.  Everywhere  else  the  hills  are  naked.  And  yet  these 
islands  arouse  feelings  of  devotion  in  us,  for  their  names  are  great  vi  history. 
The  highest  summits  of  most  of  them  have  been  named  after  the  prophet 
Elias,  the  biblical  successor  of  Apollo,  the  god  of  the  sun ;  and  justly  so,  for  the 
sim  reigns  supreme  upon  these  austere  rockp,  and  his  scorching  rays  destroy  every 
vestige  of  vegetation. 

Antimilos,  one  of  the  uninhabited  islands  of  this  group,  still  affords  an  asylum 
to  the  wild  goat  (Capra  Caucasiea),  which  has  disappeared  from  the  remainder  of 
Europe,  and  is  met  with  only  in  Crete,  and  perhaps  Abodes.  Wild  pigs  likewise 
haunt  the  rocks  of  Antimilos.  Rabbits  were  introduced  from  the  West,  and  abound 
in  the  caverns  of  some  of  the  Cyclades,  and  especially  on  Myconus  and  Delos. 
The  ancient  authors  never  mention  these  animals.    It  ia  a  curious  fact  that 


?;5 


J0 


-uammm 


7S 


OBEEOE. 


hares  and  rabbits  never  inhabit  the  same  island,  with  the  sole  exception  of 
AndroB,  where  the  hares  occupy  the  extreme  north,  whilst  the  rabbits  have  their 
burrows  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  island.  As  a  curiosity,  we  may  also 
mention  that  a  large  species  of  lizard,  called  crocodile  by  the  inhabitants,  is  found 
on  the  islands,  but  not  on  the  neighbouring  continent,  and  we  may  conclude  from 
this  that  the  Cyclades  were  separated  from  the  Balkan  peninsula  at  a  very  remote 
period. 

A  chain  of  volcanic  islands  bounds  the  Oyolades  towards  the  south,  where  they 
are  separated  from  Crete  by  an  ocean  trough  of  great  depth.  Milos  is  the  most 
important  of  these  islands.    It  has  an  irregularly  shaped  crater,  which  has  been 

Fig.  24.— NiA  Eaikimi. 
According  to  DtniUik. 


■■i  TTjilMaTed,  without  volcuiie  phcnomaiiB. 
■■■  TTpheafcd,  attended  by  ftimwolin  and  eniptioM. 
■^  Andent  Coaat  (Mount  George,  400  feet). 

invaded  by  the  sea,  and  forms  there  one  of  the  safest  and  most  capacious  harbours 
of  refuge  in  the  Mediterranean.  Milos  has  had  no  eruption  within  historic  times, 
but  the  existence  of  solfataras  and  of  hot  springs  proves  that  its  volcanic  forces  are 
not  yet  quite  extinct. 

The  actual  centre  of  volcanic  activity  has  to  be  looked  for  in  a  omall  group  of 
islands  known  as  Santorin,  and  lying  midway  between  Europe  and  Asia.  These 
islands  consist  of  marbles  and  schists,  similar  to  those  of  the  other  Oyclades,  and 
they  surround  a  vast  crater  no  less  than  twelve  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  depth. 
The  crescent-shaped  island  of  Thera,  on  the  east,  presents  bold  cliffii  towards  the 
crater,  while  its  gentle  outer  slopes  are  covered  with  vineyards  producing  exquisite 
wine.     Therasia,  on  the  west,   rises  like  an  immense  wall;  and  the  islet  of 


Aspronisi, 
which  sep 
the  centre 
Ruddenly  e 
thousand  ( 
basin.  Tb 
years  of  e 
islands.  Mi 
century;  i 
than  doubl 
extending 
million  of 
sometimes 
ashes  coulc 

Thoust 
witness  th 
Gorceix,  1 
service, 
explosion 
with  enort 

Southe 
are  inhab 
pelago  is 
Naxos,  an 
importanc 
pelago  asl 
tection  o| 
land  was 


an 

Naxos, 
hardly  all 

The 
they  ha^ 
bouring 
caused  tl 
their  in] 
times  thq 
voyages 
Venetian 

•PriB 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  JEOEAN  SEA. 


78 


Asproniai,  between  the  two,  indicates  the  existence  of  a  submarine  partition  wall 
which  separates  the  crater  from  the  open  sea.  The  submarine  volcano  occupies 
the  centre  of  this  basin.  It  remains  quiescent  for  long  periods,  and  then 
suddenly  arousing  itself,  it  ejects  immense  masses  of  scoriae.  Nearly  twenty-one 
thousand  centuries  ago  the  first  island  rose  to  the  surface  in  the  centre  of  this 
basin.  This  island  is  known  now  as  Paleoa  Kaimeni,  or  the  "  old  volcano."  Three 
years  of  eruptions  in  the  sixteenth  century  gave  birth  to  the  smallest  of  the  three 
islands,  Mikra  Kaimeni.  A  third  cone  of  lava,  Nea  Kaimeni,  rose  in  the  eighteenth 
century ;  and  quite  recently,  between  1866  and  1870,  this  new  island  has  more 
than  doubled  its  size,  overwhelming  the  small  village  of  Yolkario  and  its  port,  and 
extending  to  within  a  very  short  distance  of  Mikra  Kaimeni.  No  less  than  half  a 
million  of  partial  eruptions  occurred  during  those  five  years,  and  the  ashes  were 
sometimes  thrown  to  a  height  of  four  thousand  feet.  Even  from  Crete  clouds  of 
ashes  could  be  seen  suspended  in  the  air,  black  during  the  day,  and  lit  up  by  night. 

Thousands  of  spectators  hastened  to  Santorin  from  all  quarters  of  the  world  to 
witness  these  eruptions,  and  amongst  them  were  several  men  of  science — Fouqu^, 
Gorceix,  Reiss,  Stiibel,  and  Schmidt — whose  observations  have  proved  of  great 
service.  The  crater  of  Santorin  appears  to  have  been  produced  by  a  violent 
explosion  which  shattered  the  centre  of  the  ancient  island,  and  covered  its  slopes 
with  enormous  masses  of  tufa.* 

Southern  Euboea  and  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Oavrion,  on  the  island  of  Androe, 
are  inhabited  by  Albanians,  but  the  population  in  the  aonainder  of  the  Archi- 
pelago is  Greek.  The  families  of  Italian  or  French  descent  on  Soyros,  Syra, 
Naxos,  and  Santorin  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  constitute  an  element  of 
importance.  They  claim  to  be  of  French  descent,  and  are  known  in  the  Archi- 
pelago as  Franks,  and  during  the  war  of  independence  they  claimed  the  pro> 
tection  of  the  French  Government.  In  former  times  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
land  was  held  by  these  Franks,  who  had  taken  possession  of  it  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  these  large  estates  are  made  to  account  for  the  sparse  population  of 
Naxos,  which  supported  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  formerly,  but  is  now 
hardly  able  to  support  one-seventh  that  number. 

The  Cyclades  are  farther  removed  from  the  coast  of  Greece  than  Euboea,  and 
they  have  not  always  shared  in  the  historical  dramas  enacted  upon  the  neigh- 
bouring continent.  Their  position  in  ine  centre  of  the  Archipelago  naturally 
caused  them  to  be  visited  by  all  the  nations  navigating  the  Mediterranean,  and 
their  inhabitants  were  thus  subjected  to  the  most  diverse  influences.  In  ancient 
times  the  mariners  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Phoenicia  called  at  the  Oyclades  on  their 
voyages  to  Greece ;  during  the  Middle  Ages  the  Byzantines,  the  Crusaders,  the 
Venetians,  the  Genoese,  and  the  Knights  of  Rhodes  and  Osmanli  were  masters 


*  Principal  altitudes  of  the  islaiida  of  Oreece: — 


Monnt  Delphi,  on  Euboea 
Mount  St.  Eliaa,  on  Euboea 
Mount  Kokbilas,  on  Scyros 
Mount  Kovari,  on  Andtoa 


Veet. 
£,730 
4,840 
2,666 
3,200 


Mount  Oxia,  on  Naxos 
Mount  St.  Elias,  on  Siphenoa 
Mount  St.  Eliaa,  on  Nios  . 
Mount  St.  Eliaa,  on  Santorin 


Fart. 
8,290 
2,280 
2,410 
1.887 


S 


.^•J 


va 


74 


OREEOB. 


II 


there  in  turn  ;  and  in  our  own  duyii  the  nations  of  Western  Europe,  with  the 
Greeks  themselves,  hold  the  preponderance  in  the  Arobipelago. 

These  historical  vicissitudes  have  caused  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  Oyoladea 
to  be  shifted  from  island  to  island.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  Delos,  the 
island  of  Apollo,  was  looktad  upon  as  the  "  holy  land,"  where  merchants  congre- 
gated from  all  quarters,  carried  on  business  in  the  shadow  of  sanoturies,  and 
held  slave  markets  at  the  side  of  tho  tomples.  The  sale  of  human  flesh  became 
in  the  end  the  main  feature  of  tho  cM;>merce  of  Delos,  and  in  the  time  of  the 
Roman  emperors  as  many  as  ten  thousand  slaves  were  bartered  away  there  in  a 
single  day.  But  the  markets,  the  temples,  and  monuments  of  Delos  have  vanished, 
and  itH  stony  soil  supports  now  only  a  few  sheep.  During  the  Middle  Ages  Naxos 
enjoyed  the  predominance;  and  at  present,  Tinos,  with  its  venerated  church 
of  the  Fanagia  and  its  thousands  of  pilgrims,  is  the  "  holy  land  "  of  the  Archi- 
pelago; whilst  Hermopolis,  on  Syra,  though  without  trees  or  water,  holds  the 
position  of  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Cyclades.  The  latter  was  a  town  of  no 
importance  before  the  iicar  of  independence ;  but  it  remained  neutral  during  that 
struggle,  and  thus  attracted  numerous  refugees  from  other  islands,  and,  thanks  to 
its  central  position,  it  has  since  become  the  principal  mart,  dockyard,  and  naval 
station  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  Whether  travellers  proceed  to  Saloniki,  Smyrna, 
Constantinople,  or  the  Black  Sea,  they  must  stop  at  Hermopolis.  The  town 
formerly  occupied  the  heights  only,  for  fear  of  pirates,  but  it  has  descended  now 
to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  its  quays  and  warehouses  extend  along  the  sea- 
shore. 

Commerce  has  peopled  the  naked  rocks  of  Syra,  but  it  has  not  yet  succeeded  in 
developing  the  resouioes  of  the  Archipelago  as  in  ancient  times.  Euboea  is  no 
longer  "  rich  in  cattle,*'  as  its  name  implies,  and  only  exports  com,  wine,  fruit, 
and  the  lignite  extracted  from  the  mines  near  Eumi.  The  gardens  of  Naxos 
yield  oranges,  lemons,  and  citrons ;  Scopelos,  Andros,  and  Tinos,  the  latter  one  of 
the  best  cultivated  amongst  the  islands,  export  wines,  which  are  excelled,  however, 
by  those  of  ''  :T:torin,  the  Calliste  of  the  earliest  Greeks.  The  volcanic  and  other 
islands  of  the  Cyclades  export  millstones,  china  day,  lavas,  and  cimolite,  this  being 
used  in  bleaching.  Naxos  exports  emery,  and  that  is  all.  The  marbles  of  Pares 
even  remain  untouched,  and  the  excellent  harbour  of  that  island  only  rarely  sees  a 
vessel.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Cyclades  confine  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  and  to  the  breeding  of  a  few  silkworms,  the  surplus  population  of  Tinos, 
Siphenos,  and  others  emigrating  annually  to  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  or  Greece,  to 
work  as  labourers,  cooks,  potters,  masons,  or  sculptors.  But  whilst  some  of  the 
islands  can  boast  o£  a  surplus  population,  there  are  others  which  are  the  abode  of 
a  few  herdsmen  only.  Most  of  the  islands  between  Naxos  and  Amurgos  are 
hardly  more  than,  barren  rocks.  Antimilos,  like  Delos,  la  merely  a  pasture- 
ground  sown  over  with  rocks.  Serphos  and  Giura  are  still  dreary  solitudes,  as  in 
the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors,  when  they  were  set  aside  as  places  of  exile. 
Serphos,  however,  possesses  iron  of  excellent  quality,  and  may,  in  consequence, 
again  become  of  some  importance.     On  Antiparos  there  are  lead  mines. 


The  islam 
to  the  wesi 
which  div: 
passed  thn 
century. 
IB  the  onl; 
assaults  of 
Bonaparte 
A  few  yeai 
which  the;; 
the  Porte. 
English  ca 
and  this,  U. 
into  a  "  Se 
British  ba^ 
democratic 
suzerainty 
annexed  t 
wealthiest, 
consulted 
is  neverthi 
axiom  tha 
good 
of  Corfu, 
policy  has  I 
has  still 

Corfu,] 
Ionian  Is 
cial  adva 
resemblinl 
in  order 
pretend 
linen  of 
gardens 
small  pel 
barges. 
Epirus, 
much 
fragrant! 
the  hUlJ 
exposed] 
curtails! 


THB  IONIAN  ISLES. 


76 


v.— Thb  Ionian  Iblm. 


The  island  of  Corfu,  on  the  coast  of  Epirus,  and  the  whole  of  the  Archipelago 
to  the  west  of  continental  and  peninsular  Greece,  down  to  the  island  of  Cythera, 
which  divides  the  waters  of  the  Ionian  Sea  from  those  of  the  ^goan,  have 
passed  through  the  most  singular  political  vioissitudes  in  the  course  of  the  last 
century.  Corfu,  thanks  to  the  protection  extended  to  it  by  the  Venetian  Republic, 
is  the  only  dependency  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  which  successfully  resisted  the 
assaults  of  the  Turk.  When  Venice  was  handed  over  to  the  Austrians  by 
Bonaparte  in  1797,  Corfu  and  the  Ionian  Islands  were  occupied  by  the  French. 
A  few  years  afterwards  the  Russians  became  the  virtual  masters  in  these  islands, 
which  they  formed  into  a  sort  of  aristocratic  republic  under  the  suzerainty  of 
the  Porte.  In  1807  the  French  once  more  took  possession  of  them;  but  the 
English  captured  one  after  the  other  until  there  remained  to  them  only  Corfu, 
and  this,  too,  had  to  be  given  up  in  1814.  The  Ionian  Islands  were  then  converted 
into  a  "  Septinsular  Republic,"  governed  by  the  landed  aristocracy,  supported  by 
British  bayonets.  T  >  did  England  alter  the  constitution  of  this  republic  in  a 
democratic  sense,  bu  ^tae  patriotism  of  the  islanders  refused  to  submit  to  British 
suzerainty ;  and,  when  Great  Britain  parted  with  her  conquest,  the  Ionian  Islands 
annexed  themselves  to  Greece,  and  they  now  form  the  best  educated,  the 
wealthiest,  and  the  most  industrious  portion  of  that  kingdom.  England,  no  doubt, 
consulted  her  own  interests  when  she  set  free  her  Ionian  subjects ;  but  her  action 
is  nevertheless  deser>-ing  of  approbation.  England  exhibited  her  faith  in  the 
axiom  that  moral  influence  is  superior  to  brute  force,  and  yielded  with  perfect 
good  grace,  not  only  the  commercial  ports  of  the  islands,  but  likewise  the  citadel 
of  Corfu,  which  gave  her  the  command  of  the  Adriatic.  This  magnanimous 
policy  has  not  hitherto  met  with  imitators  in  other  countries,  but  England  herself 
has  still  many  opportunities  of  applying  it  in  other  ports  of  the  world. 

Corfu,  the  ancient  Corcyra,  has  always  held  the  foremost  place  amongst  the 
Ionian  Islands.  It  owes  this  position  to  the  vicinity  of  Italy,  and  to  the  commer- 
cial advantages  derived  from  an  excellent  port  and  a  vast  roadstead  almost 
resembling  an  inland  lake.  The  inhabitants  are  fond  of  appealing  to  Thuoydides 
in  order  to  prove  that  Corfu  is  the  island  of  the  FhsBaoes  of  Ulysses.  They  even 
pretend  to  have  discovered  the  rivulet  in  which  beauteous  Kausicaa  washed  the 
linen  of  her  fitther,  and  the  shaded  walks  near  the  city  are  known  by  them  as  the 
gardens  of  Alcinous.  Corfu  is  the  only  one  of  the  islands  which  can  boast  of  a 
small  perennial  stream,  the  Messongi,  which  is  navigable  for  a  short  distance  in 
barges.  The  hills,  which  are  placed  like  a  screen  in  front  of  the  plains  of  the 
Epirus,  are  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  south-westerly  winds,  which  bring 
much  rain ;  the  vegetation,  consequently,  is  rich :  orange  and  lemon  trees  form 
fragrant  groves  around  the  city,  vines  and  olive-trees  hide  the  barren  ground  of 
the  hills,  and  waving  fields  of  com  cover  the  plains.  Corfu,  unfortunately,  is 
exposed  to  the  hot  sirocco,  blowing  from  the  south-east,  and  this  very  much 
curtails  its  advantages  as  a  winter  station  for  invalids. 


i 
1 

i 


:'l 


7« 


OBE£OE. 


The  city  oooupiei  a  tnan^lar  ,')niniula  oppocite  the  oooat  of  the  Epinu, 
and  ii  the  largest,  and  oommerr:  ily  the  most  important,  of  tho  formor  republic. 
It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  its  sut  essive  possessors — Venetians,  French,  Russians, 
and  English — have  sought  to  render  it  impregnable.  A  beautiful  prospect  may 
be  enjoyed  fVom  its  bastions ;  but  far  superior  is  that  from  Mount  Pantokratoros, 
the  "  commandant,"  for  it  extends  across  the  Strait  of  Otranto  to  Italy.  The 
commercial  relations  with   the    latter,  as  well  as  the  traditions  of  Venetian 


Fig.  34.— CoHTV. 


i 


.1 


dominion,  have  converted  Oorfu  into  a  city  almost  half  Italian,  and  numerous 
families  residing  in  it  belong  to  both  nations,  the  Greek  and  the  Italian,  by 
descent  as  well  as  lang^uage.  Italian  remained  the  o£Scial  language  of  the  island 
until  1830.  Maltese  porters  and  gardeners  constitute  a  prominent  element  amongst 
the  cosmopolitan  population  of  the  city. 

Oorfu  formerly  owned  the  town  of  Butrinto  and  a  few  villages  on  the  mainland ; 
but  an  English  governor  thought  fit  to  surrender  them  to  the  terrible  Ali  Pasha, 


Ipinu, 
)ublio. 
Mians, 
3t  may 
atoroa, 
The 
inetian 


^ 


niitneroua 
»lian,  by 
tbe  island 
t  amongflt 

mainland ; 
\U  Pasha, 


»v*;~»^jT-^^ieaOT?*''*"" 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


ltt|2£   IIS 

Itt  U2   i2.2 

jU  u^   Mil 


Hiotographic 

^Sdsices 

Corparadon 


23  WBT  MAIN  STRIIT 

wnsni,N.Y.  usM 

(716)«72-4S03 


Si£3»i<_,..fl«3,a®eHffiSaE  ' 


CIHM/ICMH 


Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Instituta  for  Historical  Microraproductiont  /  inatitut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  liiatoriquaa 


an 


ffmi 


T'l 


THE  IONIAN  ISLES. 


77 


and  the  only  dependencies  of  Corfu  at  present  are  the  small  islets  near  it,  viz. 
Othonus  (Fauo),  Salmastraci,  and  Ericusa,  in  the  north  ;  Paxos,  with  its  caverns, 
and  Antipaxoa,  the  rocks  of  which  exude  asphalt,  on  the  south.  Paxos  is  said  to 
produce  the  best  oil  in  Western  Greece. 

Leucadia,  Cephalonia,  Ithaca,  Zante,  and  a  few  smaller  islands,  form  a 
crescent'shaped  archipelago  off  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Patras.  They  are 
the  summits  of  a  half-submerged  chain  of  calcareous  mountains,  alternately 
flooded  by  the  rains  or  scorched  by  the  sun.  Their  valleys,  like  those  of  Corfu, 
produce  oranges,  lemons,  currants  ('•  Corinthians  "),  wine,  and  oil,  which  form  the 
objects  of  a  brisk  commerce.  The  inhabitants  very  much  resemble  those  of  Corfu, 
the  Italian  element  being  strongly  represented,  except  on  Ithaca. 

Leucadia,  or  the  "  while  island,"  thus  called  because  of  its  glittering  chalk 
cli£fs,  is  evidently  a  depend«:icy  of  the  continent.     The  ancients  looked  upon  it  as 


Jl'ig.  26. — Thb  Ghahnbl  or  Santa  Mauha. 
Kram  the  Frmoh  Staff  Hap. 


J0»»0' 


Seale  1:800,000. 


SMilM. 


a  peninsula  converted  into  an  island  by  Corinthian  colonists,  who  cut  a  canal 
through  the  isthmus  which  joined  it  to  the  mainland;  but  this  legend  is  not 
borne  oat  by  an  examination  of  the  locality.  These  Corinthians  probably  merely 
dug  a  navigable  channel  through  the  shallow  lagoon  which  separates  the  island 
from  the  coast,  and  does  not  exceed  eighteen  inches  in  depth.  In  fact,  if  there 
were  any  tides  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  the  island  of  Leucadia  would  be  converted  twice 
daily  into  a  peninsula.  A  bridge,  of  which  there  still  exist  considerable 
remains,  formerly  joined  the  island  to  the  mainland  near  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  lagoon,  whilst  an  island  occupied  by  the  citadel  of  Santa  Maura — a  name 
sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  island — defended  its  entrance  to  the  north. 
6 


Jia 


iHca 


ttHmmilr 


78 


OBEECE. 


Until  recently  this  was  the  only  spot  in  "Western  Greece  where  a  grove  of  date- 
trees  might  be  seen.  A  magnificent  aqueduct  of  two  hundred  and  sixty  arches,  which 
was  also  used  as  a  viaduct,  joined  the  citadel  to  Amaxiki,  the  chief  town  and  harbour 
of  Leucadia.  Tbis  monument  of  Turkish  enterprise — it  was  constructed  in  the 
reign  of  Bajazet — has  sustained  much  injury  from  earthquakes.  Amaxiki  might 
be  supposed  to  be  haunted  by  fever,  owing  to  the  salt  swamps  and  lagoons  which 
surround  it ;  but  such  is  not  the  case :  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  comparatively 
healthy  town,  and  its  women  are  noted  for  freshness  of  complexion  and  beauty. 
To  the  south  of  it  rise  the  wooded  mountains  which  terminate  in  the  promontory 
of  Leucate  (Bukato),  opposite  to  Cephalonia.  On  the  summit  of  this  promontory 
stood  a  temple  of  Apollo,  whence,  at  the  annual  festival  of  the  god,  a  condemned 
criminal  was  hurled  as  an  expiatory  victim.  It  was  celebrated,  also,  as  the  lover's 
leap,  whence  lovers  leaped  into  the  sea  to  drown  their  passion. 

Cephalonia,  or  rather  Cephallenia,  is  the  largest  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  its 
highest  summit — Mount  ^nus,  or  Elato — is  the  culminating  point  of  the  entire 
Archipelago.  Mariners  from  the  centre  of  the  Ionian  Sea  can  see  at  one  and  the 
same  time  Mount  ^tna  in  Sicily  and  this  mountain  of  Cephalonia.  The  forests  of 
conifers,  to  which  the  latter  is  indebted  for  its  Italian  name  of  Montenero,  have  for 
the  greater  part  been  destroyed  by  fire,  but  there  still  remain  a  few  clumps  of 
magnificent  firs.  On  its  summit  may  be  seen  the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Jupiter. 
The  island  is  fertile  and  populous,  but  suffers  much  from  want  of  water.  All  its 
rivers  dry  up  in  summer,  the  calcareous  soil  sucking  up  the  rain,  and  moat  of  the 
springs  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  far  away  from  the  fields  thirsting  after 
water.  On  the  other  hand,  two  considerable  streams  of  sea-water  find  their  way 
into  the  bowels  of  the  island. 

This  curious  phenomenon  occurs  a  short  distance  to  the  north  of  Argostoli,  a 
bustling  town,  having  a  safe  but  shallow  harbour.  The  two  oceanic  rivers  are 
sufficiently  powerful  to  set  in  motion  the  huge  wheels  of  two  millfl,  one  of  which 
has  been  regularly  at  work  since  1835,  and  the  other  since  1859.  Their  combined 
discharge  amounts  to  35,000,000  gallons  daily,  and  naturalists  have  not  yet 
decided  whether  they  form  a  vast  subterranean  lake,  in  which  beds  of  salt  are 
constantly  being  deposited,  or  whether  they  find  their  way  through  numerous 
threads,  and,  by  hydrostatic  aspiration,  into  the  subterranean  rivers  of  the  island, 
rendering  their  water  brackish.  The  latter  is  the  opinion  of  Wiebel,  the  geologist, 
and  thus  much  we  may  assume  for  certain — that  these  subterranean  waters  and 
caverns  are  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  eevere  earthquakes  which  visit 
Cephalonia  so  frequently.  The  island  of  Asteris,  between  Cephalonia  and  Ithaca, 
upon  which  stood  the  city  of  Alalkomenas,  exists  no  longer,  and  was  probably 
destroyed  by  one  of  those  earthquakes. 

Ithaca  of  "  divine  Ulysses,"  the  modern  Theaki,  is  separated  from  Cephalonia 
by  the  narrow  channel  of  Yiscardo,  thus  named  after  Robert  Ouiscard.  The 
island  is  small,  and  all  the  sites  referred  to  in  the  Odyssey  are  still  pointed  out 
there,  from  the  spring  of  Arethusa  to  the  acropolis  of  Ulysses;  but  the  black  forests 
which  clothed  the  slopes  of  Mount  Neritus  have  disappeared.     The  inhabitants  are 


»IF4«P».       fUgffff 


THE  IONIAN  ISLES. 


79 


B  of  date- 
les,  which 
d  harbour 
sted  in  the 
uki  might 
lons  which 
iparatively 
id  beauty. 
»romontory 
>romontory 
condemned 
the  lover's 

nds,  and  its 
f  the  entire 
one  and  the 
he  forests  of 
ero,  have  for 
w  clumps  of 
e  of  Jupiter. 
,ter.     All  its 
I  most  of  the 
irsting  after 
nd  their  way 

Argoatoli,  a 
ic  rivers  are 
one  of  which 
leir  combined 
lave  not  yet 
[g  of  salt  ar0 
rh.  numerous 
)f  the  island, 
|the  geologist, 
waters  and 
which  visit 
a  and  Ithaca, 
was  probably 

[m  Gephalonia 
liscard.    The 
kl  pointed  out 
black  forests 
labitants  are 


excessively  proud  of  their  little  island,  rendered  so  famous  by  the  poetry  of  Homer, 
and  in  every  family  we  meet  with  a  Penelope,  a  Ulysses,  and  a  Teleraachus.  But 
the  present  inhabitants  have  no  claim  whatever  to  be  the  deticendants  of  the  crafty 
son  of  Laertes,  for  during  the  Middle  Ages  their  ancestors  were  exterminated  by 
invaders,  and  in  1504  the  deserted  fields  were  g^ven,  by  the  Senate  of  Venice,  to 
colonists  drawn  from  the  mainland.  Most  of  those  immigrants  came  from  the  Epirus, 
and  the  diaiect  spoken  by  the  islanders  is  much  mixed  with  Albanian  words.    At 

Fig.  27.— Aroostoli.  • 

Aoeotdiag  to  Wiebrl. 


8<alel:  78,000. 


.  IS  MUm. 


the  present  time  the  island  is  well  cultivated,  and  Yathy,  its  chief  port,  carries  on 
a  brisk  commerce  in  raisins,  currants,  oil,  and  wine.  Ithaca,  as  in  the  days  of 
Homer,  is  the  "  nurse  of  valiant  men."  The  inhabitants  are  taU  and  strong,  and 
Dr.  Schliemann  is  enthusiastic  about  the  high  standard  of  virtue  and  morality  pre- 
vailing amongst  them.  There  are  neither  rich  nor  poor,  but  they  are  great 
travellers,  and  natives  of  Ithaca  are  met  with  in  every  populous  city  of  the  East. 

"  Zante,  fior  del  Levante,"  say  the  Italians.  And,  indeed,  this  ancient  island, 
Zacynthus,  is  richer  in  orchards,  fields,  and  villas  than  any  other  of  this  Archi- 
pelago. An  extensive  plain,  bounded  by  ranges  of  hills,  occupies  the  centre  of  this 
"  golden  isle  " — a  vast  garden,  abounding  in  vines,  yielding  currants  of  superior 
quality.  The  inhabitants  are  industrious,  and  not  content  with  cultivating  their 
own  fields,  they  assist  also  in  the  cultivation  of  those  of  Acamania,  receiving 
wages  or  a  share  of  the  produce  in  return.  The  city  of  Zante,  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  island,  facing  Elia,  is  the  wealthiest  and  cleanest  town  in  the  Archipelago. 


m 


80 


GREECE. 


Unfortunately  it  suffers  frequently  from  earthquakes,  to  which  a  volcanic  origin  is 
ascribed.  Nor  is  this  improbable,  for  bituminous  springs  rise  near  the  south-eastern 
cape  of  the  island,  and  though  worked  since  the  days  of  Herodotus,  they  still  yield 
about  a  hundred  barrels  of  pitch  annually.  Oil  springs  discharge  themselves  close 
to  the  shore,  and  even  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  and  near  Oape  Skinari,  in  the 
north,  a  kind  of  rank  grease  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  waters. 

The  only  islets  dependent  upon  Zante  are  the  Strivali,  or  the  Strophades,  to 
which  flew  the  hideous  harpies  of  ancient  mythology.* 


: 


VI. — The  Present  and  the  Future  of  Greece. 

The  Greeks,  although  they  have  not  altogether  fulfilled  the  expectations  of 
Philhellenes,  have  nevertheless  made  great  strides  in  advance  since  they  have 
thrown  off  the  yoke  of  the  Turks.  The  deeds  of  valour  performed  during  the  war 
of  independence  recalled  the  days  of  Marathon  and  Plateea ;  but  it  was  wrong  to 
expect  that  a  short  time  would  suffice  to  raise  modern  Greece  to  the  intellectual 
and  artistic  level  of  the  generation  which  gave  birth  to  an  Aristotle  and  a 
Phidias.  Nor  can  we  expect  that  a  nation  should  throw  off,  in  a  single  genera- 
tion, the  evil  habits  engendered  during  an  age  of  servitude,  and  digest  at  once  the 
scientific  conquests  made  in  the  course  of  twenty  centuries.  We  should  likewise 
bear  in  mind  that  the  population  of  Greece  is  small,  and  that  it  is  thinly  scattered 
over  a  barren  mountain  region.  The  numerous  ports,  no  doubt,  offer  great  facilities 
for  commerce,  nor  have  their  inhabitants  failed  to  avail  themselves  of  them  ;  but 
there  is  hardly  a  country  in  Europe  which  offers  equal  obstacles  to  a  development 
of  its  agricultural  and  industrial  resources.  The  construction  of  roads,  owing  to 
the  mountains,  meets  with  difficulties  everywhere,  whilst  the  blue  sea  invites  its 
beholders  to  distant  climes  and  commercial  expeditions.  No  immigration  from  the 
neighbouring  Turkish  provinces  has  consequently  taken  place,  whilst  many 
Hellenes,  and  more  especially  natives  of  the  Ionian  Islands  and  the  Cyolades, 
annually  seek  their  fortune  in  Constantinople,  Cairo,  and  even  distant  India.  Men 
of  enterprise  leave  the  country,  and  there  remains  behind  only  a  horde  of  intriguers, 
who  look  upon  politics  as  a  lucrative  business,  and  an  army  of  government  officials, 
who  depend  upon  the  favour  of  a  minister  for  future  promotion.  This  state  of 
affairs  explains  the  singular  fact  that  the  most  prosperous  Greek  communities  exist 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  These  foreign  communities  are 
better  °nd  more  liberally  governed  than  those  at  home.  In  spite  of  the  Pasha, 
who  enjoys  the  right  of  supervision,  the  administration  of  the  smallest  Greek  oom- 

*  loniHD  Island:! : — 


Area. 

Inhabitant*. 

8q.  m. 

Highert  Honntaiiu. 

net 

(1870.) 

Oorfti      .... 

224 

PantokratoroB     . 

.        .    3,280 

72,460 

Faxos  and  Antipaxoa 

2T 

3.600 

Leucadia          .        .        .        . 

183 

Nomali 

.    3,870 

21,000 

Cephalonia 

292 

Elato 

.    6,310 

67,600 

Ithaca                     .     '  . 

42 

Neriton      >       . 

.    2,640 

10,000 

Zante 

.    168 

Skopoa        .       . 

.        .    1,800 

44.600 

THE  PBESENT  AND  THE  FUTURE  OP  GREECE. 


81 


I  origin  in 
b-eaatern 
still  yield 
lives  close 
ri,  in  the 

pliades,  to 


jtations   of 
they  have 
ng  the  war 
,B  wrong  to 
intellectual 
botle  and  a 
igle  genera- 
at  once  the 
lid  likewise 
ily  scattered 
reat  facilities 
:  them ;  but 
levelopment 
ds,  owing  to 
)a  invites  its 
ion  from  the 
rhilst    many 
te  Oyolades, 
India.    Men 
»f  intriguers, 
Lent  officials, 
'his  state  of 
tunities  exist 
Lunities  are 
the  Pasha, 
Greek  com- 

Inhabitanto. 
(1870.) 
72,460 
3,600 
21,000 
67,600 
10,000 
44,600 


munity  in  Thracia  or  Macedonia  might  serve  as  a  pattern  to  the  independent  and 
sovereign  kingdom  of  Greece.  Every  one  there  takes  an  interest  in  the  prosperity 
of  the  commonwealth  ;  but  in  Greece  a  rapacious  bureaucracy  takes  care  only  of  its 
own  advancemeii  ,  the  electors  are  bribed,  and  the  expenses  thus  illegally  incurred 
are  recovered  by  illegal  exactions  and  robbery,  such  as  have  prevailed  for  many 
years. 

The  actual  population  of  Greece  may  amount  to  1,500,000  souls ;  that  is  to  say, 
it  includes  about  two-fifths  of  all  the  Greeks  residing  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
population  is  less  dense  tban  in  any  other  country  of  Europe,  including  Turkey. 
Greece,  at  the  epoch  of  its  greatest  prosperity,  is  said  to  have  supported  6,000,000 
or  7,000,000  inhabitants.  Attica  was  ten  times  more  populous  at  that  time,  and 
many  islands  which  now  support  only  a  few  herdsmen  could  then  boast  of 
populous  towns.  Sites  of  ancient  cities  abound  on  the  barren  plateaux,  on  the 
banks  of  the  smallest  rivulet,  and  crown  every  promontory  throughout  the  ancient 
countries  of  the  Hellenes,  from  Cyprus  to  Corfu,  and  from  Thasos  to  Crete. 

The  country,  however,  is  being  gradually  repeopled.  Before  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, the  population,  including  the  Ionian  Islands,  amounted,  perhaps,  to 
1,000,000 ;  but  battles  and  massacres  diminished  it  considerably,  and  in  1832  the 
number  of  inhabitants  was  950,000  at  most.  Since  that  epoch  there  has  been  an 
annual  increase  varying  between  9,000  and  14,000  souls.  This  increase,  however, 
is  spread  very  unequally  over  the  country.  The  towns  increase  rapidly,  but 
several  islands,  and  more  especially  Andros,  Santorin,  Hydra,  Zante,  and  Leucadia, 
lose  more  inhabitants  by  emigpration  than  they  gain  by  an  excess  of  births  over 
deaths.  The  swamp  fevers  prevailing  in  continental  Greece  much  retard  the 
increase  of  population.  Naturally  the  climate  is  exceedingly  salubrious,  but  tho 
water,  in  many  I<x;alities,  has  been  permitted  to  collect  into  pestilential  swamps, 
and  the  draining  of  these  and  their  cultivation  would  not  only  add  to  the  wealth 
of  the  country,  but  would  likei^'ise  free  it  from  a  dire  plague.* 

Unfortunately  agriculture  progpresses  but  slowly  in  Greece,  and  its  produce  is 
not  even  sufficient  to  support  the  papulation,  still  less  to  supply  articles  for  expoii;. 
And  yet  the  cultivable  soil  of  Greece  is  admirably  suited  to  the  growth  of  vines, 
fruits,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  madder.  Figs  and  oranges  are  delicious ;  the  wines  of 
Santorin  and  the  Cyclades  are  amongst  the  finest  produced  in  the  Mediterranean  ; 
the  oil  of  Attica  is  as  superior  now  as  when  Athene  planted  the  sacred  olive-tree ; 

*  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Greece  (1870) : — 

Towns.  Fopulstloii. 

Argostoli  (Cephaloiiia)    .        .        .  9,500 

Calamata 9,400 

Histitea,  in  Eubrca  ....  8,900 

Karystos,  in  Eubnna  .  8,800 

JGgion,  or  Vostiica ....  8,800 

Nauplia 8,600 

Spezzia 8,400 

Kranidbi,  in  Argolis  .        .  8,400 

Lamia 8,300 

Missolonghi 7,600 

Andros 9,300 


Towns. 

Fopnlstion 

Athens  and  Pineni 

59.000 

Patras 

26,000 

Corfu 

24,000 

Hermopolis,  or  Syra 

21,000 

Zante 

20,500 

Lixuri  (Cephalonie). 

14,000 

Pyrgos,  or  Lettini   . 

13.600 

Tripoiis,  or  Tripolitsa      . 

11,500 

Chalois,  in  £ub«ea   . 

11,000 

Sparta 

10,700 

Argos 

.     10,600 

m 


■Mi&K.S;:ii0'.S*mf-^ 


S9 


GREKOE. 


, 


I- 


but,  excepting  a  little  cotton  grown  in  Phthiotis,  and  the  raisins  known  as 
currants  or  Corinthians,  which  are  exporte<l  from  the  Ionian  Islands  ^nd  Patras 
to  the  annual  value  of  about  £1,500,000,  agriculture  contributes  but  little 
towards  the  exports.  One  of  the  principal  articles  is  the  valonia,  a  species  of  aoom 
picked  up  in  the  forests,  and  used  by  tanners. 

In  a  country  so  far  behindhand  in  agriculture  manufactures  cannot  be 
expected  to  flourish.  All  manufactured  articles  have  consequently  to  be  imported 
from  abroad,  and  especially  from  England.  Oreece  does  not  even  possess  tools  to 
work  its  famous  marble  quarries,  though  they  are  richer  than  those  of  Carrara. 
There  is  only  one  metallurgical  establishment  in  the  whole  of  the  kingdom — that 
of  Laurion.  The  ancients  had  been  working  argentiferous  lead  mines  in  that 
part  of  the  country  for  centuries,  and  vast  masses  of  unexhausted  slag  had 
accumulated  near  them.  This  waste  is  now  being  scientifically  treated  in  the 
smelting-works  of  Ergastiria,  and  nearly  ten  thousand  tons  of  lead,  and  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  silver,  are  produced  there  annually.  Quite  a  brisk  little  town 
has  arisen  near  the  works,  and  its  harbour  is  one  of  the  busiest  in  all  Greece. 
But  the  founders  of  this  flourishing  concern  had  to  struggle  against  jealousies, 
and  the  "  Laurion  question "  nearly  embroiled  the  Governments  of  France  and 
Italy  with  Greece.* 

The  Greeks  do  not  support  themselves  by  agriculture,  nor  can  they  boast 
of  manufactories,  and  they  would  be  doomed  to  starvation  if  they  did  not  maintain 
six  thousand  vessels  acting  in  the  lucrative  business  of  ocean  carriers  throughout 
the  Mediterranean.  This  Greek  mercantile  marine  is  superior  to  that  of  Russia, 
almost  equal  to  that  of  Austria,  and  six  times  larger  than  that  of  Belgium,  and 
we  should  bear  in  mind  that  many  vessels  sailing  under  Turkish  colours  are 
actually  owned  by  Greeks.  The  ancient  instinct  of  the  race  comes  out  strongly 
in  this  coast  navigation.  The  large  fleets  of  swift  ocean  steamers  belong  to  the 
powerful  companies  of  the  West,  and  the  Greeks  are  content  to  sail  in  small 
vessels  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  coasting  trade,  which  hardly  ever 
extend  their  voyages  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ancient  Greek  world.  None  can 
compete  with  them  as  regards  low  freight,  for  every  sailor  has  an  interest  in  the 
cargo,  and  all  of  them  are  anxious  to  increase  the  profits.  One  may  have 
furnished  the  wood,  another  the  rigging,  a  third  a  portion  of  the  cargo,  whilst 
their  fellow-citizens  have  advanced  money  for  the  purchase  of  merchandise, 
without  requiring  any  bond  except  their  word  of  honour.  On  many  of  these 
vessels  all  are  partners,  all  work  alike,  and  share  in  the  proceeds  of  the  venture. 

But,  whatever  the  sobriety  and  intelligence  of  these  Greek  mariners,  they 
cannot  escape  the  fate  which  has  overtaken  the  small  trader  and  the  handicrafts- 
man throughout  the  world.  The  cheap  vessels  of  the  Greeks  may  be  able  to  contend 
for  a  long  time  against  the  steamers  of  powerful  companies,  but  in  the  end  they 
must  succumb.  The  country  will  lose  its  place  amongst  the  commercial  nations 
of  the  world  unless  its  agricultural  and  industrial  resources  are  quickly  developed, 

*  Commerce  of  Qreeoe  (1873): — Mercantile  marine:  6,13S  vetseli  of  419,360  toni;  entered,  112,814 
vessels  of  6,386,487 tons;  imports,  £4,166,239;  exports,  £2,721,877. 


THE  PRESENT  AND  THE  FUTURE  OP  OUEECR. 


88 


lown  M 
L  Patras 
at  little 
of  aoorn 

nnot   be 
imported 
s  tools  to 
Carrara. 
)ni — tbat 
s  in  that 
slag  had 
)d  in  the 
consider- 
ittle  town 
II  Greece, 
jealousies, 
ranee  and 

they  boast 
it  maintain 
throughout 
of  Bussia, 
Igium,  and 
solours  are 
it  strongly 
ong  to  the 
1  in  small 
lardly  ever 
None  can 
)rest  in  the 
may  have 
irgo,  whilst 
lerchandise, 
ly  of  these 
B  venture, 
iners,  they 
handicrafts- 
e  to  contend 
e  end  they 
cial  nations 
developed, 

lAered.  112,814 


and  railways  are  constructed  to  convey  the  products  of  the  interior  to  the  sea- 
coast.  Greece,  even  now,  has  only  a  few  carriage  roadn,  not  so  much  because  tho 
mountains  offer  insurmountable  obstacles,  but  because  its  heedless  inhabitants 
are  content  with  the  facilities  for  transport  offered  by  the  sea.  It  would  be 
impossible  in  our  day  to  travel  from  the  Pylos  to  liacedtcmon  in  a  chariot,  as  was 
done  by  Telemachus  ;  for  the  road  connecting  these  places  leads  along  precipices 
and  over  dangerous  goat  paths.  Greece  and  Servia  are  the  European  states 
which  remained  longest  without  a  railway,  and  even  now  the  former  is  content 
with  a  short  line  connecting  Athens  with  its  harbour.  It  has  certainly  been 
proposed  to  construct  several  lines  of  the  utmost  importance,  but,  owing  to  the 
bankrupt  condition  of  the  Greek  exchequer,  these  works  have  not  yet  been  begun. 
The  public  income  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  expenditure,  the  debt  exceeds 
£15,000,000,  and  the  interest  on  the  loans  remains  unpaid.*  . 

The  poverty  of  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Greece  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  State.  The  peasants  are  impoverished  by  the  payment  of  tithes,  and  of  a 
Government  impost  double  or  even  treble  their  amount.  Though  naturally  very 
temperate,  they  are  hardly  able  to  sustain  life ;  they  dwell  in  unwholesome  dens, 
and  are  frequently  unable  to  put  by  sufficient  means  for  the  purchase  of  clothing 
and  other  necessaries.  The  young  men  of  the  poorest  districts  of  Greece  thus 
find  themselves  forced  to  emigrate  in  large  numbers,  either  for  a  season  or  for 
an  indefinite  period.  Arcadia  may  be  likened  in  this  respect  to  the  Auvergne, 
to  Savoy,  and  to  other  mountain  countries  of  Central  Europe.  The  ^tolians, 
however,  exchange  their  fine  savage  valleys  for  foreign  cities  only  very  reluctantly, 
though  they,  too,  suffer  intensely  from  the  weight  of  taxation.  In  ancient  times, 
before  their  spirit  was  broken  by  servitude,  they  would  have  resisted  the  tax- 
gatherer  with  arms  in  their  hands.  They  now  content  themselves  with  sallying 
forth  from  their  villages,  in  order  to  pile  up  a  heap  of  stones  by  the  side  of  the 
high-road,  as  a  testimony  of  the  injustice  with  which  they  have  been  treated. 
This  heap  of  stones  is  anathema.  Every  peasant  passing  it  religiously  adds  a 
stone  to  this  mute  monument  of  execration,  and  the  earth,  the  common  mother  of 
all,  is  thus  charged  with  the  task  of  vengeance. 

Ignorance,  the  usual  attendant  of  poverty,  is  great  in  *h&  rural  districts  of 
Greece,  and  especially  in  those  difficult  of  aooess.  In  Greece,  :>.&  in  Albania  and 
Montenegro,  they  believe  in  perfidious  nymphs,  who  secure  the  affections  of  young 
men,  and  then  drag  them  down  below  the  water ;  they  believe  in  vampyres,  in 
the  evil  eye  and  witchcraft.  But  the  Greeks  are  an  inquiring  race,  anxious 
to  learn,  in  spite  of  their  poverty.  The  peasant  of  Ithaca  will  stop  a  traveller  of 
education  on  the  road,  in  order  that  he  may  read  to  him  the  poetry  of  Homer. 
Elementary  schools  have  been  established  in  nearly  every  village,  in  spite  of  the 
poverty  of  the  Government.  If  no  school  buildings  can  be  secured,  the  classes 
meet  in  the  open  air.  The  scholars,  far  from  playing  truant,  hardly  raise  their 
eyes  from  the  hooks  to  notice  a  passing  stranger  or  the  flight  of  a  bird.  The 
scholars  in  the  superior  schools  and  at  the  University  of  Athens  are  equally 

•  Public  income  (1876).  £1,404,063 ;  expenditure,  £l,409,Cd8 ;  debt,  £15,232,202. 


OBKECE. 


r 

;- 


;, 


conaciontious  ond  asRidiioua.  It  may  be  that  somo  of  them  merely  aspire  to  become 
orators,  but  they  certainly  do  not  resort  to  a  city  on  the  pretence  of  study, 
whilst  in  reality  they  yield  themselves  up  to  debauchery.  Amongst  the  students 
of  the  University  of  Athens  there  are  many  who  work  half  the  night  at  some 
handicraft,  others  who  hire  themselves  out  us  servants  or  coachmen,  to  enable 
them  to  pursue  their  studies  as  lawyers  or  physicians. 

This  love  of  study  cannot  fail  to  secure  to  the  Greek  nation  an  intellectual 
influence  far  greater  than  could  be  looked  for  from  the  smallness  of  its 
numbers.  The  Greeks  of  the  East,  moreover,  look  upon  Athens  as  their  intel- 
lectual centre,  whither  they  send  their  sons  in  pursuit  of  knowledge.  They  found 
scholarships  in  connection  with  the  schools  of  Athens,  and  largely  contribute 
towards  their  support.  And  it  is  not  only  the  rich  Greek  merchants  of  Trieste, 
Saloniki,  Smyrna,  Marseilles,  and  London  who  are  thus  mindful  of  the  true 
interests  of  their  native  country,  but  peasants  of  Thracia  and  Macedonia,  too, 
devote  their  savings  to  the  promotion  of  public  education.  The  people  themselves 
support  their  schools  and  museums,  and  pay  their  professors.  The  Academy  of 
Athens,  the  Polytechnic  School,  the  University,  and  the  Arsakeion,  an  excellent 
ladies'  college — these  all  owe  their  existence  to  the  zeal  of  Greek  citizens,  and  not 
to  the  Government.  It  may  readily  be  understood  from  this  how  carefully  these 
institutions  are  being  watched  by  the  entire  nation,  and  how  salutary  ir'*'-'  ^e  the 
influence  of  young  men  and  women  returning  to  their  native  provinces  alver  they 
have  been  educated  at  them. 

It  is  thus  a  common  language,  common  traditions,  and  a  common  hope  for  the 
future  which  has  made  a  nation  of  the  Greeks  in  spite  of  treaties.  Greek 
patriotism  is  not  confined  to  the  narrow  limits  laid  down  by  diplomacy.  Whether 
they  reside  in  Greece  proper,  in  European  or  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  Greeks  feel  as 
one  people,  and  they  lead  a  common  national  life  independently  of  the  Govern- 
ments of  Constantinople  and  Athens.  Nay,  amongst  the  Greeks  dwelling  in 
foreign  lands  this  feeling  of  nationality  is,  perhaps,  most  intense,  for  they  are  not 
exposed  to  the  corrupting  influence  of  a  bureaucracy.  They  have  more  carefully 
guarded  the  traditions  and  practices  of  municipal  government,  and  are  practically 
in  the  enjoyment  of  greater  individual  liberty.  The  Greek  nation,  in  its  entirety, 
numbers  close  upon  4,000,000  souls.  Its  power,  already  considerable,  is  growing 
from  day  to  day,  and  is  sure  to  exercise  a  potent  influence  upon  the  destinies  of 
Mediterranean  Europe. 

We  are  told  sometimes  that  community  of  religion  might  induce  the  Greeks 
to  favour  Bussian  ambition,  and  to  open  to  that  power  the  road  to  Constantinople. 
Nothing  can  be  further  from  the  truth.  The  Hellenes  will  never  sacrifice  their 
own  interests  to  those  of  the  foreigner.  Nor  do  there  exist  between  Greece  and 
Russia  those  natural  ties  which  alone  give  birth  to  true  alliances.  Climate, 
geographical  position,  history,  commerce,  and,  above  all,  a  common  civilisation, 
attach  Greece  to  that  group  of  European  nations  known  as  Greco- Latin.  In 
tripartite  Europe  the  Greeks  will  never  rang^  themselves  by  the  side  of  the 
Slav,  but  will  be  found  amongst  the  Latin  nations  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 


mksm 


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to  become 

of   study, 

le  Btudonts 

it  at  Homo 

to  enable 

intellectual 
loss  of  its 
their  intel- 
rhey  found 
contribute 
of  Trieste, 
>f  the  true 
)donia,  too, 
themselves 
Academy  of 
a  excellent 
ns,  and  not 
jfuUy  these 
r-"-'  be  the 
i  alver  they 

lope  for  the 
98.  Greek 
Whether 
eeks  feel  as 
be  Govem- 
Iwelling  in 
hey  are  not 
re  carefully 
)  practically 
its  entirety, 
,  is  growing 
destinies  of 

I  the  Greeks 
Lstantinople. 
crifice  their 
Greece  and 
s.  Climate, 
civilisation, 
I- Latin.  In 
side  of  the 
d  Spain. 


k  vVt; 


.i^:%  ■ 


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-<"'''• 

0    ^^ 

1  iff  ■-'^    ■ 

3. 


_E 


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wwwrt'^'^wwwwiw  ■■  w !  wM 


.yiHliiHiHijiWumin. 


*l**'-r' 


!><>>#»'>»  'M*'  'W)NwtNwi!g^iii*wy*'^^ 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 


85 


VIl. — Government  and   Political   Divisions. 

The  protecting  powers  have  bestowed  upon  Greece  a  parliamentary  and  constitu- 
tional Government,  modelled  upon  West  European  patterns.  Theoretically 
the  King  of  the  Greeks  reigns,  but  does  not  govern,  and  his  ministers  are 
responsible  to  the  Chambers,  whose  majority  changes  with  the  fluctuations  of 
public  opinion.  In  reality,  however,  the  power  of  the  King  is  limited  only 
by  diplomacy.  Nor  do  those  Western  institutions  respond  to  the  traditions 
and  the  genius  of  the  Greeks,  and  although  the  charter  has  been  modified 
three  times  since  the  declaration  of  independence,  it  has  never  been  strictly 
adhered  to. 

In  accordance  with  the  constitution  of  1864,  every  Greek  citizen  possessing 
any  property  whatever,  or  exercising  a  profession,  has  a  right  to  vote  on  attaining 
his  twenty- fifth  year,  and  becomes  eligible  as  a  deputy  at  thirty.  The  deputies, 
one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  in  number,  are  elected  for  four  years,  and  are  paid 
for  their  services.  The  civil  list  of  the  Enng,  inclusive  of  a  subvention  granted  by 
the  protecting  powers,  amounts  to  £46,000  a  year. 

The  orthodox  Greek  Ohurch  of  Hellas  is  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  It  is  governed  by  a  Holy  Synod,  sitting  in  the  capital,  and 
presided  over  by  an  archbishop  as  metropolitan.  A  royal  commissioner  is  present 
at  the  meetings  of  the  Synod,  and  countersigns  every  proposition  that  is  carried. 
Decisions  not  bearing  this  official  signature  are  void.  The  King,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  permitted  to  dethrone  or  remove  a  bishop  only  by  consent  of  the  Synod, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  canon  law.  The  constitution  guarantees  religious 
liberty,  but  this  official  Church  nevertheless  exercises  considerable  powers,  and 
frequently  calls  upon  the  civil  authorities  to  give  force  to  its  decrees.  The 
Synod  carefully  watches  over  the  observance  of  religious  dc^mas ;  it  points  out  to 
the  authorities  heretical  or  heterodox  preachers  and  writers,  and  demands  their 
suppression;  exercises  a  censorship  over  books  and  religious  pictures;  and  calls 
upon  the  civil  tribunals  to  punish  offenders. 

There  are  no  longer  any  Mohammedans  in  Greece,,  except  sailors  or  tra- 
vellers, and  the  last  Turk  has  quitted  Euboea.  The  only  Church  besides 
the  established  one  which  can  boast  a  considerable  number  of  adherents  is 
the  Roman  Catholic.  It  prevails  amongst  the  middle  classes  on  Naxos,  and  on 
several  others  of  the  Cyclades,  and  is  governed  by  two  archbishops  and  four 
bishops. 

Greece  is  divided  into  thirteen  nomes,  or  nomarchies,  and  these,  again, 
into  fifty-nine  eparchies.  Each  eparchy  is  subdivided  into  districts,  or  dimes 
(dimarohies),  and  the  latter  into  parishes,  governed  by  paredres,  or  assistant 
dimarohs.  These  officials  are  appointed  by  the  King,  and  are  in  receipt  of  small 
emolumoitB.  The  number  of  officials  is  proportionately  greater  in  Greece  than 
in  any  other  part  of  Europe.  They  form  the  sixtieth  part,  or,  including  their 
families,  the  twelfth  part  of  the  population,  and  although  their  pay  is  small,  they 
swallow  up  between  them  more  than  half  the  public  income. 


^ 


,K':i    J'M'll 


mmf 


mmm0^ 


r 


66 


GBEECE. 


The  thirteen  noines  and  fifty-nine  eparchies  of  Greece,  with  their  population 
in  1870 :— 


Town.  Fopulation. 

Mantinea 46,174 

Kjnuria  .        .        ,        .        .        .    26,738 

Oortynia 41,408 

Megalopolii 17|426 


Arkadia 


131,740 


Lakedemon 46,428 

Gythion 13,967 

Itylos  ((Etylos) 26,540 

Epidauros  Limera 18,031 


Lakonia 


.  105,861 


EalamtB 26,020 

MesHini 29,529 

Pylia 20,946 

Triphylia 29,041 

Olympia 26,872 


Mesaenia 


130,417 


Nauplia 16,023 

Argos 22,138 


Korinthia 

8pet«aB  and  Hermionis 

Hydra  and  Trizinia 

Kytbyra 


Argolis  and  Korinthia 


42,803 
10,919 
17,301 
10,637 

127.820 


Syrwi 30,643 

Kea 8.687 

Andros 10,674 

Tinos 11,022 

Naxoa 20,682 

Thira  (Thera,  Santorin)  .        .        .  21,001 

Milos 10,784 


Kyklades 


123,203 


Attiki 7«,919 

^gina 6,103 

Megaris 14,940 

Thi»a(Theb») 20,711 

Livadia 18,122 


Attiki  and  Viotia  (Boeotia)       .  136,804 

Tlie  modem  nvmcnolatore  has  been  adopted  in  the  abore  table. 


TowiM.  Populatioii. 

Kbiilkia.        .        .        .        .        .        .     29,01? 


Xerocborion 

Karyatia 

Skopeloa 


Euria  (Kuboea) 


11,216 

33,086 

8,377 

82,641 


Fhthiotia 26,747 

Pamaaia 20,868 

Lokris 20,187 

Doria 49,110 


Fhthiotia  and  Phokia 


106,421 


Meaolongion  (Miaaolonghi)     .        .        .  18,907 

Valtoa 14,037 

Trichonia 14,463 

Evrytania 33,018 

Navpaktia 23,210 

Yomtn  and  Xerometo* .        .        .        .  18,970 


Akamania  and  JEUAIa 


.  121.603 


Patraa    .        .        <        .        .        .        .  46,627 

JGgialia 12^64 

Kaiavryta  .        .        .        .        .  80,204 

Ilia(EIia)       .  .        .        .        .  61,08d 


Achaia  and  Ilia  (Elis) 


149,661 


Kerkyn  (Corfu)     .        .        .        .        .  26,729 

Meai       ......  21,764 

Oroa 24,983 

Paxi(Paxoa) 3,682 

Leuoaa  (Santa  Maura)    ....  20,892 


Kerkyra  (Corfu) 


06,940 


KraniBa 33,868 

Pali 17,877 

Sami 16,774 

Itaki 9,878 


Kephallinia 
Zakynthoa  (Zante) 


igaftwUlitMftff^a 


it>mmm«mM^tiiii^¥!^^^''^^^''^<^-^y^  ■■:;.:>-«»  a' p^^^wi—if  m 


^ 


opulation 


Populstiaa. 

.  11,215 
.  33,086 
.      8,877 


82.641 

26,747 
20,368 
20,187 
49,119 

106,421 

18,997 
14.027 
14,468 
33,018 
22,219 
18,979 

121,698 

,  46,627 
12/r64 
89,204 
61,036 

149,661 


26,729 
21,764 
24,983 
3,682 
20,892 

96,940 


83,868 

17,877 

16,774 

9,878 

77.382 
44,667 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.* 


I. — General  AsrEcrs. 

HE  Balkan  peninsula  is,  perhaps,  that  amongst  the  three  great 
peninsulas  of.  Southern  Europe  which  enjoys  the  greatest  natural 
advantages,  and  occupies  the  most  favourable  geographical  position. 
In  its  outline  it  is  far  less  unwieldy  than  Spain,  and  even  surpasses 
Italy  in  variety  of  contour.  Its  coasts  are  washed  by  four  seas ;  they 
abound  in  gulfs,  harbours,  and  peninsulas,  and  are  fringed  by  numerous  islands. 
Several  of  its  valleys  and  plains  vie  in  fertility  with  the  banks  of  the  Guadalquivir 
and  the  plains  of  Lombardy.  The  floras  of  two  climes  intermingle  on  its  soil,  and 
add  their  charms  to  the  landscape.  The  mountains  of  Turkey  do  not  yield  to  those 
of  the  two  other  peninsulas  in  graceful  outline  or  graudeiir,  and  most  of  them  are 
still  covered  with  virgin  forests.  If  they  are  less  accessible  than  the  Apennines  of 
Itdy  or  the  sierras  of  Spain,  that  is  owing  simply  to  the  want  of  roads ;  for  they 
are,  as  a  rule,  of  moderate  elevation,  and  the  plateaux  from  which  they  rise  are 
narrower  and  more  extensively  intersected  by  valleys  than  is  the  table-land  of 
Castile.  Both  Spain  and  Italy  are  closed  in  the  north  by  mountain  barriers 
difficult  to  cross,  whilst  the  Balkan  peninsula  joins  the  continental  trunk  by  almost 
imperceptible  transitions,  and  nowhere  is  it  separated  from  it  by  well-defined 
natural  boundaries.  The  Austrian  Alps  extend  without  a  break  into  Bosnia,  and 
the  Carpathians  cross  the  Danube  in  order  to  e£Feot  a  junction  with  the  system  of 
the  Balkan.  To  the  east  of  the  "  Iron  Gate  "  there  are  no  mountains  at  all,  and 
Turkey  is  bounded  there  by  the  broad  valley  of  the  Danube. 

•  AnUioritieB :— R.  Pa»hley,  "  Travels  in  Crete ; "  Raulin,  "  Deeoription  Phyrique  de  I'lle  de  CWte ; " 
G.  Penot,  «•  L'lle  de  CrAte ; "  Viqaeniel, «'  Voyage  dans  la  Turqiu'e  d'Eorope ; "  Ami  Boui,  «•  La  Tarqnie 
dTEurope ; "  A.  Dumont, "  Le  Balkan  et  I'AdxiaUqup ; "  Lejean, "  Ethnographie  de  la  Turquie  d'Eorope ; " 
Von  Hammer,  " Konetantinopel  und  der  BoepOTus;"  P.  de  TchihatoWf,  "Le  Bo«phore;"  Houaey, 
"  Voyage  arcMologique  en  MacMoine ; "  Fanahawe  Toier,  "  BeMarabee  in  tiie  TTiglil«nd«  of  Turkey ; " 
Barlh,  "  Reiaen  in  der  europiuKhen  Tiirkei ; "  Von  Hahn,  "  AlbaneuMsha  Studien ; "  Hecqnatd.  "  HJk 
uOn  «t  Dawription  de  la  Haute-Allwnie ; "  Dora  d'latria,  "  NationaliU  albanaiM ; "  F.  Maurer,  "  Reiae 
dnrch  BoniiB ; "  F.  de  Sainte-Harie,  "  L'Hem^goTine ; "  Kaniti, "  Donaa-Balgarieo  and  der  Balkan  • " 
H.  Kiepevt,  M19  of  Taikey  in  Europe. 

For  duuiges  made  by  tfKBerlin  treaty,  gee  page  158. 


88  TUEKEY  IN  EUEOPE. 

The  proximity  and  parallelism  of  the  coasts  of  two  continents  confer  upon  the 
Balkan  peninsula  an  advantage  unrivalled,  perhaps,  throughout  the  world.  It  is 
separated  from  Asia  only  by  the  narrow  channel  which  joins  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
^gean  Sea :  this  channel  is  an  ocean  highway,  and  yet  forms  no  serious  obstacle 
to  the  migration  of  nations  from  continent  to  continent.  If  the  Black  Sea  were 
larger  than  it  is  at  present ;  if  it  still  formed  one  sea  with  the  Caspian,  and  extended 
far  into  Asia,  as  it  did  in  a  past  age,  then  Constantinople  would  necessarily  become  - 
the  great  centre  of  the  ancient  world.  That  proud  position  was  actually  held  by 
it  a  thousand  years  ago,  and  even  if  it  should  never  recover  it,  its  g^graphical 
position  alone  insures  to  it  an  importance  for  all  time  to  come.  If  the  city  were 
to  be  razed  to  day,  it  would  arise  again  to-morrow  at  some  other  spot  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. In  the  dawn  of  history  powert'ul  Ilion  kept  watch  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Dardanelles :  it  survives  in  the  city  on  the  Bosphorus ;  and  had  there  been  no 
Byzantium,  its  mantle  would  have  descended  upon  some  other  town  in  the  same 
locality. 

We  know  the  part  played  by  ancient  Greece  in  the  history  of  human  culture. 
Macedonia  and  Thracia,  the  two  other  countries  bordering  upon  the  ^gean,  have 
played  their  part  too.  It  was  those  provinces  which,  after  the  invasion  of  the 
Persians,  gave  birth  to  the  movement  of  reaction  which  led  the  armies  of  Alexander 
to  the  Euphrates  and  Indus.  The  power  of  the  Romans  survived  there  for  a 
thousand  years  after  Rome  itself  had  fallen,  and  the  precious  germs  of  civilisation, 
which  at  a  later  period  regenerated  Western  Europe,  were  nurtured  there.  It  is 
true,  alas !  that  the  Turk  has  put  a  stop  to  every  enterprise  of  a  civilising  nature. 
These  conquerors  of  Turanian  race  were  carried  into  the  Balkan  peninsula  in  the 
course  of  a  general  migration  of  nations  towards  the  west,  which  went  on  for 
three  thousand  years,  and  was  attended  by  perpetual  broils.  It  is  now  five 
hundred  years  since  the  Turks  obtained  a  footing  in  the  peninsula,  and  for  more 
than  four  hundred  years  they  have  been  its  masters,  and  during  that  long  period 
the  old  Roman  empire  of  the  East  has  been  severed,  as  it  were,  firom  the  rost  of 
Europe.  The  normal  progpress  of  these  highly  favoured  countries  has  been  inter- 
rupted by  incessant  wars  between  Christians  and  Mohammedans,  by  the  decay  of 
the  nations  conquered  or  enslaved  by  the  Turks,  and  by  the  heedless  fatalism  of  tiie 
masters  of  the  country.  But  the  time  is  approaching  when  that  important  portion 
of  Europe  will  resume  the  position  due  to  it  amongst  the  countries  of  the  earth. 

Vast  tracts  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  are  hardly  better  known  to  us  than  the 
wilds  of  Africa.  Kanitz  found  rivers,  hills,  and  mountains  figuring  upon  our 
maps  which  have  no  existence.  Another  traveller,  Lejean,  found  that  a  pretended 
low  pass  through  the  Balkans  existed  only  in  the  imagination.  Russian  geodesists 
engaged  upon  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  a  meridian  found  that  Sofia,  one  of 
the  largest  and  best-known  cities  of  Turkey,  had  been  inserted  upon  the  best  maps 
at  a  distance  of  nearly  a  day's  journey  from  its  true  position.  The  entire  chain  of 
the  Balkans  had  to  be  shifted  considerably  to  the  south,  in  consequence  of  explora- 
tions carried  on  within  the  last  few  years.  Men  of  science  have  hardly  ventured 
yet  to  explore  the  plateaux  of  Albania  or  Mount  Pindus,  and  much  remains  yet  to 


n  '■■.'(■^j.-w^j^  mmumnv^im 


OENEBAL  ASPECTS. 


upon  the 
Id.    It  is 
3a  to  the 
}  obstacle 
Sea  were 
extended 
y  become  - 
^  held  by 
igraphical 
city  were 
he  neigh- 
Ltranoe  of 
■e  been  no 
the  same 

kn  culture, 
jean,  have 
ion  of  the 
Alexander 
bere  for  a 
livilisation, 
ere.     It  is 
ag  nature, 
aula  in  the 
ent  on  for 
now  five 
for  more 
Dng  period 
the  rest  of 
)een  inter- 
le  decay  of 
lism  of  the 
mt  portion 

earth. 
18  than  the 
upon  our 
pretended 
geodeflists 
>fia,  one  of 
best  maps 
re  chain  of 
of  explora- 
y  ventured 
lains  yet  to 


be  done  before  our  knowledge  of  the  topography  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  can  be 
called  even  moderately  complete.  The  voyages  and  explorations  of  a  host  of 
travellers*  have,  however,  made  known  to  us  its  general  features  and  its  geological 
formations.  Their  task  was  by  no  means  an  easy  one,  for  the  mountain  masses  and 
mountain  chains  of  the  peninsula  do  not  constitute  a  regular,  well-defined  system. 
There  is  no  central  range,  with  spurs  runniilg  out  on  both  sides,  and  gradually 
decreasing  in  height  as  they  approach  the  plains.  Nor  is  the  centre  of  the  penin- 
.  Bula  its  most  elevated  portion,  for  the  culminating  summits  are  dispersed  over  the 
country  apparently  without  order.  The  mountain  ranges  run  in  all  the  directions 
of  the  compass,  and  we  can  only  say,  in  a  general  way,  that  those  of  Western  Turkey 
run  parallel  with  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  coasts,  whilst  those  in  the  east  meet  the 
coasts  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  ^gean  at  right  angles.  The  relief  of  the  soil  and 
the  water-sheds  make  it  appear  almost  as  if  Turkey  turned  her  back  upon  con- 
tinental Europe.  Its  highest  mountains,  its  most  extensive  table-lands,  and  its  most 
inaccessible  forests  lie  towards  the  west  and  north-west,  as  if  they  were  intended  to 
cut  it  o£P  from  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  plains  of  Hungary,  whilst  all  its 
rivers,  whether  they  run  to  the  north,  east,  or  south,  finally  find  their  way  into  the 
Black  Sea  or  the  ^gean,  whose  shores  face  those  of  Asia. 

This  irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  the  mountains  has  its  analogue  in  the 
distribution  of  the  various  races  which  inhabit  the  peninsula.  The  invaders  or 
peaceful  colonists,  whether  they  came  across  the  straits  from  Asia  Minor,  or  along 
the  valley  of  the  Danube  from  Soythia,  soon  found  themselves  scattered  in 
numerous  valleys,  or  stopped  by  amphitheatres  having  no  outlet.  They  failed  to 
find  their  way  in  this  labyrinth  of  mountains,  and  members  of  the  most  diverse  races 
settled  down  in  proximity  to  each  other,  and  frequently  came  into  conflict.  The 
most  numerous,  the  most  warlike,  or  the  most  industrious  races  gradually  extended 
their  power  at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours ;  and  the  latter,  defeated  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  have  been  scattered  into  innumerable  fbigments,  between 
which  Aere  is  no  longer  any  cohesion.  Hungary  has  a-  homogeneous  population, 
if  we  compare  it  with  that  of  Tuarkey ;  for  in  the  latter  country  there  are  districts 
where  eight  or  ten  di£Perent  nationalities  live  side  by  side  within  a  radius  of  a  few 
miles. 

Time,  however,  has  brought  some  order  into  this  chaos,  and  commercial  inter- 
course has  done  much  to  assimilate  these  varions  races.  Speaking  broadly,  Turkey 
in  Europe  may  now  be  said  to  be  divided  into  four  great  ethnological  zones.  The 
Greeks  occupy  Crete,  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the  shores  of  the  ^gean  Sea, 
and  the  eastern  slopes  of  Mounts  Pindus  and  Olympus ;  the  Albanians  hold  the 
country  between  the  Adriatic  and  Mount  Pindus ;  the  Slavs,  including  Servians, 
Oroats,  Bosnians,  Herzegovinians,  and  Tsemagorans  (Montenegrins),  occupy  the 
Hlyrian  Alps,  towards  the  north-west ;  whilst  the  slopes  of  the  Balkan,  the 
Despoto  Dagh,  and  the  plains  of  Eastern  Turkey  belong  to  the  Bulgarians,  who, 
as  &r  as  language  goes,  are  Slavs  likewise.    As  to  the  Turks,  the  lords  of  the  land, 

*  We  montion  Palnui,  Vaudonoourt,  Lapic,  Boa6,  Viquenel,  Lqjeaa,  Kanits,  BatUi,  Hoohatottar, 
and  Abdullah  Bay. 


90 


TURKEY  IN  EUBOPB. 


they  are  to  bo  met  with  in  most  places,  and  partioularly  in  the  large  towns  and 
fortresses ;  but  the  only  portion  of  the  country  which  they  occupy  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  races  is  the  north-eastora  corner  of  the  peninsula,  bounded  by  the  Balkans, 
the  Danube,  and  the  Black  Sea. 


: 


IT. — Oretb  and  the  Islands  of  the  Archipblaoo. 

Cbete,  next  to  Cyprus,  is  the  largest  island  inhabited  by  Qreeks.  It  is  a  natural 
dependency  of  Greece,  but  treaties  made  without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  people 
have  handed  it  over  to  the  Turks.  It  is  Greek  in  spite  of  this,  not  only  because 
the  majority  of  its  inhabitants  consider  it  to  be  so,  but  also  because  of  its  soilt  its 
climate,  and  its  geographical  position.  On  all  sides  it  is  surrounded  by  deep  seas, 
except  towards  the  r.orth-west,  where  a  submarine  plateau  joins  it  to  Oythera  and 
the  Peloponnesus.  n  . 

<  There  are  few  countries  in  the  world  more  favoured  by  nature.  Its  climate  is 
mild,  though  sometimes  too  dry  in  summer;  its  soil  fertile  in  spite  of  the  waters 
being  swallowed  up  by  the  limestone  rocks;  its  harbours  spacious  and  well  sheltered; 
and  its  scenery  exhibits  both  grandeur  and  quiet  beauty.  The  position  of  Orete,  at 
the  mouth  of  the' Archipelago,  between  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  seems  to  have 
destined  that  island  to  become  the  great  commercial  emporium  of  that  part  of  the 
world.  Aristotle  already  observed  this,  and,  if  tradition  can  be  trusted^  Orete 
a0tuaUy  held  that  position  for  more  than  three  thousand  years.  During  that  time 
it  "  ruled  the  waves ; "  the  Cyclades  acknowledged  the  sway  of  Milos,  its  king ; 
Cretan  colonists  established  themselves  in  Sicily ;  and  Cretan  vessels  found  their 
'way  to  every  part  of  the  Mediterranean.  But  the  island  unfortimately  became 
divided  into  innumerable  small  republics  jealous  of  each  othw,  and  was  thereforo 
uoable  to  maintain  this  commercial  supremacy  in  the  face  of  Dorian  and  other 
Greeks,  .  At  a  subsequent  period  the  Romans  ^ibjected  the  idand^  and  it  never 
rocov6red  its  independence.  Byzantines,  Arabs,  Venetians,  and  Turks  have  held 
it  in  tarn,  and  by  each  of  them  it  has  been  laid  waste  and  impoverished. 

The  elongated  shape  of  ,the  island,  and  the  range  of  mounteins  whioh 
runs  thro]agh  it  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  enable  us  to  understand  how 
it  was  that  at  a  time  when  most  Greeks  looked  upon  the  walls  of  their  cities 
as  synonynioiis  with  the  limits  of  their  ^therland,  Orete  became  divided  into 
a  ntultitude  of  small  republics,  and  how  every  attempt  at  federation  ("  synoretiun  ") 
miserably  failed.  The  inhabitants,  in  fact,  were  more  e£Eectttally  separated 
from  each  other  than  if  they  had  inhabited  a  number  of  small  islandB  forming 
an  archipelago.  Most  of  the  coast  valleys  are  enclosed  by  high  mountaina, 
the  only  easy  access  to  them  being  from  the  sea,  and  communioati<»u  between 
the  towns  occupying  their  centres  are  possible  only  by  orossmg  difficult  mountain 
paths  easily  defended.  In  all  Crete  there  exists  but  one  plain  deserving  the 
name,  viz.  that  of  Messara,  to  the  south  of  the  central  mass  of  mountains.  It 
is  the  granary  of  the  island,  uid  the  leropotamo,  or  "holy  river,"  which  traverses 
it,  has  a  little  water  even  in  the  middle  of  summer. 


wiiiwinnwiwt 


atMtmtaingiHpi 


MM 


ji 


CBETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OP  THE  ABCHIPELAOO. 


M 


towns  and 
9  exclusion 
le  Balkans, 


is  a  natural 
■  the  people 
ily  because 
its  soUt  its 
r  deep  seas, 
Ijthera  and 

I  climate  is 
tlie  waters 
1  sheltered; 
of  Crete,  at 
ms  to  have 
part  of  the 
sted^  Orete 
g  that  time 
s,  its  king ; 
found  their 
ely  beoame 
M  therefofe 
and  oiher 
ad  iiiieirer 
I  hare  held 

Bins  whidi 
rstand  how 
their  cities 
ivided  into 
noretinn  ") 
r  separated 
ids  forming 
mountain^ 
ns  between 
It  mountain 
serving  the 
mtains.  It 
sh  traverses 


The  contour  of  Orete  corresponds  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  height 
of  its  mountains.  Where  these  are  high,  the  island  is  broad ;  where  they  sink 
down,  it  is  narrow.  In  the  centre  of  the  island  rises  Mount  Ida  (Psiloriti),  where 
Jupiter  was  educated  by  the  Corybantes,  and  where  his  tomb  was  shown.  Its 
lofty  summit,  covered  with  snow  almost  throughout  the  year,  its  gigantic 
buttresses,  and  the  verdant  valleys  at  its  base  render  it  one  of  the  most  imposing 
mountains  in  the  world ;  but  it  was  still  more  magnificent  in  the  time  of  the 

Fig.  28.— Thi  Oobob  ow  Haoio  Bvmbu. 


ancient  Greeks,  when  forests  covered  its  slopes,  and  justified  its  being  called  Mount 
Ida,  or  "the  wooded."  On  the  summit  of  this  mountain  the  whole  idand  lies 
Bpnad.  out  beneath  our  feet ;  the  horizon  towards  the  north,  from  Mount  Taygetus 
to  the  shores  of  Asia,  is  dotted  with  islands  and  peninsulas;  and  in  the  south  a 
wide  expanse  of  water  extends  beyond  the  barren  and  inhoapitable  island  of  Gaudo. 
The  Leuca-Ori,  or  "  White  Mountains,"  in  the  western  extremity  of  the  island, 
are  thus  called  on  account  of  the  snow  which  covers  their  summits,  or  because 


9a 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


of  their  white  limestone  cliffs.  They  are  exceedingly  steep,  and  perfectly  bare, 
hardly  any  verdure  being  met  with  even  in  the  valleys  at  their  foot.  They  are 
known,  also,  as  the  Mountains  of  the  Sphakiotes,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Dorians,  who  have  retired  into  thnr  fastnesses,  where  they  are  protected  by 
nature  against  every  attack.  Some  of  their  villages  are  accessible  only  by 
following  the  stony  bed  of  mountain  torrents  leaping  down  from  the  heights 
in  small  oascadee.  During  the  rains  the  water  rushes  down  these  ravines  in 
mighty  torrents.  The  "  gat«8  are  closed  "  then,  as  it  is  said.  One  of  these  gates, 
or  pharynghi,  is  that  of  Hagio  Bumeli,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Leuoa-Ori. 
When  rain  threatens  it  is  dangerous  to  enter  these  gorges,  for  the  waters  rush 
down  and  carry  everything  before  them.  During  the  war  of  independence 
the  Turks  vainly  endeavoured  to  force  this  "  gate  "  of  the  strong  mountain  oitadel. 
The  level  pieces  of  ground  on  these  heights  are  sufficiently  extensive  to  support 
a  considerable  population,  if  it  were  not  for  the  cold.  The  villages  of  Askyfo 
occupy  one  of  these  plains,  which  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  an  amphitheatre 
of  mountains.  In  former  times  this  cavity  was  occupied  by  a  lake.  This  is 
proved  by  ancient  beaches  and  by  other  evidence.  But  the  waters  of  the  lake 
found  an  outlet  through  some  katavothras  {khonos,  "sinks")  and  discharged 
themselves  into  the  sea. 

The  remaining  mountains  of  the  island  are  less  elevated  and  far  less  sterile 
than  the  White  Mountains.  The  most  remarkable  amongst  them  are  the  Lasithi, 
and,  still  farther  west,  those  of  Dicte,  or  Sitia,  a  sort  of  pendant  to  the  Mountains  of 
the  Sphakiotes.  Raised  sea-beachos  have  been  traced  along  their  northern  slopes, 
covered  with  shells  of  living  species,  and  they  prove  that  that  portion  of  the 
island  has  been  upheaved  more  than  sixty  feet  during  a  recent  geological  epoch. 
The  northern  coast,  between  the  White  Mountains  and  Mount  Dicte,  offers  a 
greater  variety  of  contour  than  does  the  south  coast.  Its  capes,  or  acroteria, 
project  far  into  the  sea,  and  thence  are  gulfs,  bays,  and  secure  anchorages.  For 
these  reasons  most  commercial  cities  have  been  built  upon  that  side  of  the  island, 
which  faces  the  Archipelago  and  presents  a  picture  of  life,  whilst  the  south  coast, 
facing  Africa,  is  comparatively  deserted.  All  the  modem  cities  on  the  northern 
coasts  have  been  built  upon  the  »tes  of  ancient  ones.  Megalokastron,  better 
known  by  its  Italian  name  of  Oandia,  is  the  Heraoleum  of  the  ancients,  tibe 
famous  haven  of  Onossus.  Retimo,  on  the  western  front  of  Mount  Ida,  is  easily 
identified  with  the  ancient  Rithymna;  whilst  Ehanea  (Canea),  whose  white 
houses  are  almost  confounded  with  the  arid  slopes  of  the  White  Mountains, 
represents  the  Cydonia  of  the  Greeks,  famous  for  its  forests  of  quince-trees. 
Canea  is  the  actual  capital,  and  although  not  the  most  populous,  it  is  never- 
theless the  most  important  and  the  busiest  city  of  the  island.  It  has  a 
second  haven  to  the  east,  Azizirge,  on  Suda  Bay,  one  of  the  best  sheltered  on  the 
island,  and  promises  to  become  one  of  tlie  principal  maritime  stations  on  the 
Mediterranean.* 

*  Heights  of  principal  mountnini :— Aapn  Vuna  (White  Mountain  of  Leuoa-Ori),  8,100  feet ;  Pnloriti, 
or  Ida,  8,000  feet;  Laaitlii,  or  Diote,  7,100  feet.  Town* :— Canea,  12,000  inhabitant!;  Megalokastron, 
12,000 ;  Betimo,  9,000.    ToUil  population  of  the  island,  210,000. 


■l).iii,Wi,.Mj<».«.ai}i«(9i!iijjj,,iSJa«W.WM.MMHISI«l!*J* 


tt§mmm 


tly  bare, 
rhey  are 
)  ancient 
acted  by 
only  by 
)  beigbts 
Avines  in 
ese  gates, 
leuca-Ori. 
ten  rusb 


n  citadel. 
0  support 
»f  Askyfo 
}bitbeatre 
Tbis  is 
tbe  lake 
lisobarged 

[ess  sterile 
ke  Lasitbi, 
luntains  of 
)m  slopes, 
on  of  tbe 
cal  epocb. 
offers  a 
aeroteria, 
ges.    For 
le  island, 
utb  coast, 
nortbem 
on,  better 
ients,  tbe 
is  easily 
ose  wbite 
£ountainB, 
inoe- trees, 
is  never- 
It  bas  a 
redonibe 
on  tbe 


«t;Pnloriti, 
igalokattron, 


OBETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ABOHiPELAOO.  M 

Orete  bas  certainly  lost  mucb  in  population  and  wealtb,  and  tbe  epitbet  of 
tbe  "  isle  of  a  bundred  cities,"  wbicb  it  received  from  tbe  ancient  Greeks,  no  longer 
ap.lies  to  it.  Miserable  villages  occupy  tbe  sites  of  tbe  ancient  cities,  tbeir 
boudes  built  from  tbe  materials  of  a  single  ruined  wall,  wbilst  immense  quarries 
bad  to  be  opened  in  order  to  supply  tbe  building  materials  required  in  former 
times.  Tbe  famous  "labyrintb"  is  one  of  tbe  most  considerable  of  tbese  ancient 
quarries.  Orete,  in  spite  of  its  great  fertility,  exports  merely  a  few  agricultural 
products,  and  notbing  now  reminds  us  of  tbe  fruitful  island  upon  wbicb  Geres 
gave  birtb  to  Plutus.  Tbe  peasants  are  tbe  reputed  owners  of  tbe  land,  but  tbey 
take  little  beed  of  its  cultivation.  Tbeir  olives  yield  only  an  inferior  oil,  and 
tbougb  tbe  wine  tbey  make  is  good  in  spite  of  tbem,  it  is  no  longer  tbe  Malvoisie 
so  bigbly  prized  by  tbe  Venetians.  Tbe  cultivation  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  of 
fruit  of  all  sorts  Is  neglected.  Tbe  only  progress  in  agriculture  wbicb  can  be 
recorded  during  tbe  present  century  consists  in  tbe  introduction  of  orange-trees. 


Fig.  29.— Ckri,  or  Candu. 

3E 


Bmle  1:8470,000. 
The  dtotriot  InhaUted  bf  MolwmiMdHii  to  i 


iTOriloidlr. 


wbose  delicious  fruit  is  bigbly  appreciated  tbrougbout  tbe  East.  M.  (Georges 
Perrot  bas  drawn  attention  to  tbe  singular  fact  tbat,  witb  tbe  exception  of  tbe 
olive-trees  and  tbe  vine,  tbe  cultivated  trees  of  tbe  idand  a,n  confined  to 
particular  localities.  Tbus  cbe^tnuts  are  met  witb  only  at  tbe  western  extremity 
of  tbe  island ;  vigorous  oaks  and  cypresses  are  confined  to  tbe  elevated  valleys  of 
tbe  SpbaUotes ;  tbe  valonia  oaks  are  met  witb  only  in  tbe  province  of  Retimo ; 
Mount  Dicte  alone  supports  stone-pines  and  carob-trees;  and  a  promontory  in 
Soutb-eastem  Crete,  jutting  out  towards  Africa,  is  surmounted  by  a  grove  of 
date-trees — ^the  finest  tbrougbout  tbe  Arobipelago. 

Tbe  inbabitants  of  Crete  and  tbe  neigbbouring  islets  are  still  Greek,  in  spite  of 
successive  invasions,  and  tbey  still  speak  a  Greek  dialect,  recognised  as  a  corrupted 
Dorifin.  Tbe  Slavs,  wbo  invaded  tbe  island  during  tbe  Middle  Agesy  bave  left 
no  trace  except  tbe  names  of  a  few  villages.  Tbe  Arabs  and  Venetians,  too,  bave 
been  assimilated  by  tbe  aboriginal  Cretans ;  but  tbere  still  exist  a  considerable 


o 


*" 


Hs^ 


94 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


number  of  Albanians,  the  desoendanta  of  soldiers,  who  have  retained  their 
language  and  their  customs.  As  to  the  Mohammedans  or  pretended  Turks,  who 
constitute  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  population,  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  the 
descendants  of  Cretans  who  embraced  Islamism  in  order  to  escape  persecution. 
They  are  the  only  Hellenes  throughout  the  East  who  have  embraced,  in  a  body, 
the  religion  of  their  conquerors ;  but  since  religious  persecution  has  subsided 
several  of  those  Mohammedan  Greeks  have  returned  to  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors.  The  Greeks  of  Crete  are  thus  not  only  vastly  in  the  majority,  but 
they  hold  the  first  place  also  in  industry,  commerce,  and  wealth ;  it  is  they  who 
buy  up  the  land,  and  the  Mohammedan  gradually  retires  before  them.  All 
Cretans,  with  the  exception  of  the  Albanians,  speak  Greek,  and  only  in  the  capital 
and  in  a  portion  of  Messara,  where  the  Mohammedans  live  in  compact  masses,  has 
the  Turkish  language  made  any  progress. 

We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  if  the  Greeks  lay  claim  to  a  country  in 
which  their  preponderance  is  so  marked.  But,  in  spite  of  their  valour,  they  were 
no  match  against  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  armies  which  were  brought 
against  them. 

The  Cretans  are  said  to  resemble  their  ancestors  in  the  eagerness  with  which 
they  do  business,  and  in  their  disregard  of  truth.  They  may  possibly  be  "  Greeks 
amongst  Greeks — liars  amongst  liars ;  "  but  they  certainly  cannot  be  reproached 
with  being  bad  patriots.  On  the  contrary,  they  have  suffered  much  for  the  sake 
of  their  fatherland,  and  during  the  war  of  independence  their  blood  was  shed  in 
torrents  on  many  a  battle-field.  The  vast  cavern  of  Melidhoni,  on  the  western 
slope  of  Mount  Ida,  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  terrible  events  of  this  war. 
In  1822  more  than  three  hundred  Hellenes,  most  of  them  women,  children, 
and  old  men,  had  sought  refuge  in  this  oavem.  The  Turks  lit  a  fire  at  its 
mouth,  and  the  smoke,  penetrating  to  its  farthest  extremity,  suffocated  the  unfortu- 
nate beings  who  had  hoped  to  find  shelter  there. 

The  profound  "  Sea  of  Minos,"  to  the  north  of  Crete,  separates  that  island 
firom  the  Archipelago.  All  the  islands  of  the  latter  have  been  assigned  to  tho 
kingdom  of  Greece — Astypaleea,  Vulgarly  called  Astropalssa  or  Stampalia,  alone 
excepted,  which  still  belongs  to  the  Turks.  The  ancients  called  this  island  the 
"  Table  of  the  Gods,"  although  it  is  only  a  barren  rock.  It  clearly  belongs  to 
the  eastern  chain  of  the  Cyolades,  as  far  as  geological  formation  and  the 
configuration  of  the  sea-bottom  go  ;  but  the  diplomats  allowed  its  fifteen  hundred 
inhabitants  to  remain  under  the  dominion  of  Turkey. 

Amongst  the  other  islands  inhabited  by  Greeks,  but  belonging  to  Turkey, 
Thasos  is  that  which  lies  nearest  to  the  coast  of  Europe.  The  strait  which 
separates  it  from  Macedoniti  is  hardly  four  miles  across,  and  in  its  centre  there  is 
an  island  (Thasopulo),  as  well  as  several  sand-banks,  which  interfere  much  with 
navigation.  Though  a  natural  dependency  of  Macedonia,  this  island  is  goyemed 
by  a  mudir  of  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  to  whom  the  Porte  made  a  present  of  it. 
When  Mohanmied  II.  put  an  end  to  the  Byzantine  empire,  Thasoa  and  the  neigh- 


'■'■"  -'-lW"W^>g»Kd?'<!p! 


M 


lined  fheir 
Turks,  who 
8t  part,  the 
periecution. 
,  in  a  body, 
aa  subsided 
on  of  their 
ajority,  but 
is  they  who 
them.  All 
I  the  capital 
masses,  has 

%  country  in 
r,  they  were 
re    brought 

with  which 
be  "  Greeks 
I  reproached 
for  the  sake 
was  shed  in 
the  western 
}f '  this  war. 
in,  children, 
Ei  fire  at  its 
the  unfortu- 


I  that  island 
gned  to  tho 
apalia,  alone 
is  island  the 
y  belongs  to 
on  and  the 
»en  hundred 

f  to  Turkey, 
strait  which 
mtre  there  is 
e  much  with 
lisgoyemed 
ireseat  of  it. 
id  the  neigh- 


CRETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OP  THE  ARCIIII'ELAOO. 

oTtllu^.L'^"''*^'  ^"'"""^  "  P"««il«"ty.  the  property  of  the  Italian  family  of  th. 

ThaM«  is  one  of  those  countries  of  the  ancient  world  the  presert  condition  of 

Fig.  SO.-Thii  iEo«AN  8iA. 
AeonrdlnfftoUobiqiMt    floUe,  1 :  B,l70.00a 


»' 


K^r*. 


!»• 


«• 


>m»pbilM4«dto 


SfisriSiS!s::i-t£&«'.te^^M 


ikMuv^r!  ..I  T.yT'"^"."^."^?  '»  ntlioiiM  i  tbe  next  Unt 


—    100  MUm. 


Which  contrasts  most  unfavourably  with  former  times.     Thasos,  an  ancient  Phca- 
mcum  colony,  was  once  the  rival,  and  subsequently  the  wealthy  and  powerful  ally 
of  Athens :  its  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  worked  the  gold  and  iron  mines  of 


96 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPB. 


the  island;  they  quurriml  its  beautiful  white  marble;  cultivated  vineyarda yielding 
a  famous  wine ;  and  extended  their  commoroial  expedition!  to  every  part  of  the 
iflgean  Sea.  But  now  there  are  neither  niinoi  nor  quarries,  the  vines  yield  only 
an  inferior  product,  the  agricultural  produce  hardly  suffices  for  the  six  thousand 
inhabitants  of  the  island,  and  the  ancient  haven  of  Thasos  is  frequented  only  by 
the  tiniest  of  veuels.  The  island  has  recovered  very  slowly  from  the  blow 
inflicted  upon  it  by  Mohammed  II.,  who  carried  nearly  the  whole  of  its  inhabitants 
to  Constantinople.  Thasos  after  this  became  a  haunt  of  pirates,  and  its  inha- 
bitants  sought  shelter  within  the  mountains  of  the  interior.  They  are  Hellenes, 
but  their  dialect  is  very  much  mixed  with  Turkish  words.  Unlike  other  Hellenes, 
they  are  not  anxious  to  improve  their  minds.  They  are  degenerate  Greeks,  and 
they  know  it.  "  We  are  sheep  and  beasts  of  burden/'  they  repeatedly  told  the 
French  traveller,  Perrot. 

Thasos,  however,  is  the  only  island  of  the  Archipelago  where  wooded  moun- 
tains  and  verdant  landscapes  survive.  Rains  are  abundant,  and  its  vegetation 
luxuriant.  Running  streams  of  water  murmur  in  every  valley ;  large  trees  throw 
their  shade  over  the  hill-sides;  the  villages  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain  are 
hidden  by  cypresses,  walnut,  and  olive-trees;  the  valleys  which  radiate  in  all 
directions  fVom  the  centre  of  the  island  abound  in  planes,  laureln,  yoke-elms,  and 
vigorous  oaks;  and  dark  pine  forests  cover  the  higher  slopes  of  the  hills,  the 
glittering  barren  summits  of  Mount  St.  Elias  and  of  other  high  mountains  alone 
rising  above  them. 

Samothrace,  though  smaller  than  Thasos,  is  much  more  elevated.  Its  moun- 
tains are  composed  o£  granite,  schists,  limestones,  and  trachyte,  and  form  a  sort 
of  pendant  to  Monnt  Athos,  on  the  other  side  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  If  we  approach 
Samothrace  from  the  north  or  the  south,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a  auge 
coffin  floating  upon  the  waters;  from  the  east  or  west  its  profile  resembles  a 
pyramid  rising  from  the  waves.  From  its  sunmiit  Neptune  watched  the  fight 
of  the  Qreeks  before  Troy.  In  the  dark  oak  forests  of  the  Black  Mountains 
were  carried  on  the  mysteries  of  Oybele  and  her  Ocrybantes,  as  well  as  the  Oabirio 
worship,  which  was  intimately  connected  with  them,  and  Samothrace  was  to  the 
ancient  Greeks  what  Mount  Athos  is  to  the  modems — a  saored  land.  Numerous 
ruins  and  inscriptions  remain  to  bear  witness  to  the  zeal  of  devout  travellers 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  But  with  the  downfall  of  the  heathen  temples  the 
pilgrims  disappeared.  There  is  only  one  village  on  the  island  now.  Its  inha- 
bitants lead  a  secluded  life,  and  the  only  strange  faces  they  see  are  those  of  the 
sponge-fishers  who  frequent  the  island  during  summer.  The  entire  absence  of 
harbours,  and  the  dangerous  current  which  separates  Samothrace  from  Imbro, 
keep  off  the  mariner,  and  though  the  valleys  are  extremely  fertile,  they  have 
not  hitherto  attracted  a  single  immigrant  from  the  neighbouring  continent. 

Imbro  and  Lemnos  are  separated  f^m  Samothrace  by  a  deep  sea,  and  appear 
to  continue  the  range  of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus.  Imbro,  which  is  nearest 
to  the  continent,  is  the  more  elevated  of  the  two  islands,  but  its  St.  Elias  does  not 
attain  half  the  height  of  the  mountains  of  Samothrace.     There  are  no  forests 


•^^'mmmimmmmmmi'ms 


CRETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OP  THE  ABCnirnr,A(JO. 


I  yielding 
iirt  of  the 
yie\A  only 

thouMnd 
d  only  by 

the  blow 
nhabitanto 

iU  inha> 
I  Hellenes, 
>  Hellenes, 
Greeks,  and 
iy  told  the 

led  moun- 
vegetation 
trees  throw 
>untain  are 
Hate  in  all 
e-elms,  and 
e  hills,  the 
itains  alone 


Its  moun- 


brm  a  sort 
re  approach 
)  of  a  huge 
•esembles  a 
d  the  fight 
Mountains 
the  Oabirio 
was  to  the 
Numerous 
travellers 
temples  the 
Its  inha> 
hose  of  the 
absence  of 
rom  Imbro, 
they  have 
aent. 

and  appear 
is  nearest 
lias  does  not 
no  forests 


upon  the  slopes  of  this  mountain,  the  valleys  are  covered  with  store's,  and  hardly 
un  eighth  of  the  surface  of  the  island  is  capable  of  cultivation.  Still,  the  position 
of  Imbro,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  DurdunuUvs  and  upon  an  international  ocean 
highway,  will  always  secure  to  it  a  certain  degree  of  importance.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  live  in  a  small  valley  in  the  north-uostom  portion  of  the 
island,  and  though  the  rivultet  which  flows  through  this  valley  regularly  dries 
up  in  summer,  it  is  nevertheless  oalM  emphatically  the  Megalos  Potumos,  or 
"big  river." 

Lemnos,  or  Lironi,  in  the  largest  islnnd  of  Thrucia,  uud  at  the  same  time  the 
least  elevated  and  the  moHt  Iwrren.  You  mny  walk  for  hours  there  without 
seeing  a  tree.  Even  olive-trees  ar«  not  met  with  in  tbn  Belds,  and  the  village 
gardens  can  boast  but  of  few  fruit  trees.  Timber  has  to  be  procured  from  Thasos 
or  the  continent.  Lemnos,  in  spite  of  all  this,  is  exoetdingly  fertile ;  it  produces 
barley  and  other  cereals  in  plenty,  and  the  pastures  amongst  its  hills  sustain 
40,000  sheep.  The  island  consists  of  several  distinct  mountain  groups  of  volcanic 
origin,  1,200  to  1,600  feet  in  height,  and  separated  by  low  plains  covered  with 
aoorisD,  or  by  gulfs  penetrating  far  inland.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
the  volcanoes  of  Lemuos  had  not  yet  quenched  their  fires,  for  it  was  in  one  of 
them  that  Vulcan,  when  hurled  fVom  heaven,  established  his  smithy,  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Cyclops,  forged  his  thunderbolts  for  Jupiter.  About  the 
beginning  of  our  era  Mount  Mosychlos  and  the  promontory  of  Chryse  were 
swallowed  up  by  the  sea,  and  the  vast  shoals  which  extend  from  the  eastern  part 
of  the  island  in  the  direction  of  Imbro  probably  mark  their  site.  Since  the  disap- 
pearance of  Mount  Mosychlos,  Lemnos  has  not  again  suffered  from  volcanic  erup- 
tions or  earthquakes.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Greeks,  and  the  Turks 
who  have  settled  amongst  them  are  being  evicted  by  the  conquered  race,'  which  is 
superior  to  them  in  intelligence  and  industry.  Commerce  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Greeks.  Its  principal  seat  is  at  Eastro— the  ancient  Myrhina — ^which 
occupies  a  headland  between  two  roadsteads.  Sealed  earth  is  one  of  the  articles 
exported,  and  is  found  in  the  mountains.  In  ancient  times  it  was  much  prised 
as  an  astringent,  and  is  so  still  throughout  the  East.  It  is  not  considered  to  possess 
its  healing  qualities  unless  it  has  been  collected  before  sunrise  on  Corpus  Christi 
day. 

The  small  island  of  Stratio  (Hagios  Eustrathios)  depends  politically  and 
commercially  upon  Lemnos.  It,  too,  is  inhabited  by  Greeks.  As  to  the  islands 
along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  they  form  a  portion  of  Turkey  in  Europe  as 
hx  as  their  political  administration  is  concerned,  but  geographically  they  belong 
to  Asia.* 

•  Thsislsndsof  Thrsok:— 

Tbuot 74 

SMnottirMe   ....      66 

taibn M 

LeninM         .       >        •        •     1*0 


teUtenU. 

HiyhntUoaataina. 

»Mt 

10,000 

Mount  Ipwrio     . 

.    8,000 

200 

Mount  Phengari . 

.    6,240 

4,000 

Monnt  St  Elias  . 

.     1,060 

22,000 

Uonnt  Skopi*     . 

.    1,410 

"W^ 


98 


TURKEY  IN  EUEOPB. 


III. — Turkey  of  the  Oreeks  (Thracia,  Macedonia,  and  Tiiessaly). 

The  whole  of  the  ^gean  seaboard  of  European  Turkey  is  occupied  by  Qreeks, 
and  this  proves  the  great  influence  which  the  sea  has  exercised  upon  the  migra- 
tions of  the  Mediterranean  nations.  Thessaly,  Macedonia,  Chalcis,  and  Thrace 
are  mere  or  less  Greek  countries,  and  even  Constantinople  lies  within  Greece, 
as  defined  by  ethnological  boundaries.  The  geographical  distribution  of  race 
there  does  not,  in  fact,  coincide  with  the  physical  features  of  the  country — ^its 
mountains,  rivers,  and  climate.  The  Turkey  of  the  Greeks  is,  in  reality,  no 
geographical  unit,  and  the  only  tie  which  imites  it  are  the  waters  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, which  wash  all  its  shores. 

Nowhere  else  does  the  Balkan  peninsula  exhibit  such  varied  features  as  on  the 
shores  of  the  j^gean  Sea,  and  of  the  adjoining  basin  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara. 
Blufis,  hills,  and  mountain  masses  rise  abruptly  from  the  plain ;  arms  of  the 
sea  extend  far  inland ;  and  ramified  peninsulas  project  into  the  deep  waters  of  the 
ocean.  It  appears  almost  as  if  nature  were  making  an  eflfort  to  create  an  archipelago 
similar  to  that  in  the  south. 

The  tongue  of  land  upon  which  Constantinople  has  been  built  offers  a 
remarkable  example  of  the  features  which  characterize  the  coast  lands  of  this 
portion  of  Europe.  Goulogically  the  whole  of  this  peninsula  belongs  to  Asia. 
Its  hollow  hills  are  separated  from  the  granitic  mountains  of  Europe  by  a  wide 
plain  covered  with  recent  formations,  and  the  wall  of  Athanasius,  now  in  ruins, 
which  was  built  as  a  defence  to  the  city,  approximately  marks  the  true  boundary 
between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  rocks  on  both  sidetf  of  the  Bosphorus  belong 
to  the  Devonian  formation.  They  contain  the  same  fossils,  exhibit  the  same 
outward  aspects,  and  date  from  the  same  epoch.  A  patch  of  volcanic  rocks  at 
the  northern  entrsnoe  to  the  Bosphorus  likewise  exhibitd  the  same  oharacteristics 
on  both  sides  of  the  strait,  and  there  cannot  be  the  least  doubt  that  this  European 
peninsula  at  a  former  epoch  constituted  a  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  but  was  severed 
from  it  by  an  irruption  of  the  waters. 

Apollo  himself,  it  is  said,  pointed  out  the  site  where  to  build  the  city 
which  is  now  known  as  Constantinople,  and  no  better  could  have  been  found. 
In  fact,  the  city  occupies  the  most  favoured  spot  on  the  Bosphorus.  It  stands  on 
a  peninsula  of  gently  undulating  hills,  bounded  by  the  Sea  of  Marmara  and  by 
the  curved  inlet  called,  from  its  shape,  its  beauty,  and  the  valuable  cargoes 
floating  upon  its  waters,  the  "Golden  Horn."  The  swift  current  of  the  Bosphorus 
penetrates  into  this  inlet,  and  sweeps  it  clean  of  all  the  refuse  of  the  city^  It  then 
passes  into  the  open  sea  at  the  extreme  angle  of  the  peninsula,  and  sailing  vessels 
are  thus  able  to  reach  their  anchorage  without  having  to  struggle  against  a 
contrary  current.  This  haven  not  only  affords  a  secure  anchorage  to  a  multitude 
of  vessels,  but  it  likewise  abounds^  in  flsh ;  for,  in  spite  of  the  constant  agitation 
of  its  waters  by  the  oars  of  caiques  and  the  paddles  or  screws  of  steamers,  it 
is  visited  annually  by  shoals  of  tunnies  and  other  fish.  The  haven  of  Con- 
stantinople, though  easy  of  access  to  peaceable  merchantmen,  oan  readUy  be 


^.'■'v->'i:r-.«Hi!ar4^5t|lJifiliM 


■ii 


■Hiilll 


rESSALY). 

by  Qreeks, 
a  the  migra- 
and  Thrace 
bhin  Greece, 
tion  of  race 
BOimtry — iU 
1  reality,  no 
i  the  Archi- 

res  as  on  the 
of  Marmara, 
arms  of  the 
vaters  of  the 
1  archipelago 

tiilt  offers  a 
lands  of  this 
Dgs  to  Asia. 
[>e  by  a  wide 
low  in  ruins, 
rue  boundary 
horus  belong 
tit  the  same 
anio  rocks  at 
haracteristius 
lis  European 
t  was  severed 

did  the  city 
been  found. 
It  stands  on 
■maraand  by 
lable  cargoes 
he  Bosphorus 
sity.  It  then 
tailing  vessels 
^le  against  a 
o  a  multitude 
tant  agitation 
f  steamers,  it 
ven  of  Oon- 
in  readily  be 


•s-M&ijiMiSu,-' 


m 


TUBKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


00 


s 


S 


I 


s 


I 


closed  in  case  of  war.  The  surrounding  heights  command  every  upproach  lo 
it,  and  a  chain  has  more  than  once  been  drawn  across  the  narrow  entrance  to 
its  roadstead  when  the  city  was  besieged.  The  latter,  too,  can  be  defended 
easily,  for  it  is  built  upon  hills,  bounded  on  the  land  side  by  an  extensive 
plain.    An  assailant,  to  insure  success,  must  dispose  not  only  of  un  army,  but 

Fig,  31.— Obolooioal  Map  ok  thh  Pininrula  or  Conrtantinopi,!. 
Aeaordiny  to  V.  tod  Hochitettar.    Seale  1 : 1,870,000. 


^■•ternavy 


Tertiary 


CFjrstelUiw 


Vokania 


Lcwor  Davonian 


also  of  a  powerful  navy.  In  addition  to  all  these  natural  advantages  of  its 
site,  Constantinople  is  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  climate  far  superior  to  that  of 
the  citiee  of  the  Black  Sea,  for  it  is  screened  by  hills  from  cold  northerly 
winds. 

In  the  dawn  of  history,  when  migration  and  commerce  marched  only  at  a 
slow  pace,  a  site  as  favoured  as  that  of  Byzantium  was  capable  only  of  attracting 
the  dwellers  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood.  But  after  commerce  had  become 
developed,  the  blind  alone — so  said  the  oracle  of  Apollo— could  fail  to  appreciate 
the  great  advantages  held  out  by  the  Golden  Horn.  Indeed,  Constantinople 
lies  not.  only  on  the  ocean  highway  which  connects  the  world  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  the  Black  Sea,  but  also  on  the  high-road  which  leads  from  Asia 
into  Europe.     Geographically  it  may  be  described  as  occupying  a  position  at 

tore 


'^mmmmm 


100 


TUEKEY  IN  EUKOPE. 


the  moutbB  of  the  Danube,  Dniester,  Dnieper,  Don,  Rion,  and  Eizil  Irmak,  whose 
common  outlet  is  the  Bosphorus.  When  Constantino  the  Great  constituted 
it  the  metropolis  of  the  Roman  empire,  it  grew  rapidly  in  population  and  wealth ; 
it  soon  became  the  city  of  cities ;  and  its  Turkish  appellation,  Stamboul,  is 
nothing  but  a  corruption  of  the  expression  es  tarn  poHn,  used  by  the  inhabitants 
to  denote  their  going  into  the  city.  Amongst  the  distant  tribes  of  Asia  it  repre- 
sents Rome.  They  know  it  by  no  other  name  than  that  oi  "  Rum,"  and  the 
country  of  which  it  is  the  capital  they  call  "  Rumelia." 

Constantinople  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  world:  it  is  the 
"  paradisiacal  city  "  of  Eastern  nations.  It  may  compare  with  Naples  or  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  and  many  travellers  accord  it  the  palm.  As  we  approach  the  entrance 
of  the  Golden  Horn,  seated  in  a  caique  more  graceful  than  the  gondolas  of 
Venice,  the  vast  and  varied  panorama  around  us  changes  with  every  stroke 
of  the  oars.  Beyond  the  white  walls  of  the  Seraglio  and  its  masses  of  verdure 
rise  here,  amphitheatrically  on  the  seven  hills  of  the  peninsula,  the  houses  of 
Stamboul — its  towers,  the  vast  domes  of  its  mosques,  with  their  circlets  of  smaller 
domes,  and  its  elegant  minarets,  with  their  balconies.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
haven,  which  is  crossed  by  bridges  of  boats,  there  Are  more  mosques  and  towers, 
seen  through  a  forest  of  masts  and  rigging,  an«^  covering  the  slope  of  a  hill  whose 
summit  is  crowned  by  regularly  built  houses  ana  the  palatial  residences  of  Pera. 
On  the  north  vast  villa-cities  extend  along  both  shores  of  the  Bosphorus. 
Towards  the  east,  on  a  promontory  of  Asia,  there  is  still  another  city,  cradled 
amidst  gardens  and  trees.  This  is  Scutari,  the  Asiatic  suburb  of  Constantinople, 
with  its  pink  houses  and  vast  cemetery  shaded  by  beautiful  cypress  groves. 
Farther  in  the  distance  we  perceive  Eadi-koei,  the  ancient  Chalcedon,  and  the 
small  town  of  Frinkipo,  on  one  of  the  Princes'  Islands,  whose  yellow  rocks  and 
verdant  groves  are  reflected  in  the  blue  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara.  The  sheet 
of  water  connecting  these  various  portions  of  the  huge  city  is  alive  with  vessek 
and  boats,  whose  movements  impart  animation,  to  the  magnificent  picture.  The 
prospect  from  the  heights  above  the  town  is  still  more  magnificent.  The  coasts  of 
Europe  and  Asia  are  beneath  our  feet,  the  eye  can  trace  the  sinuosities  of  the 
Bosphorus,  and  far  away  in  the  distance  looms  the  snow-capped  pyramidal  summit 
of  Mount  Olympus,  in  Bithynia. 

But  this  enchantment  vanishes  as  soon  as  we  penetrate  into  the  streets  of 
Constantinople.  There  are  many  parts  of  the  town  with  narrow  and  filthy  streets, 
which  a  stranger  hesitates  to  enter.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  blessing,  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view,  that  conflagrations  so  frequently  lay  waste  and  scour  larg^  portions 
of  the  city.  Scarcely  a  night  passes  without  the  watchman  on  the  tower  of  the 
Seraskieriate  giving  the  alarm  of  fire,  and  thousands  of  houses  are  devoured 
by  that  element  every  year.  The  city  thus  renews  itself  by  degrees.  It  rises 
from  its  ashes  purified  by  the  flames.  But  formerly,  before  the  Turks  had  built 
their  city  of  stone  on  the  height^  of  Pera,  the  quarters  destroyed  by  fire  were 
rebuilt  as  wretchedly  as  they  were  bef  jre.  It  is  different  now.  The  use  of  stone 
has  become  more  general ;  wooden  structures  are  being  replaced  by  houses  built 


limmmm 


TUnXKY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


101 


wboae 
tituted 
realth ; 
>oul,  it 
tbitants 
t  repre- 
ind  the 

is  the 

Riode 
intranoe 
iolas  of 
r  stroke 
verdure 
Quaes  of 

smaller 
,e  of  the 
.  towers, 
U  whose 
of  Fera. 
MphoruB. 
,  cradled 
ntinople, 

groves. 

and  the 
jcks  and 

le  sheet 
vessels 
The 

coasts  of 

IS  of  the 
summit 


re 


of  a  fossiliferous  white  limestone,  which  is  quarried  at  the  very  gates  of  the  city ;  and 
fVee  use  is  made  of  the  blue  and  grey  marbles  of  Marmara,  and  of  the  flesh-coloured 
ones  of  the  Gulf  of  Oysica,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  decorating  the  palaces  of  the  great. 

Nearly  every  vestige  of  the  monuments  of  ancient  Byzantium  has  been  swept 
awuy  by  fires  or  sieges.  There  only  exists  now  the  precious  tripod  of  bronze,  with 
its  three  serpents,  which  the  Plateoans  had  placed  in  the  teip'^^e  of  Delphi  in 
commemoration  of  their  victory  over  the  Persians.  The  reh-  of  the  epoch 
of  the  Byzantine  emperors  are  limited  to  columns,  obelisks,  arches  of  aqueducts, 
tho  breached  walls  of  the  city,  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  Justinian,  only 
discovered  recently,  and  the  two  churches  of  Santa  Sophia,  which  have  been 
converted  into  mosques.  The  grand  church  of  Santa  Sophia,  close  to  the 
Seraglio,  is  no  longer  the  most  magnificent  edifice  in  the  universe,  as  it  was 
in  the  time  of  Justinian,  for  even  the  neighbouring  mosque  of  Sultan  Ahmed 
far  exceeds  it  in  beauty  and  elegance.  It  is  a  clumsy  building,  supported  by 
buttresses  added  at  various  times  to  keep  it  from  falling.  The  character  of  the 
interior  has  been  changed  by  the  Turks,  who  have  introduced  additional  pillars, 
and  the  once  bright  mosaics  have  been  covered  over ;  but  the  dome  never  fails  to 
strike  the  beholder :  it  is  a  marvel  of  strength  and  lightness. 

The  Seraglio,  or  Serai,  near  Garden  Point,  may  boast  of  fine  pavilions  and  shady 
walks,  but  the  dark  memories  of  crime  will  always  cling  to  it.  The  spot  from 
which  sacks  containing  the  bodies  of  living  sultanas  or  odalisks  were  hurled  into 
the  dark  waters  of  the  Bosphorus  is  still  pointed  out  to  the  traveller.  Far  more 
attractive  than  this  ancient  residence  of  the  sultans  are  the  marvellous  structures 
in  the  Arab  or  Persian  style  which  line  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  which 
impart  to  the  suburbs  of  Constantinople  an  aspect  of  oriental  splendour. 

The  bazaars  are  amongst  the  most  curious  places  in  the  city,  not  so  much 
because  of  the  rich  merchandise  which  is  displayed  in  them,  but  because  they  are 
frequented  by  a  variety  of  nations  such  as  cannot  be  met  with  in  any  other  city 
of  the  world.  The  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire  is  a  centre  of  attraction  not  only 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  but  also  to  those  of  Anatolia, 
Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Tunis,  and  even  of  the  oases.  There  are  "  Franks  "  from 
every  country  of  Europe,  drawn  thither  by  a  desire  to  share  in  the  profits  of  the 
ever-increasing  commerce  of  the'  Bosphorub.  This  mixture  of  races  is  rendered 
still  greater  by  the  surreptitious  importation  of  slaves ;  for,  whatever  diplomatists 
may  assert,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  "  honourable  guild  of  slave-dealers  " 
still  does  an  excellent  business  in  negresses,  Circassians,  and  white  and  black 
eunuchs.  Nor  is  anything  else  to  be  expected  amongst  a  people  who  look  upon 
a  well-stocked  harem  as  a  sign  of  respectability.  Dr.  Millingen  estimates  the 
number  of  slaves  at  Constantinople  at  30,000  souls,  most  of  whom  have  been 
imported  from  Africa.  From  an  anthropological  point  of  view  it  is  certainly  very 
remarkable  that  the  negro  should  not  have  taken  root  in  Constantinople.  In  the 
course  of  the  last  four  centuries  a  million  of  negroes  at  least  have  been  imported, 
and  yet,  owing  to  difficulties  of  acclimation,  ill-usage,  and  want,  they  would  die 
out  but  for  fresh  importations. 


K^j^'  ■Ti^^flfsf^ti^*^^-^  Wv^fVi^^'^  * 


102 


TURKEY  IN  KUKOPE. 


Our  atatiatics  do  not  enable  ua  to  claasify  the  000,000  inhabitants  of  Constan- 
tinople and  its  Huburba  according  to  race.*  One  of  the  principal  sources  of  error 
in  eNtimates  of  this  kind  consists  in  our  confounding  Mussulmans  with  Turks.  In 
the  provinces  it  is  generally  possible  to  avoid  this  error,  for  Bosnians,  Bulgarians, 
and  Albanians  recognise  each  other  as  members  of  the  same  race,  whatever  religious 
difTcrencea  may  exist  between  them.  But  in  the  turmoil  of  a  great  city  this 
distinction  is  no  longer  made,  and,  in  the  end,  all  those  who  frequent  the  mosquct 
are  lumped  together  as  if  they  were  members  of  the  same  race.  Of  the  supposed 
Osraanli  of  Conatantinople  a  third,  perhaps,  consists  of  Turks,  whilst  the  remaining 
two-thirds  are  made  up  of  Arnauts,  Bulgarians,  Asiatics,  and  Africans  of  various 
races.  Amongst  the  boatmen  there  are  many  LeNghiiins  from  the  Caucasus.  The 
Mohammedans,  if  not  in  the  minority  already,  will  bo  so  very  soon,  for  they  lose 
ground  almost  visibly.  In  old  Stumboul,  in  which  a  Frank  hardly  dared  to  enter 
some  twenty  years  ago,  they  still  enjoy  a  numerical  preponderance,  but  in  the 
"  agglomeration  of  cities  "  known  as  Constantinople,  and  extending  from  Prinkipo 
to  Therapia,  they  are  outnumbered  by  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Franks,  and 
certain  quarters  of  the  town  have  been  given  up  to  the  Christians  altogether. 

The  Oreeks  are  the  most  influential,  and  perhaps  most  numerous,  element 
amongst  the  rayas.  Their  head-quarters,  like  those  of  the  Turks,  are  at  Stamboul, 
where  they  occupy  a  quarter  of  the  town  called  Phanar,  from  an  oM  lighthouse. 
The  Greek  patriarch  and  the  wealthiest  Greek  families  reside  there.  These 
Phanariotes,  in  former  times,  almost  monopolized  the  government  of  iihe  Christian 
provinces  of  Turkey,  but  they  fell  into  disfavour  after  the  Greek  war  of  liberation. 
The  religious  influence,  too,  which  they  exercised  until  quite  recently,  has  been 
destroyed  in  consequence  of  the  separation  of  the  Servian,  Bumanian,  and 
Bulgarian  Churches  from  the  orthodox  Greek  Church — a  separation  brought  about 
almost  entirely  through  the  rapacity  of  the  Greek  patriarch  and  his  satellites. 
If  the  Greeks  would  continue  to  preserve  their  pre-earvence  amongst  the  races  of 
Constantinople,  they  must  trust,  in  the  future,  to  their  superior  intelligence,  their 
commercial  habits,  education,  patriotism,  and  unanimity.  To  the  Turks  the 
members  of  the  orthodox  Church  are  known  as  the  "  Roman  nation,"  and  they 
enjoy  a  certain  amount  of  self-government,  exercised  through  their  bishops, 
which  extends  to  marriage,  schools,  hospitals,  and  a  few  other  matters. 

The  "nation"  of  the  Armenians  is  likewise  very  strong  at  Constantinople,  and, 
like  that  of  the  "Romans,"  it  governs  itself  through  an  elective  Executive 
Council.  Much  of  the  commerce  of  Constantinople  passes  through  the  hands  of 
Armenians,  who,  though  they  came  to  that  city  almost  simultaneously  with  the 
Turks,  have  down  to  the  present  day  preserved  their  peculiar  manners.  They  are 
cold  and  reserved,  and  full  of  self-respect,  differing  widely  from  their  rivals  in 
trade,  the  Jews,  who  slink  furtively  to  their  poor  suburb  of  Balata,  at  the  upper 

*  Conanl  Sax  (1873)  mtimates  the  populatiQn  as  followi :— Stamboul,  210,000 ;  Pen,  130,000 ;  European 
aaburbs,  150,000;  AsiHtic  suburb*,  110,000;  total,  600,000  souls,  including  200,000  Mohammedans. 
Dr.  Yakshity,  on  the  other  hand,  estimates  the  population  of  Constantinople  (exclusive  of  its  Asiatic 
suburbs)  at  358,000  souls,  of  whom  103,540  are  MohammedRnt,  144,210  oriental  Christians,  and  80,000 
Franks. 


TUHKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


108 


Gonstun- 
I  of  error 
nrk».     In 
iilgarians, 
r  religious 
city  this 
B  mosquci 
I  supposed 
remaining 
jf  various 
,8u«.     The 
r  they  lose 
)d  to  enter 
)ut  in  the 
1  Prinkipo 
ttuks,   and 
ither. 

IS,  element 
Stamboul, 
lighthouse, 
ire.  These 
e  Christian 
liberation. 
',  has  been 
raian,  and 
ught  about 

satellites. 
)he  races  of 
i;ence,  their 

!urka  the 
"  and  they 
ir  bishops, 

nople,  and, 
Executive 
le  hands  of 
y  with  the 
They  are 
lir  rivals  in 
the  upper 

)00 ;  Europwn 
lohammedaiu. 
of  its  Asiatic 
I,  and  80,000 


extremity  of  the  Oolden  Horn.  The  Armenians  are  claaai*)  in  th*  *»trem«,  they 
readily  ussist  ouch  other,  and,  like  the  Parsees  of  Bamhn  dolij^ht  i  actft  ot 
munificence.  Dut,  unlike  the  Greeks,  thoy  are  not  suBtaiin  «)  their  und'  takings 
by  an  ardent  belief  in  the  destinies  of  their  race.  Most  oi  them  arf  i  ■*  v\  n 
able  to  speak  their  native  language  freely,  and  prefer  to  converse  in  Turkish  or 
Greek. 

The  Franks  are  much  inferior  in  number  to  either  of  the  races  named,  but 
their  influence  is  nevertheless  far  more  decisive.  It  is  through  them  that  Constan- 
tinople is  attached  to  the  civilisation  of  Western  Europe,  and  their  institutions  are 
by  degreet>  getting  the  better  of  the  fatalism  of  the  East.  It  is  thoy  who  built 
the  manufacturing  suburbs  to  the  west  of  Constantinople  and  near  IScutari,  and 
who  introduced  railways.  Every  civilised  nation  of  the  world  is  represented 
amongst  them — Italians  and  French  most  numerously  ;  and  to  the  Americans  is 
due  the  credit  of  having  established  the  first  geological  museum  in  Turkey, 
in  connection  with  Robert  Colleg. 

Constantinople,  owing  to  the  influx  of  strangers,  is  steadily  increasing  in  popu- 
lation, and  one  by  one  the  villages  in  its  vicinity  are  being  swallowed  up  by  the 
city.  The  whole  of  the  Golden  Horn  is  surrounded  by  houses  now,  and  they 
extend  far  up  the  valleys  of  the  Cydaris  and  Barbyzes,  which  fall  into  it. 
Industrial  establishments  extend  along  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  from  the 
ancient  fort  of  the  Seven  Towels  far  to  the  west,  and  from  Ohalcedon  to  the 
south-east,  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia.  Both  banks  of  the 
Bosphorus  are  lined  with  villas,  palaces,  kiosks,  caf^s,  and  hotels.  This  remarkable 
channel  extends  for  nineteen  miles  between  the  shores  of  Europe  and  of  Asia. 
Like  a  hug^  mountain  valley  it  winds  between  steep  promontories,  now  contract- 
ing and  then  expanding,  until  it  finally  opens  out  into  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Black  Sea.  When  northern  winds  hurl  the  agitated  waters  of  the  latter  against 
the  sombre  clifis  which  guard  the  entrance  to  the  Bosphorus,  the  contrast  between 
this  savage  sea  and  the  placid  waters  of  the  strait  and  its  charming  scenery  is 
striking  indeed.  At  every  turn  we  are  arrested  by  unexpected  charms.  Rocks, 
palaces,  woods,  vessels  of  every  description,  and  the  curious  scaffoldings  of 
Bulgarian  fishermen  succeed  each  other  in  infinite  variety. 

Amongst  the  innumerable  country  residences  which  nestle  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bosphorus,  those  of  Balta-Liman,  Therapia,  and  Biiyukdere  are  the  best  known, 
for  they  have  been  the  scenes  of  historical  events ;  but  there  is  no  spot  throughout 
this  marine  valley  which  does  not  excite  admiration.  These  marvels  of  nature 
will,  before  long,  have  added  to  them  a  marvel  of  human  ingenuity.  The  width 
of  the  channel  between  the  castles  of  Rumili  and  Anadoli  is  only  600  yards. 
It  was  here  Mandroclun  of  Samos  constructed  the  bridge  of  boats  across  which 
Darius  marched  his  army  of  700,000  men  when  he  made  war  upon  the  Scythians, 
and  on  this  identical  spot  it  is  proposed  now  to  construct  a  railway  bridge  which 
will  join  the  railways  of  Europe  to  those  of  Asia.  A  current  runs  through  the 
Bosphorus,  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  at  a  rate  of  from  two  to  six 
miles  an  hour ;  and  although  several  geographers  conclude  f^m  this  that  the  level 


mmsssm^smmss 


104 


TUllKKY  IN  EUUOPfc. 


of  tho  fonru'r  is  higher  than  that  of  thu  htttcr,  thin  miiat  by  no  ineunn  be  lookinl 
upon  UH  an  estubliithufl  fuct.  W«  huvo  already  noticud  the  exchungo  between  tlic 
wuterH  of  tho  Medit«'rruncun  und  of  the  open  Athintic,  which  takes  pluco  through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  A  similar  exchange  im  going  on  here,  and  the  outflowing 
■urfaeu  current  ih  conipensutcd  for  by  an  inflowing  under-eurront. 

Tho  outlying  hou8i>H  and  villua  of  ConHtantinoplo  extend  northwards  along  tho 
BosphoruH  aH  far  ua  tho  two  Genoese  castles  of  Rumili-kavnk  and  Anadoli-kavuk. 
This  extension  coincides  with  tho  geological  features  of  the  ground,  for  no  sooner 
have  we  turned  our  backs  upon  the  houses  than  we  find  ourselves  shut  in  between 
cliff's  of  dolerite  and  |K)rphyry,  which  extend  as  fur  as  tho  Dlack  Sea,  where  they 
terminate  in  tho  precipices  of  tho  Cyanetc,  or  Symplegades,  the  famous  rocks  which 
opened  und  shut,  crushing  the  vessels  that  ventured  to  pusa  through  the  strait, 
until  Minerva  fixed  them  for  ever.  These  volcanic  rocks  are  barren,  but  the 
Devonian  strutu  to  the  south  of  them  are  beuutifully  wooded.  The  Turks,  unlike 
the  Spaniards  and  other  Southern  nations,  love  and  respect  nature ;  plane-trees, 
cypresses,  and  pines  still  shade  the  shores  of  the  Boaphorus ;  and  tho  vast  forest  of 
Belgrade  covers  the  hills  to  the  east  of  Oonstantinople,  from  which  the  city  draws 
its  supply  of  water.  Birda,  too,  are  better  protected  than  in  many  a  Ohristian 
land.  The  pluintivo  cooing  of  doves  is  heard  wherever  we  turn,  flights  of 
■wallowB  and  aquatic  birds  akim  over  the  surface  of  tho  BosphoruM,  and  now  and 
then  we  encounter  a  grave  stork  perched  upon  the  top  of  a  tree  or  of  ii  minaret. 

The  whole  aspect  of  the  place  is  southerly,  yet  the  climate  of  Ooi>-<tantinople 
has  its  rigour.  The  cold  winds  of  the  steppes  of  Russia  freely  penetrato  through 
the  strait,  and  the  thermometer  has  been  known  to  fall  four  degreea  below  zero  in 
the  winter.  The  neighbouring  aeu  rendera  the  climate  more  equable  than  it  would 
otherwise  be ;  but  as  the  winds,  from  whatever  direction  they  blow,  meet  with  no 
obstacle,  sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  frequent.  The  average  temperature 
varies  very  considerably  in  different  years.  Sometimes  it  sinks  to  the  level  of 
that  of  Pekin  or  Baltimore,  at  others  it  is  as  high  as  that  of  Toulon  or  of  Nice.  In 
exceptional  cases  the  Bosphorus  has  become  covered  with  ice,  but  thaws  always  set 
in  rapidly,  and  then  may  be  witnessed  the  magnificent  spectacle  of  masses  of  ice 
striking  against  the  walls  of  the  Seraglio,  and  floating  away  across  the  Sea  of 
Marmara.  In  a.d.  762  these  masses  of  ice  were  so  stupendous  that  they  became 
wedged  in  the  Dardanelles,  and  the  tepid  waters  of  the  ^gean  Sea  then  assumed 
the  aspect  of  a  bay  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  geological  features  of  the  coast  region  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara  differ 
essentially  from  those  of  the  rest  of  Turkey.  Low  ranges  of  hills  rise  close  to  the 
coast,  increasing  in  height  towards  the  west,  until  Ihey  attain  an  elevation  of 
2,930  feet  in  the  Tekir  Dagh,  or  "  holy  mountains,"  the  grey  slopes  of  which, 
covered  here  and  there  with  patches  of  shrubs  or  pasturage,  are  visible  from  afar. 

A  narrow  neck  of  land   joins  the   peninsula  of   Gallipoli — ^the  Thraoian 

*  Length  of  the  Bosphorus,  98,600  feet,  or  18-6  miles ;  aventge  width,  6,260  feet ;  average  depth, 
90  feet;  greatest  depth,  170  foet. 


-"aM 


mm 


TURKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


105 


lonkod 
Bcn  the 
hrou^h 
flowing 

nng  tho 
i-ktivuk. 
0  HOoncr 
between 
ere  they 
CB  which 
e  Htrait, 
but  the 
9,  unlike 
ne-treea, 
forest  of 
ty  dmws 
DhriHtian 
lights  of 
now  and 
inaret. 
antinople 


ChornonoHUH  of  the  anuiunta — tu  thia  count  rtiii^e.  Thin  iMJiiinNulu  it  compomHl  of 
quutermiry  rockN,  which  differ  in  no  roHjwct  Irom  those  met  with  on  the  nhoro 
of  AhIu  oppimite.  Anciently  a  huge  frerih-wiiter  hike  covered  u  {Mtrtion  of  Thnicia 
and  mure  than  half  the  area  now  occupied  by  tlie  vKgean  Huu.  When  the  land 
first  emerged  above  tho  waters,  the  CherHonosua  fonned  an  integral  portion  of 
Aaia.  SubHe<|iit<ntly  the  waters  of  the  lUuck  Sen,  which  had  forced  themsolven  a 
passage  throitgli  the  Hosphorus,  likewise  found  their  way  through  the  Hellespont 
into  tho  .Kgeun  Soa.  The  geological  formation  of  tho  country  and  tho  configura* 
tion  of  tho  MtNi-bottom  prove  this  to  have  boon  tho  case,  and  this  irruption  of  tho 
waters  was  utteiuied,  probubly,  by  volcanic  eruptions,  tracoa  of  which  still  exist  on 

Wig.  3U.  — The  IIkllmi'ont,  oh  nAHiMXKi,i,u,  and  ths  Ovlk  up  Haros. 

H«^  I :  i,no,i)<n. 


m 


lyfco 


3 


Tho  dark  ahading  expreatea  a  depth  exceeding  66  fathoms. 

^^_— ^_.^__^_.^_   80  Statute  MUM. 


lira  differ 
to  tlie 

Ivation  of 
pf  which, 
om  afar. 
iThracian 

Lrage  depth. 


the  islands  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara  and  near  the  mcath  of  the  Maritza,  the  former 
to  the  east,  the  latter  to  the  west  of  the  peninsula. 

If  the  statements  of  Pliny  and  Strabo  may  be  relied  upon,  the  Hellespont  must 
have  been  much  narrower  in  former  times  than  it  is  now.  At  Abydos — the 
modem  Naghai-a — the  width  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  seven  stadia,  or  less  than 
a  mile,  anciently,  whilst  at  the  present  time  it  is  6,500  feet.  It  was  here  Xerxes 
constructed  his  double  bridge  of  boats.  The  strait  is  deep  at  that  spot,  and  its 
current  strong,  but  no  wooden  ship  ^ould  hope  tu  force  a  passage  if  covered  by  the 
g;unB  in  the  batteries  on  both  coasts.    The  Hellespont,  like  the  Bosphorus,  has  two 


im^rne 


me. 


wTriBBi 


lii 


ill 


106 


TURKEY  IN  EUBOPE. 


currents  flowing  through  it.  In  winter,  when  the  rivers  which  flow  i'lto  the 
Black  Sea  are  frozen  up,  and  the  Sea  of  Marmara  is  no  longer  fed  by  the  waters 
of  the  Bosphorus,  a  highly  saline  under-current  penetrates  from  the  iEgean  Sea 
into  the  Dardanelles,  whilst  a  feebler  current  of  comparatively  fresh  water  flows  in 
a  contrary  direction  on  the  surface.* 

Gallipoli,  the  Con^tantiuople  of  the  Hellespont,  stands  near  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara.  It  is  the  first  city  which  the  Turks  captured 
upon  the  soil  of  Europe ;  but  though  they  settled  down  there  nearly  a  hundred 
years  earlier  than  they  did  at  Constantinople,  they  are  no  more  in  the  majority 
here  than  they  are  in  the  capital.  Gallipoli,  like  Rodosto  and  other  towns  on  the 
Sea  of  Marmara,  is  inhabited  by  Mohammedans  of  various  races,  by  Greeks, 
Armenians,  and  Jews,  forming  separate  communities  dwelling  within  the  walls  of 
the  eame  town.  The  country  population  consists  almost  exclusively  of  Greeks, 
who  are  the  proprietors  and  cultivators  of  the  land  ;  and  in  sight  of  the  coasts  of 
Asia,  and  within  that  portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  which  has  been  longest 
under  the  rule  of  the  Turk,  the  Greek  is  stronger  numerically  than  anywhere  else 
to  the  north  of  Mount  Pindus.  He  does  not  there  confine  himself  to  the  coast, 
and,  if  we  except  a  few  Bulgarian  villages  and  the  larger  towns,  the  whole  of 
Eastern  Thracia  belongs  to  him. 

The  lowlands  of  this  region  form  a  vast  triangular  plain,  bounded  by  the  Tekir 
Dagh  and  the  coast  range  on  the  south,  by  offshoots  from  the  Ilhodope  on  the  west, 
and  by  the  granitic  mountains  of  Stranja  on  the  east.  This  is  one  of  the  dreariest 
districts  of  all  Turkey.  Swampy  depressions  and  untilled  land  recall  the  steppes 
of  Russia ;  and  in  summer,  when  the  wind  raises  clouds  of  dust,  we  can  imagine 
ourselves  in  the  midst  of  a  desert.  The  dreary  monotony  of  this  plain  is  relieved 
oidy  by  the  pale  contours  of  distant  mountains,  and  by  innumerable  artificial 
mounds  of  unknown  origin.  So  numerous  are  these  tumuli  that  they  form  an 
essential  feature  of  the  landscape,  and  no  artist  could  convey  a  just  idea  of  it 
without  introducing  into  his  picture  one  or  more  of  them. 

Near  the  northern  extremity  of  this  imattractive  plain,  at  the  confluence  of 
Maritza  and  Tunja,  lies  the  city  of  Adrianople,  enveloped  in  trees,  whose  sight 
delights  the  eye  of  the  weary  traveller.  Adrianople,  in  reality,  consists  of  a 
number  of  villages,  separated  from  each  other  by  orchards,  poplars,  and  cypresses, 
above  which  peep  out  the  minarets  of  some  hundred  and  fifty  mosques.  The 
sparkling  waters  of  the  Maritza  and  Tunja,  of  rivulets  and  of  aqueducts,  lend 
animation  to  the  picture,  and  render  Adrianople  one  of  the  most  delightful  places. 
But  it  is  more  than  this.  It  is  the  great  centre  of  population  in  the  interior 
of  Turkey,  and  its  favourable  geographical  position  has  always  secured  to  the  city 
a  certain  amount  of  importance.  The  ancient  city  of  Orestis,  the  capital  of  the 
Kings  of  Thracia,  stood  on  this  site,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Hadrianopolis  of  the 
Romans,  which  the  Turks  changed  into  Edimeh,  and  mode  f^eir  capital  until 
Constantinople  fell  into  their  power»    The  old  palace  of  the  Sultan,  built  in  the 

*  Dimensions  of  the  Dardanelles: — Length,  42-3  miles;  average  width,  2*7  miles,  or  18,100  feet; 
minimum  width,  0,400  feet ;  average  depth,  180  feet ;  greatest  depth,  320  feet 


"m 


mmm 


tjjte. 


TURKEY  OP  THE  GREEKS. 


107 


i'tto  the 
•e  waters 
gean  Sea 
r  flows  in 

western 

captured 

hundred 

majority 

as  on  the 

'  Greeks, 

B  walls  of 

f  Greeks, 

i  coasts  of 

in  longest 

irhere  else 

the  coast, 

whole  of 

the  Tekir 
1  the  west, 
e  dreariest 
he  steppes 
a.  imagine 
is  relieved 
artificial 
y  form  an 

idea  of  it 

ifluenoe  of 
hose  sight 
isists  of  a 
cypresses, 
ues.  The 
lucts,  lend 
ful  places, 
le  interior 
to  the  city 
tal  of  the 
tolls  of  the 
tital  until 
lilt  in  the 


18,100  feet; 


Persian  style  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  still  remains,  though  in 
a  dilapidated  condition.  But  here,  likewise,  the  Osmanli  are  in  the  minority. 
The  Greeks  are  their  equals  in  numbers,  and  far  surpass  them  in  intelligence, 
whilst  the  Bulgarians,  too,  muster  strongly,  and,  as  in  other  towns  of  the  East,  we 
meet  with  a  strange  mixture  of  races,  from  Persian  merchants  down  to  gipsy 
musicians.  The  Jews  are  proportionately  more  numerous  in  Adrianople  than  in 
any  other  town  of  Turkey,  and,  strange  to  relate,  t^^rfy  differ  from  their  co-reli- 
gionists in  every  other  part  of  the  world  by  a  lack  of  smartness  in  business 
transactions.  A  local  proverb  says  that  "  it  requires  ten  Jews  to  hold  their  own 
against  one  Greek ;  "  and  not  Greeks  alone,  for  Wallachians,  and  even  Bulgarians, 
are  able  to  impose  upon  the  poor  Israelite  at  Adrianople. 

The  communications  between  Adrianople  and  Midea,  the  ancient  Greek  colony, 
famous  for  its  subterranean  temples,  and  with  other  cities  on  the  Black  Sea,  are 
difiicult.  Its  natural  outlets  are  towards  the  south— on  the  one  hand  to  Rodosto, 
on  the  Sea  of  Marmara ;  on  the  other,  down  'the  Maritza  valley  to  the  Gulf  of  Saros. 
The  railway  follows  the  latter,  and  the  Rumelian  Railway  Company  has  constructed 
an  artificial  harbour  at  Dede  Aghach,  enabling  merchantmen  to  lie  alongside 
a  pier.  The  allurements  of  commerce,  however,  have  not  hitherto  induced  the 
inhabitants  of  Enos  to  exchange  their  walled  and  turreted  acropolis  for  the  marshy 
tract  on  the  Lower  Maritza,  with  its  deadly  atmosphere. 

The  zone  occupied  by  the  Greeks  grows  narrower  as  we  go  west  of  the  Maritza, 
where  the  Rhodope  Mountains  form  a  kind  of  international  barrier.  Only  the 
coast  is  occupied  there  by  Greek  mariners  and  fishermen,  whilst  the  hills  in  sight 
of  it  are  held  almost  exclusively  by  Turkish  and  Bulgarian  peasants  and  herdsmen. 
The  marshy  littoral  districts,  the  small  valleys  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  and  a  few  isolated  hills  of  volcanic  or  crystalline  formation  constitute 
a  narrow  band  which  connects  the  Greeks  of  Thracia  with  their  compatriots  of 
Chaloidice  and  Thessaly.  The  Yuruks,  or  "  "Wanderers,"  a  Turkish  tribe  which 
has  retained  its  nomadic  habits  down  to  the  present  day,  sometimes  even  extend 
their  excursions  to  the  sea-coast.  Their  principal  seat  is  in  the  Pilav  Tepe,  a 
mountain  mass  to  the  north-west  of  Thasos,  famous  in  the  time  of  the  Macedonian 
kings  for  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  A  wide  plain  extends  immediately  to  the 
west  of  these  mountains,  watered  by  the  Strymon,  or  Earasu^  and  is  of  marvellous 
fertility.  Seres,  a  considerable  city,  occupies  its  centre,  and  hundreds  of  villages, 
surrounded  by  orchards,  rice,  and  cotton  fields  are  scattered  over  it.  Looked  at 
from  the  heights  of  the  Rhodope,  this  plain  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  huge 
garden-city.     IJnfortimately  many  parts  of  it  are  very  insalubrious. 

The  triple  peninsula  of  Ghalcidice  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the 
Rhodope,  and  is  attached  to  the  mainland  by  an  isthmus  covered  with  lakes, 
swamps,  and  alluvial  plains.  It  extends  far  into  the  sea  like  a  huge  hand  spread 
out  upon  the  waters.  Chalcidice  is  a  Greece  in  miniature,  with  coasts  of  fantastic 
contours,  deep  bays,  bold  promontories,  and  mountains  rising  in  the  midst  of 
plains,  like  islands  in  an  archipelago.  One  of  these  mountain  masses  rises  in  the 
trunk  of  the  peninsula,  and  culminates  in  Mount  Eortaoh,  whilst  each  of  its  three 


m 


i 


108 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


ramifications  possesses  its  own  system  of  scarped  hills.  Greek  in  aspect,  this 
curious  appendage  to  the  continent  is  Greek,  too,  in  its  population ;  and,  a  rare 
thing  in  Turkey,  all  its  inhabitants  are  of  the  same  race,  if  we  except  the  Turks 
in  the  town  of  Nisvoro  and  the  Slav  monks  of  Mount  Athos. 

The  easternmost  of  the  three  tongues  of  land  of  Chalcidice,  which  jut  out 
far  into  the  waters  of  the  ^gean,  is  almost  entirely  detached.  Only  a  low  and 
narrow  neck  of  land  connects  it  with  the  mainland,  and  it  was  across  this 
isthmus  that  Xerxes  dug  a  canal,  3,950  feet  in  length,  either  to  enable  his  fleet  to 
avoid  the  dangerous  promontory  of  Mount  Athos,  or  to  g^ve  the  awe-struck 
inhabitants  a  proof  of  his  power.  This  is  the  peninsula  of  Hagion  Oros,  the 
Monte  Santo  of  the  Italians.  At  its  extremity  rises  a  limestone  mountain,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean.    This  is  the  famous  Mount 


Fig.  83. — The  Peninsula  op  Mount  Athos. 
Scale  1  : 1,080,000. 


SSlOlflt. 


Athos,  which  an  ancient  sculptor  proposed  to  convert  into  a  statue  of  Alexander, 
holding  a  city  in  one  hand  and  a  spring  in*  the  other,  and  which  Eastern  legends 
point  out  as  the  "  exceeding  high  mountain  "  to  which  the  devil  took  Jesus,  to 
show  him  "all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world."  But  whatever  old  legends  may  say, 
the  panorama  is  not  as  vast  as  this,  though  the  shores  of  Chalcidice,  Macedonia, 
and  Thracia  lie  spread  out  beneath  our  feet,  and  the  eye  can  range  across  the  blue 
waters  of  the  iEgean  Sea  from  Mount  01]rmpus,  in  Thessaly,  to  Mount  Ida,  in 
Asia  Minor.  The  bold  outlines  of  the  fortified  monasteries  which  appear  here  and 
there,  in  the  midst  of  chestnuts,  oaks,  or  pines,  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain, 
contrast  most  happily  with  the  faint  outline  of  the  coasts  on  the  distant  horizon.* 
This  peninsula,  which  a  traveller  has  compared  to  a  sphinx  crouching  upon 
the  bosom  of  the  sea,  is  the  property  of  a  republic  of  monks,  who  govern  them- 

•  Altitudes :— Mount  Pilar  Tepe,  6,183  feet ;  KorUwb,  3,893  feet ;  Athos,  6,786  feet. 


'tjIMHaiiM 


MHH 


_ -M-. 


TUBEET  OF  THE  OBEEKS. 


100 


3ct,  this 
I,  a  rare 
le  Turks 

jut  out 
low  and 
P0S8  this 
is  fleet  to 
«re-Btruck 
Oros,  the 
in,  one  of 
18  Mount 


teet. 


selves  according  to  their  own  fancy.  In  return  for  a  tribute,  which  they  pay  to 
the  Porte,  they  alone  have  the  right  to  live  there,  and  strangers  require  theii* 
permission  before  they  are  allowed  to  enter.  A  company  of  Christian  soldiers  is 
stationed  at  the  neck  of  the  pt  i insula  to  prevent  the  sacred  soil  being  desecrated 
by  the  footsteps  of  a  woman.  Even  the  Turkish  governor  cannot  gain  admittance 
without  leaving  his  harem  behind  him.  For  fourteen  himdred  centuries,  we  are  told 
in  the  chronicles  of  Mount  Athos,  no  female  has  set  foot  upon  this  sacred  soil,  and 
this  prohibition  extends  to  animals  as  well  as  to  human  beings.  Even  the  presence 
of  poultry  would  profane  the  monasteries,  and  the  eggs  eaten  by  the  monks  are 
imported  from  Lemnos.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  purveyors,  who  reside  at 
the  village  of  Earyes,  the  6,000  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  are  monks,  or 
their  servants,  and  they  live  in  the  monasteries,  or  in  the  hermitages  attached  to 
the  935  churches  of  the  island.  Nearly  all  the  monks  are  Greeks,  but  amongst 
the  twenty  large  monasteries  there  are  two  which  were  built  by  the  ancient 
sovereigns  of  Servia,  and  one  which  was  founded  by  Russia.  Most  of  these 
edifices  occupy  promontories,  and,  with  their  high  walls  and  strong  towers,  they  are 
exceedingly  picturesque.  One  amongst  them,  that  of  Simopetra,  appears  to  be 
almost  inaccessible.  It  is  in  these  retreats  the  good  fathers  of  the  order  of  St. 
Basil  spend  their  lives  in  contemplative  inaction.  They  are  bound  to  pray  eight 
hours  in  the  day  and  two  in  the  night,  and  during  the  whole  of  that  time  they 
are  not  allowed  to  sit.  They  have,  therefore,  neither  time  nor  strength  for  study 
or  manual  labour.  The  books  in  their  libraries  are  incomprehensible  mysteries 
to  them,  and,  in  spite  of  their  sobriety,  they  might  die  of  starvation  if  there  were 
not  lay-brothers  to  work  for  them,  and  numerous  farms  on  the  mainland  which 
are  their  properly.  A  few  shiploads  of  hazel  nuts  is  all  this  fertile  peninsula 
produces. 

The  ancient  cities  of  Olynthus  and  Potidssa,  on  the  neck  of  the  western 
peninsula  of  Ohalcidice,  have  dwindled  down  into  insignificant  villages ;  but  the 
city  of  Therma,  called  afterwards  Thessalonica,  and  now  known  as  Saloniki,  still 
exists,  for  its  geographical  position  is  most  favourable,  and  after  every  siege  and 
every  conflagration  it  again  rose  from  its  ashes.  Vestiges  of  every  epoch  of 
history  may  still  be  seen  there :  Cyclopean  and  Hellenic  walls,  triumphal  arches, 
and  remains  of  Roman  temples,  Byzantine  -structures,  and  Venetian  castles.  Its 
harbour  is  excellent,  its  roadstead  well  sheltered ;  and  the  high-roads  into  Fpper 
Macedonia  and  Epirus  lead  from  it  along  the  valleys  of  the  Vardai  and  Inje 
Earasu.  These  favourable  circumstances  have  not  been  without  their  influence, 
and  Saloniki,  next  to  Constantinople  and  Adrianople,  is  the  most  important  city 
of  European  Turkey.  Its  population  is  mixed,  like  that  of  other  cities  in  the  East, 
and  Jews  are  exceptionally  numerous.  Most  of  them  are  the  descendants  of 
Spanish  Jews,  expelled  by  the  Inquisition,  and  they  still  talk  Spanish.  Many 
have  outwardly  embraced  Mohammedanism  to  escape  persecution,  but  the  true 
Mussulman  spurns  these  converts  with  disdain.  They  are  generally  known  as 
"  Mamins." 

The  commerce  of  Saloniki  is  important  even  now,  but  greater  things  are 


no 


TURKEY  IN  EUBOPE. 


expected  of  the  future.  Like  Marseilles,  Trieste,  and  Brindisi,  Saloniki  aspires  to 
become  a  connecting  link  in  the  trade  between  England  and  the  East.  It  actually 
lies  on  the  most  direct  road  between  the  Ohannel  and  the  Suez  Oanal,  and  once 
connected  by  railways  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  it  is  sure  to  take  a  large  share 
in  the  world's  commerce.  This  emporium  of  Macedonia  is  interesting,  too,  from 
an  ethnological  point  of  view,  for,  with  the  exception  of  Burgaz,  on  the  Black 
Sea,  it  is  the  only  place  where  the  Bulgarians,  the  most  numerous  race  of 
European  Turkey,  have  reached  the  sea-coast.  Everywhere  else  they  are  cut  off 
from  it  by  alien  races,  but  Saloniki  brings  them  into  direct  contact  with  the 

Fig.  34.— Mount  Olympus. 


remainder  of  Europe.  Saloniki,  however,  not  only  suffers  from  bad  government, 
but  also  from  the  marshes  which  surround  it,  and  in  summer  many  of  its  inha- 
bitants flock  to  the  healthier  town  of  Kalameria,  to  the  west.  Miastoatic  swamps 
unfortunately  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  ^gean,  and 
they  separate  the  interior  of  Macedonia  more  effectively  from  the  coast  than  do  its 
mountains.     There  is  hardly  any  commerce  except  at  Saloniki. 

On  the  western  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki,  beyond  the  ever-changing 
mouths  of  the  Yardar  and  the  briny  waters  of  the  Inje  Earasu,  or  Haliaomon,  the 
land  gradually  rises.     Hills  are  succeeded  by  mountains,  until  bold  precipices 


^^^mm 


.*- 


ispires  to 
,  actually 
and  once 
*ge  share 
too,  from 
he  Black 
I  race  of 
re  out  off 
with  the 


.asi^ 


TUEKEY  OF  THE  OBEEKS. 


Ul 


approach  dose  to  the  coast,  and  summit  rises  beyond  summit,  up  to  the  triple  peak  of 
Mount  Olympus.  Amongst  the  many  mountains  which  have  borne  this  name,  this 
is  the  highest  and  the  most  beautiful,  and  the  Greeks  placed  upon  it  the  court  of 
Jupiter  and  the  residence  of  the  gods.  It  was  in  the  plains  of  Thessaly,  in  the 
shadow  of  this  famous  mountain,  that  the  Greeks  lived  in  the  springtide  of  their 
history,  and  their  most  cherished  traditions  attach  themselves  to  this  beautiful 
country.  The  mountains  which  had  sheltered  the  cradle  of  their  race  remained 
to  them  for  ever  afterwards  the  seat  of  their  protecting  deities.  But  Jupiter, 
Bacchus,  and  the  other  great  gods  of  antiquity  have  disappeared  now,  and 

Fig.  86. — Mount  Oltmpvb  and  tmb  Vallbt  or  Turi. 
▲eoordinfftoHeiiMyaiidKiepwt.    Scale  1 :  eao^OOO. 


MlOte 


avemment, 

Lf  its  inha- 

Itic  swamps 

Sgean,  and 

I  than  do  its 


Lr-changing 

lacmon,  the 

precipices 


monasteries  have  been  built  in  the  woods  which  witnessed  the  revels  of  the 
Bacchantes. 

Until  recently  the  upper  valleys  of  Mount  Olympus  were  inhabited  only  by 
monks,  and  by  kleplite8,or  bandits,  who  sought  shelter  there  from  the  Arnaut 
soldiers  sent  in  their  pursuit.  The  mountain,  in  fact,  constitutes  a  world  apart, 
surroimded  on  all  sides  by  formidable  declivities.  Forty^two  peaks  form  the 
battlements  of  this  mountain  citadel,  fifty-two  springs  rise  within  it,  and  the 
bold  klepht  is  secure  within  its  fastnesses  from  the  abhorred  Turk.  Magnificent 
forests  of  laurel-trees,  planes,  and  oaks  cover  its  lower  maritime  slopes,  and  in 
times  of  trouble  they  have  served  as  a  refiige  to  entire  populations.    But  Italian 


^^133 


ji^wA^M^'4.yigyiiyiMg*j^ 


Ill 


TUSKEY  IN  EUBOPE. 


apeculatort  have  purohMed  these  forests,  and  the  time  is  not,  perhaps,  very  distant 
when  Mount  Olympus,  deprived  of  its  verdure,  will  be  reduced  to  a  barren  mass  of 
rook,  like  most  of  the  mountains  of  the  Archipelago.  Wild  oats  abound  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  Olympus,  chamois  still  climb  its  rugged  pinnacles,  but  bears  are  no 
longer  met  with :  St.  Denys,  who  dwelt  upon  the  mountain,  required  beasts  to  ride 
upon,  and  changed  them  into  horses  ! 

Xenagoras,  an  ancient  geometrician,  was  the  first  to  measure  the  height  of 
Mount  Olympus,  but  his  result,  6,200  feet,  is  far  from  the  truth,  for  the  highest 
summit  attains  an  elevation  of  9,760  feet.*  It  may  possibly  be  the  culminating 
point  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Snow  remains  in  some  of  its  crevices  throughout 
the  year,  and  no  human  being  hitherto  appears  to  have  succeeded  in  ascending  its 
highest  pinnacle.  According  to  the  Greek  legend,  even  Pelion  heaped  upon  Ossa 
did  not  enable  the  Titans  to  reach  the  abode  of  the  gods,  and,  in  reality,  the 
combined  height  of  these  two  mountains  hardly  exceeds  that  of  Olympus.  But, 
in  spite  of  this  inferior  height,  "pointed"  Ossa  and  "long-stretched"  Pelion, 
known  to  us  modems  as  Kisovo  and  Zagora,  impress  the  beholder,  because  of 
their  savage  valleys,  their  precipitous  walls  of  rock,  and  cliffy  promontories. 

These  mountains  continue  southward  through  the  hook-shaped  peninsula  of 
Magnesia,  and  terminate  opposite  the  island  of  Euboja.  They  formed  a  strong 
bulwark  of  defence  in  the  time  of  ancient  Greece.  The  hordes  of  the  barbarians 
stopped  in  front  of  this  insurmountable  barrier.  They  were  compelled  to  seek  a 
practicable  road  to  the  west  of  it,  through  the  valley  of  the  Peneus,  which  is  rightly 
looked  upon  as  the  natural  frontier  of  Hellas.  Hence  the  great  strategical  impor- 
tance of  Pharsalus,  in  Southern  Thessaly,  which  protects  the  gorges  of  the  Othrys 
and  the  only  access  to  the  plains  of  the  Sperohius.  The  pass  of  Petra,  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  Olympus,  was  carefully  guarded  for  similar  reasons. 

A  larg^  portion  of  the  area  bounded  by  the  crystalline  rocks  of  Olympus  and 
Ossa,  and  by  the  cretaceous  range  of  the  Pindus,  running  parallel  with  the  former, 
consists  of  plains  originally  covered  by  vast  lakes.  The  Gulf  of  Yolo  approaches  close 
to  the  shrunken  remains  of  one  of  these  lakes — ^that  of  Earla,  or  Boebeis — into  which 
the  waters  of  the  swampy  plain  of  Larissa  discharge  themselves.  The  dwellers  on 
the  shores  of  this  lake  say  that  a  dull  rumbling  noise  may  now  and  then  be  heard 
at  its  bottom,  which  they  ascribe  to  the  bellowing  of  some  invisible  animal, 
but  which  is  more  probably  the  gurgling  sound  of  the  water  penetrating  into  a 
sink-hole.  Other  lake  basins  are  met  with  at  the  foot  of  Olympus  towards  the 
west  and  north-west,  and  some  of  the  valleys  of  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Peneus 
are  covered  with  alluvium  left  behind  by  the  receding  waters.  Hercules,  according 
to  some — Neptune,  according  to  others — drained  all  these  lakes  of  Thessaly  into 
the  ^gean,  by  opening  the  narrow  gorge  between  Olympus  and  Ossa,  known  to 
the  ancients  as  the  Valley  of  Tempe.  This  narrow  valley  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the 
slow  erosive  action  of  water.  To  the  Hellenes  it  realised  their  ideals  of  refreshing 
coolness  and  beauty,  and  once  every  nine  years  an  embassy  arrived  from  Delphi 
to  pluck  the  laurel-leaves  destined  for  the  victors  in  the  Pythian  games.  The 
*  Mount  Olympoi,  9,760  feet ;  Mount  Omu,  5,260  feet ;  Mount  Pelion,  6,130  feet 


TUBKET  OF  THE  0BEEK8. 


118 


Valley  of  Tempo  is  indeed  most  beautiful ;  the  transparent  and  rapid  waters  of  the 
Peneus,  the  foliage  of  the  planes,  the  shrubberies  of  laurel-roses,  and  the  red-hued 
cliffs — these  combine  frequently,  and  form  pictures  which  delight  the  senses  and 
impress  the  mind.  But,  taken  as  a  whole,  this  narrow  and  sombre  valley  fairly 
deserves  its  modem  name  of  Lykostomo,  or  "  wolfs  gorge."  Even  in  Thessaly, 
and,  above  all,  in  the  Findus,  there  are  localities  more  smiling  and  more  beautiful 
than  this  famous  Valley  of  Tempe. 

The  upper  valleys  of  the  Peneus,  or  Salembria,  abound  in  natural  curiosities, 
such  as  defiles,  sinks,  and  caverns.  To  the  north-west  of  Mount  Olympus,  the 
turbid  Titaresiufl  flows  through  the  narrow  gorge  of  Saranta  Poros,  or  of  the 
Four  Fords,  which  was  looked  upon  in  former  times  as  one  of  the  gates  of  hell. 

To  the  west,  on  the  Upper  Peneus,  are  the  limestone  hills  of  Ehassia,  rising 
to  a  height  of  5,000  feet,  and  the  elevated  spurs  of  Mount  Pindus,  which  have 
become  celebrated  through  the  "  works  of  the  gods,"  or  theoktista,  which  surmount 
them.  These  "  works"  consist  of  isolated  towers,  crags,  and  pillars,  the  most  famous 
amongst  them  being  those  on  the  banks  of  the  Peneus,  not  far  from  Trikala. 
Zealous  followers  of  Simeon  the  Stylite  conceived  the  idea  of  building  their 
monasteries  on  the  tops  of  some  of  the  larger  of  these  natural  columns  or  pedestals. 
Perched  on  these  heights,  and  condemned  never  to  leave  them,  they  receive  their 
provisions  and  visitors  in  a  basket  attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  rope,  and  hoisted 
aloft  by  means  of  a  windlass.  An  aerial  voyage  of  no  less  than  220  feet  has 
to  be  performed  in  order  to  reach  in  this  manner  the  monastery  of  Barlaam,  and 
visitors  are  at  liberty  to  effect  this  ascent  by  means  of  ladders  fastened  against 
the  rocky  precipices.  The  religious  zeal,  however,  whid.  led  monks  to  select 
these  eyries  for  their  habitations  is  gradually  dying  out.  Out  of  twenty 
monasteries  which  existed  formerly,  there  remain  now  but  seven,  and  only  one  of 
these,  that  of  Meteora,  is  inhabited  by  as  many  as  twenty  monks. 

Of  all  the  Greek  countries  which  still  remain  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks, 
there  is  none  which  has  so  frequently  sought  to  regain  its  independence,  none  which 
is  claimed  by  the  Hellenes  with  equal  ardour  as  a  portion  of  their  common  father- 
land and  the  cradle  of  their  race.  Thessaly  is,  in  truth,  a  portion  of  Qreece.  as  far 
as  the  traditions  of  the  past,  a  common  language,  and  the  general  aspects  of  the 
country  can  make  it  so.  But  it  is  a  more  iertile  country,  its  vegetation  is  more 
luxuriant,  its  landscapes  are  more  smiling  and  delightful.  We  may  not  frequently 
meet  with  tiie  deep  blue  sky  which  calls  forth  our  admiration  in  Southern  Greece, 
for  the  vapours  rising  from  the  ^gean  Sea  are  attracted  by  Olympus  and  other 
mountains ;  but  this  moisture  imparts  a  charm  to  distant  views,  and,  by  protecting 
the  earth  against  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  in  summer,  it  contributes  largely 
towards  th  j  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  Greek  population  of  Thessaly  is  strongly  mixed  with  foreign  elements, 
which  it  has  gradually  assimilated.  Neither  Serbs  nor  Bulgarians  remain  now  in 
the  country,  although  the  Upper  Titaresius  is  known  as  Vurgari,  or  "  river  of  the 
Bulgarians."  The  Zinzares,  or  Macedo-Walakhs,  who  were  so  numerous  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  now  only  occupy  a  few  villages.    Though  proud  of  their  Boman 


u 


;.-■.., V-s-.-.-e^i^!' 


".IJIU.1  W 


■  -:^-T-»T,'<«!«l»r-i7-.— ■■■ 


1 ,  ='i;'.-'V.»Ji-i'..''W"  ■  :--y~- 


SEEssaassas 


SB 


33S 


pn 


114 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


!(  I 


dewent,  they  g^radually  become  Hellenized.     Most  of  tbo  words  by  which  they 
designate  objects  of  civilised  life  are  Greek,  their  priests  and  schoolmasters  preach 
or  teach  in  Greek,  and  they  themselves  speak  Greek  in  addition  to  their  native 
language.     They  lose  ground,  moreover,  through  an  excessive  emigration.     Even 
the  cultivators  of  the  soil  amongst  them  have  not  quite  given  up  their  nomadic 
habits,  and  the  roving  life  of  a  herdsman  or  of  a  pedlar  exercises  an  irresistible 
attraction  upon  them.     The  Turks  inhabit  in  compact  masses  the  lowlands  around 
Larissa,  and  that  town  itself  is  Mussulman  to  a  large  extent.     The  hilly  tracts  to 
the  north,  between  the  Inje  Earasu  and  the  Lakes  of  Eastoria  and  Ostrovo,  are 
likewise  inhabited  by  Turks,  who   differ  from  the  Osmanli  of  the  rest  of  the 
empire,  and  are  known  as  Eoniarides.     Turks  also  occupy  a  portion  of  Mount 
Ossa.     It  is  easy  to  tell  from  a  distance  whether  a  village  is  inhabited  by  Turks 
or  by  Greeks.     M.  M^zidres  has  observed  that  "  the  Turks  plant  trees  for  the 
sake  of  shade,  the  Greeks  for  the  sake  of  profit."     Near  the  villages  of  the  former 
we  find  cypresses  and  plane-trees,  near  those  of  the  latter  orchards  and  vineyards. 
The  Eoniarides  are  believed  by  some  authors  to  have  come  to  Thessaly  and 
Macedonia  as  colonists  in  the  eleventh  century,  by  invitation  of  the  Eastern 
emperor.     They  govern  themselves  through  democratic  representative  bodies,  and 
are  respected  by  all,  because  of  their  probity,  their  hospitality,  and  their  rustic 
virtues. 

The  Greeks  are  morally  inferior  to  the  Turkish  peasantry,  but  they  surpass 
them  in  intelligence  and  industry.  In  the  seventeenth  century  there  took  place 
amongst  them  even  a  sort  of  revival  similar  to  the  Renaissance  of  Western  Europe, 
and  the  love  of  art  was  developed  sufficiently  far  to  give  rise  to  a  school  of 
painters  in  the  villages  of  Olympus.  Faithful  to  their  national  traditions  and  the 
instincts  of  their  race,  the  Greeks  of  Thessaly  have  sought  to  organize  themselves 
into  self-governing  commonwealths.  In  their  free  towns,  or  kephalokhori,  they  are 
permitted  to  elect  their  town  councils,  establish  schools,  and  appoint  what  teachers 
they  like.  They  know  how  to  get  the  Turkish  pasha  not  to  meddle  in  their  local 
affairs.  They  pay  the  taxes  demanded  by  the  Turks,  as  their  ancestors  paid  them 
to  Athens  or  some  other  Greek  city,  but  in  every  other  respect  they  are  free 
citizens  governing  themselves.  The  contrast  between  these  independent  common- 
wealths and  the  chiflika  of  Mussulman  proprietors  cultivated  by  Greek  farmers  is 
most  striking.  The  land  of  the  free  proprietors  is,  as  a  rule,  far  less  fertile  than 
that  included  within  these  chifliks;  yet  it  produces  more,  and  its  cultivators  live  in 
comparative  ease. 

The  Greeks  of  Thessaly  bestow  much  care  upon  the  education  of  gprowing 
generations.  Even  the  most  miserable  Greek  village  in  the  Pindus  can  boast  of 
a  school,  which  is  visited  by  the  young  people  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen.  As  an 
instance  of  the  commercial  spirit  of  the  Thessalians  we  may  mention  the  Weavers' 
Co-operative  Association,  formed  in  the  last  century  in  the  town  of  Ambelakia, 
delightfully  situated  amongst  orchards  and  vineyards  on  th^  southern  slopes  of  the 
Valley  of  Tempd.  This  powerful  association  wisely  limi^  its  dividends  to  six 
per  cent.,  and  expended  the  surplus  profits  upon  an  extension  of  its  business.    For 


of  their  I 


"n  '• '^-iSWMtdiiinmitmimiim 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIBUS. 


116 


lioh  they 
rs  preftob 
air  native 
n.     Even 
r  nomadic 
rresistible 
ds  around 
y  tracts  to 
jtrovo,  are 
est  of  tbe 
of  Mount 
by  Turks 
368  for  the 
the  former 
vineyards, 
esaaly  and 
he  Eastern 
bodies,  and 
their  rustic 

bey  surpass 
a  took  place 
lem  Europe, 
a  school  of 
ions  and  the 
B  themselves 
lori,  they  are 
'bat  teachers 
n  their  local 
rs  paid  them 
bey  are  free 
ant  common- 
)k  farmers  is 
fertile  than 
vators  live  in 

L  of  growing 
can  boast  of 
leen.  As  an 
the  Weavers' 
f  Ambelakia, 
slopes  of  the 
idends  to  six 
msiness.    For 


many  years  it  enjoyed  the  greatest  prosperity,  but  the  wars  of  the  empire,  which 
closed  the  markets  of  Oormany  against  it,  brought  about  its  ruin.  Co-operution 
likewise  partly  accounts  for  the  flourishing  cloth  manufacture  of  the  twenty-lour 
wealthy  Greek  villages  on  the  peninsula  of  Magnesia,  to  the  north  of  the  Oulf 
of  Yolo.  This  district,  together  with  that  of  Verria,  to  the  north  of  the  Inje 
Earasu,  is  probably  the  most  prosperous  in  all  the  Greek  provinces  of  Turkey, 
and  it  is  at  least  partly  indebted  for  this  prosperity  to  its  happy  geographical 
position,  being  far  away  from  great  strategical  high-roads.* 


IV. — Aluania  and  Epirus. 

The  name  of  S/ikt'peri,  which  the  Albanians  give  to  the  country  they  inhabit,  is 
supposed  to  meun  "  land  of  rocks,"  and  no  designation  could  be  more  appropriate. 
Stuny  mountains  occupy  the  whole  of  the  country,  from  the  frontiers  of  Monte- 
negro to  those  of  Greece.  The  only  plum  of  any  extent  is  that  of  Scutari 
(Shkodra),  to  the  south  of  the  Montenegrin  plateau,  which  forms  the  natural  fron- 
tier of  Albania  towards  the  north.  The  bottom  of  this  depression  is  occupied  by 
the  Luke  of  Scutari ;  and  the  Drin,  the  only  river  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  which  is 
navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  sea,  debouches  upon  it.  The  Drin 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  White  and  the  Black  Drin,  and  in  former  times 
it  only  discharged  a  portion  of  its  waters  temporarily  into  the  Boyana  River,  which 
drains  the  Lake  of  Scutari.  But  in  1858  it  opened  itself  a  new  channel  opposite  to 
the  village  of  Miet,  about  twenty  miles  above  its  mouth,  and  since  that  time  the 
greater  volume  of  its  waters  flows  in  the  direction  of  Scutari,  frequently  inundating 
tbe  lower  quarters  of  that  town.  The  marshy  tracts  on  the  Lower  Drin  are 
dangerous  to  cross  during  the  boat  of  summer,  and  the  fevers  of  the  Boyana  are 
tbe  most  dreaded  along  the  whole  of  that  coast. 

Most  of  the  southern  ramifications  of  the  Bosnian  Alps  aro  inhabited  by 
Albanians,  but  they  are  separated  from  their  kinsmen  in  Albania  proper  by  the 
deep  valley  of  the  Drin,  a  kind  of  canon  similar  to  those  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
enclosed  between  precipitous  walls  several  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  hardly  ever 
trodden  by  the  foot  of  a  wanderer.  The  mountain  systems  of  Bosnia  and  Albania 
are  only  indirectly  connected  by  a  series  of  raqges  and  plateaux  stretching  from  the 
moimtain  of  Glieb  in  a  south-easterly  direction  as  fur  as  the  Skhar,  or  Scardus  of 
the  ancients.  The  crest  of  this  latter  runs  at  right  angles  to  most  of  the  ranges 
of  Western  Turkey,  and  although  its  culminating  point  is  inferior  in  height  to 
those  of  Slav  Turkey,  it  is  the  point  of  junction  between  the  Balkan  and  the 

*  The  following  are  the  principHl  town*  of  the  Greek  provinces  of  Turkey,  together  with  the  number 
of  their  inhabitants : — 


Adrianople  (Edimeh) 
Saloniki  (Salonica)     . 
Serea  .        .        .        . 
Lariaaa  . 

Rodoato 


110,000 
80,000 
30,000 
25,000 
20,000 


Oallipoli  (Oeliboli) 
Trikala  (Tirhala) 
Demotika   .        . 
Verria 
Eno« 


20,000 
11,000 
10,000 
10,000 
7,000 


110 


TUBKE  f  IN  EUBOPH. 


mountain  •yiteran  ot  Bosnia  and  Albania.  The  Skbar  it  of  g^reat  importance, 
too,  in  the  hydrography  of  Turkey ;  for  two  great  rivers,  the  Bulgarian  Moraya 
a?d  the  Vardar,  descend  from  its  flanks,  one  flowing  to  the  Danube,  the  other 
to  the  Gulf  of  Salom'ki.  Chamois  and  wild  goats  are  still  met  with  in  the 
Skbar,  as  in  the  Pindus  and  Rbcdope,  and  M.  Wiet  mentions  an  animal  known 
to  the  Mirdits  as  a  lueet  '>al,  which  appears  to  be  a  species  of  leopard. 

A  mountain  region,  hardly  3,000  feet  in  elevation,  but  exceedingly  di£Bcult  of 
access,  rises  to  the  west  of  the  Skbar,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Black  Drin :  this 
is  the  citadel  of  Upper  Albania,  the  country  of  the  Mirdits  and  Dukajins. 
Enormous  masses  of  serpentine  have  orupted  there  through  the  chalk,  the  valleys 
are  hemmed  in  by  bold  precipices,  and  the  torrents  rapidly  run  down  the 
hollowed-out  beds  on  the  exterior  si  opt- 9.  As  a  rule,  the  direction  of  the  tortuous 
ranges  of  this  mountain  country  is  the  same  oa  that  of  the  southern  spurs  of 
the  Skbar.  They  gradually  decrease  m  height,  enclosing  fine  upland  valleys, 
where  the  waters  are  able  to  accumulate.  The  Lake  of  Okhrida,  the  largest  sheet 
of  water  in  Upper  Albania,  has  not  inaptly  been  likened  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 
Its  waters  are  bluer  even  than  those  of  its  Swiss  rival,  and  more  transparent,  and 
fish  may  be  seen  chasing  each  other  at  a  depth  of  sixty  feet  beneath  its  surface : 
hence  its  ancient  Greek  name  of  Lychnidos.  The  delightful  little  town  of 
Okhrida  and  Mouni  Pieria,  with  its  old  Roman  castle,  guard  its  shores,  and  the 
white  houses  of  numerous  villages  peep  out  amongst  the  chestnut  forests  which 
cover  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  hills.  This  lake  is  drained  towards  the 
north  through  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Black  Drin.  If  the  statements  of  the 
inhabitants  may  be  credited,  the  waters  of  the  double  basin  of  Lake  Presba  reach 
Lake  Okhrida  through  subterranean  channels. 

'The  isolated  peak  of  x'omor  commands  this  lake  region  on  the  west.  To  the 
south  of  it  commences  the  chain  of  the  Pindus,  locally  known  as  Grammos.  At 
first  of  moderate  height,  and  crossed  by  numerous  mountain  roads  affording  easy 
communication  between  Albania  and  Macedonia,  these  mountains  gradually 
increase  in  height  as  we  proceed  south,  and  exactly  to  the  east  of  Tanina  they 
form  the  mountain  mass  of  Metzovo,  with  which  the  Pindus,  properly  so  called, 
takes  its  rise.  This  mountain  mass  is  inferior  in  altitude  to  the  peaks  of  Bosnia  or 
Northern  Albania,  but  it  is  far  more  picturesque  than  either,  its  slopes  being 
covered  with  forests  of  conifers  and  beech-trees,  and  the  plains  extending  along  its 
foot  having  a  more  soutiiem  aspect.  Mount  Zygos,  or  Lachmon,  which  rises  in  the 
centre  of  this  mountain  mass,  does  not  afford  a  very  extended  panorama,  but  if  we 
climb  the  craggy  peaks  of  the  Peristera-Yuna,  or  Smolika,  near  it,  we  are  able  to 
look  at  the  same  time  upon  the  waters  of  the  ^gean  and  Ionian  Seas,  and  even 
the  shore  of  Greece  may  be  descried  beyond  the  Gulf  of  Arta. 

A  famous  lake  occupies  the  bottom  of  the  limestone  basin  at  the  western  foot 
of  the  mountain  mass  of  Metzovo.  This  is  the  Lake  of  Yanina,  and  nowhere  else 
throughout  Epirus  do  we  meet  with  an  equal  number  of  natural  curiosities  as  on 
the  shores  of  this  lake.  Its  ^epth  is  inconsiderable,  nowhere  exceeding  forty  feet, 
and  it  is  fed  only  by  numerous  springs  rising  at  the  foot  of  the  rooks.    There  is  no 


%i. 


-r 


ALBANIA  AND  EP1RU9. 


117 


importano«i 
irian  Morava 
be,  the  other 

with  in  the 
aimal  known 

;ly  difficult  of 
)k  Drin:  this 
nd  Dukajins. 
Ik,  the  valleys 
>un  down  the 
if  the  tortuous 
them  spurs  of 
ipland  yalleys, 
le  largest  sheet 
lake  of  Gsneva. 
ransparent,  and 
ath  its  surface : 
little  town  of 
shores,  and  the 
at  forests  which 
ted  towards  the 
atements  of  the 
ke  Presba  reach 

west.     To  the 
Qrammos.    At 
affording  easy 
itains  gradually 
of  Yanina  they 
jperly  so  oaUed, 
iks  of  Bosnia  or 
its  slopes  heing 
[tending  along  its 
rhich  rises  in  the 
lorama,  but  if  we 
I  it,  we  are  able  to 
Seas,  and  even 

;  the  western  foot 
[and  nowhere  else 

L  curiosities  as  on 
iing  forty  feet, 

oks.    There  is  no 


visible  outlet ;  but  Colonel  Leake  assures  us  that  each  of  the  two  basins  into  which 
it  is  divided  is  drained  by  a  suhterrunoun  channel.  The  northern  lake  pouri  its 
waters  into  a  sink,  or  voinikoea,  and  reappears  towards  the  south-west  as  a 
considerable  river,  which  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea.  This  is  the  Thyumis  of  the 
ancients,  our  modern  Kalanias.  Further  to  the  south  the  ancient  Acheron  bursts 
from  the  rooks,  and  having  received  the  nauseous  waters  of  the  equally  famous 
CooytuB,  throws  itself  into  the  "  bay  of  sweet  waters,"  thus  called  on  account  of 
the  large  volume  of  water  discharged  into  it  by  rivers. 

When  the  waters  of  the  bouthern  and  larger  basins  of  Lake  Yanina  are  low,  there 
is  but  a  single  effluent,  which  plunges  down  into  an  abyss,  and  in  doing  so  turns 

Fig.  3A.— SODTHKRN  EptllVI. 

AMordiBff  to  Kiq^wt.    Betl*  t :  1,400,00a 


asMilM. 


K.  KaUvoUus. 


the  wheels  of  a  mill.  The  Cyclopean  ruins  of  the  Peiasgic  city  of  Hellas  command 
this  huge  chasm  with  its  roaring  waters.  The  subterranean  river  reappears  far  to 
the  south,  and  flows  into  the  Oulf  of  Arta.  But  when  the  level  of  the  law  3  is  high, 
four  other  sinks  swallow  up  its  superabundant  waters,  and  convey  them  into 
the  main  channel,  the  direction  of  which  is  indicated  by  a  few  small  lakes.  The 
important  part  played  in  the  mythology  of  ancient  Greece  by  these  subterranean 
effluents,  and  particularly  by  the  infernal  Acheron  and  the  Cocytus,  amply  proves 
the  influence  exercised  by  the  Pelasgians  upon  the  civilisation  of  the  Hellenes. 
The  myths  of  the  Hellopians  became  the  common  property  of  all  Greece,  and 


^i] 


118 


TURKEY  IN  EUHOI'B. 


thore  wo*  no  templo  in  all  IIcllui  more  veuerated  than  their  sanctuary  at  Dodona, 
where  the  fubU<*«  might  be  foretold  by  liatening  to  the  ruatliitg  of  the  leaven  of 
wicred  oaks.  This  aacred  grove  existed,  probably,  near  one  of  the  Cyclopean 
towns  so  numerous  in  the  country,  if  not  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  itself.  fck>me, 
erroneously  no  doubt,  have  looked  for  it  near  the  oaatle  inhabited  in  the  beginning 
of  this  century  by  Ali  Tepeleni,  the  terrible  Paaha  of  Epirui,  who  boasted  of  being 
a  "  lighted  torch,  devouring  man." 

The  mountains  of  8uli,  to  the  west  of  the  basin  of  Tanina,  attain  an  altitude 
of  3,500  feet,  but  the  neighbouring  hills  are  of  moderate  height,  though  abrupt  and 
difficult  of  access,  and  near  the  coast  they  sink  down  into  small  rooky  promontories, 
scantily  clothed  with  shrubs  and  overrun  by  jackals.  Swamps  abound  near  the 
shore,  and  during  summer  their  miasmatic  air  spreads  over  the  neighbouring 
viMnges.  To  the  north  of  the  swamps  of  Butrinto  and  of  the  channel  of  Corfu, 
and  to  the  west  of  the  isolated  peak  of  Eundusi,  however,  the  coast  rises  again,  and 
the  austere  chain  of  the  Chimnra  Mala,  or  Aorooeraunii,  extends  along  it.  It  was 
dreaded  by  the  ancients  on  account  of  its  tempests,  and  the  torrents  which  poured 
down  its  sides.  Squalls  and  changes  of  wind  are  frequent  near  the  "  Tongue 
(Linguetta)  of  Rooks,"  the  most  advanced  promontory  of  this  coast,  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Adriatic  Sea.  These  are  the  "  in&mous  rocks  "  referred  to  by  the  Roman 
poet,  upon  which  many  a  vessel  suffered  shipwreck.  The  channel  which  separates 
Turkey  at  that  place  from  Italy  has  a  width  of  only  46  miles ;  it  is  less  than  100 
fathoms  in  depth,  and  at  some  former  period  an  isthmus  may  have  united  the  two 
countries.* 

The  Shkipetars,  or  Albanians,  are  subdivided  into  two  leading  tribes  or  nations, 
the  Tosks  and  the  Gheges,  both  of  whom  are  no  doubt  descended  ft-om  the  ancient 
Pelasgians,  but  have  in  many  places  become  mixed  with  Slavs,  Bulgarians,  and 
Rumanians,  and  perhaps  even  with  other  nations ;  for  whilst  in  some  tribes  we 
meet  with  the  purest  Hellenic  types,  there  are  others  the  members  of  which  are 
repulsively  ugly.  The  Gheges  are  the  purest  of  their  race,  and  they  occupy, 
under  various  tribal  names,  the  whole  of  Northern  Albania  as  far  as  the  river 
Shkumbi.  The  territory  of  the  Tosks  extends  from  that  river  southward.  The 
dialects  of  these  two  nations  differ  much,  and  it  is  not  easy  for  an  Aorooeraunian 
to  understand  a  Mirdit  or  other  Albanian  from  the  north.  Gheges  and  Tosks 
detest  each  other.  In  the  Turkish  army  they  are  kept  separated  for  ibar  of  their 
coming  to  blows,  and,  when  an  insurrection  has  t^  be  suppressed  amongst  them, 
the  Turkish  Government  always  avails  itself  of  these  tribal  jealousies,  and  is  certain 
of  being  served  with  the  zeal  and  fury  which  hatred  inspires. 

Up  to  the  period  of  the  migration  of  the  barbarians,  the  whole  of  Eastern 
Turkey,  as  far  as  the  Danube,  was  held  by  Albanians.  But  they  were  then 
pushed  back,  and  Albania  was  entirely  occupied  by  Servians  and  Bulgarians. 


*  Altitudes  in  Albania : — 
Skhar    .... 


ItMt. 

4s  8,200 

Tomor 9,413 

ZygM  (Lachmoii)  .        •        .        .  6,000 

Bmolika <,«70 


Tmk 

Knndiui 0,270 

Acrocersnnian  Mountain  .  .  6,700 
UkeOkhrid*  ....  2,270 
LdMofTsnina     ....       1,700 


^ 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIBTTS. 


119 


The  names  of  numerous  localities  throughout  the  country  recall  that  period  of 
obscuration,  during  which  the  name  of  an  indigenous  race  was  not  even  mentioned 
by  the  historian.  But  when  the  Osmanli  had  broken  the  power  of  the  Serb,  the 
Albanians  again  raised  their  heads,  and  ever  since  they  have  kept  encroaching 
upon  their  Slav  neighbours.  In  the  north  they  have  gradually  descended  into 
the  valley  of  the  Bulgarian  Morava,  and  one  of  their  colonies  has  even  penetrated 
into  independent  Servia.  Like  the  waters  of  a  rising  ocean,  they  overwhelm 
the  detached  tracts  of  territory  still  occupied  by  Servians.  This  progress  of  the 
Albanians  is  explained,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  voluntary  expatriation  of  the 
Servians.  Thousands  of  them,  headed  by  their  patriarchs,  fled  to  Hungary,  in 
order  to  escape  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  and  the  Albanians  occupied  the  wastes 
they  left  behind.  The  Servians  still  hold  their  ground  near  Acrooeraunia,  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Okhrida,  and  in  the  hills  looking  down  upon  the  fatal  plain  of 
Kosovo,  where  their  ancestors  were  massacred;  but  they  gradually  become 
Albanians  in  lang^g^,  religion,  and  customs.  They  speak  of  themselves  as 
Turks,  as  do  the  Amauts,  and  apply  the  name  of  Servian  only  to  the  Chris- 
tians dwelling  beyond  the  frontier.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  customs 
of  the  Gheges  agree  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  those  of  their  Slav  neigh- 
bours, and  this  proves  that  there  has  taken  place  a  thorough  blending  of  the  two 
races. 

But  whilst  the  Albanians  are  gaining  ground  in  the  north,  they  are  losing  it 
in  the  south.  A  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Albania,  though 
undoubtedly  of  Pelasgio  origin,  ar6  Greek  by  language.  Arta,  Tanina,  and  Prevesa 
are  Hellenized  towns,  and  only  a  few  Mohammedan  families  there  still  speak 
Albanian.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  tract  between  the  Pindus  and  the  Adriatic 
coast  ranges  has  become  Greek  as  far  as  language  goes,  and  throughout  the 
mountain  region  extending  westward  to  the  sea  the  inhabitants  are  "  bilingual ; " 
that  is  to  say,  they  speak  two  languages.  The  fiunous  Suliotes,  for  instance,  who 
talk  Tosk  within  the  bosom  of  their  family,  make  use  of  Greek  in  their  intercourse 
with  strangers.  Wherever  the  two  races  come  into  coniaot,  it  is  always  the 
Albanian  who  takes  the  trouble  to  learn  Greek. 

This  influence  of  the  Hellenes  is  all  the  more  powerful  as  it  meets  with 
support  amongst  the  Zinzares,  known  also  as  Macedo-Walakhs,  "Limping" 
Walakhs,  or  Southern  Rumanians,  who  are  met  wiih  throughout  the  country. 
These  Zinsares  are  the  kinsmen  of  the  Rumanians  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  and 
live  in  a  compact  body  only  on  the  two  slopes  of  the  Pindus,  to  the  south  and  east 
of  the  Lake  of  Tanina.  Like  the  Rumanians  of  the  Danube,  they  are  most 
probably  Latinised  Daoians.  They  resemble  the  Walakhs  in  features,  character, 
and  disposition,  and  speak  a  neo*Latin  tongue  much  mixed  with  Greek.  The 
Zinzares  in  the  valleys  of  the  Pindus  are,  for  the  most  part,  herdsmen,  and  wander 
away  from  their  villages  sometimes  for  months.  Others  carry  on  trades,  exhi- 
biting much  manual  skill  and  intelligence.  Nearly  all  the  bricklayers  of  Turkey, 
those  of  the  large  towns  excepted,  are  Zinzares;  and  the  same  individual  sometimes 
erects  an  entire  house,  doing  in  turn  the  work  of  architect,  carpenter,  joiner. 


•'mmm!^xM,mM"^ 


190 


TUBKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


and  locksmith.  The  Rumanians  of  the  Findus  are  likewise  esteemed  as  clever 
goldsmiths. 

Their  capacity  for  business  is  great,  and  the  commerce  of  the  interior  of 
Turkey  is  almost  entirely  in  their  hands,  as  is  that  of  the  maiitime  districts  in 
those  of  the  Greeks.  The  Walakhs  of  Metzovo  are  said  to  have  stood  formerly 
under  the  direct  protection  of  the  Porte,  and  every  traveller,  whether  Mussulman 
or  Christian,  was  bound  to  unshoe  his  horses  before  he  left  their  territory,  for  fear 
"  of  his  carrying  away  a  clod  of  earth  which  did  not  belong  to  him."  Commercial 
houses  conducted  by  Walakhs  of  the  Pindus  are  met  with  in  every  town  of  the 
Orient,  and  even  at  Vienna  one  of  the  most  influential  banks  has  been  founded  by 
one  of  them.  Abroad  they  are  generally  taken  for  Greeks,  and  the  wealthier 
amongst  them  send  their  children  to  Athens  to  be  educated.  Surrounded  by 
Mussulmans,  the  Zinzares  of  the  Pindus  feel  the  necessity  of  attaching  themselves 
to  some  country  through  which  they  might  obtain  their  freedom,  and  they  hope 
for  a  nnion  with  Greece.  It  is  only  quite  recently  that  they  have  learnt  to  look 
upon  the  Rumanians  of  the  North  and  the  Italians  as  their  kinsmen.  They  do 
not,  however,  set  much  store  upon  their  nationality,  and  have  no  aspirations  as 
a  distinct  race.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  course  of  ages  many  of  these 
Macedo- Walakhs  have  become  Hellenized.  Nearly  all  Thessaly  was  inhabited 
by  Zinzares  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Byzantine  authors  speak  of  that  country  as 
"Great  Wallachia."  Whether  these  Zinzares  have  emigrated  to  Rumania,  as 
some  think,  or  have  become  assimilated  with  the  Greeks,  the  fact  remains  that  at 
the  present  day  they  are  not  very  numerous  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Pindus. 
Thousands  of  Rumanian  families  have  settled  in  the  coast  towns,  at  Avlona,  Berat, 
and  Tirana,  embracing  Mohammedanism,  but  still  retaining  their  native  idiom. 

If  we  exclude  these  Zinzares,  the  Greeks  of  Epirus,  the  Servians,  and  the  few 
Osmanli  dwelling  in  the  large  towns,  there  remain  only  the  semi-barbarous  Gheges 
and  Tosks,  whose  social  condition  has  hardly  undergone  any  change  in  the  course 
of  three  thousand  years.  In  their  manners  and  modes  of  thought  these  modem 
Albanians  are  the  true  successors  of  the  ancient  Pelasgians,  and  many  a  scene  that 
a  i!-aveller  may  witness  amongst  them  carries  him  back  to  the  days  of  the  Odyssey. 
G.  von  Hahn,  who  has  most  thoroughly  studied  the  Shkipetars,  looks  upon  them 
as  veritable  Dorians,  whose  ancestors,  led  by  the  Heraclides,  burst  forth  from  the 
forests  of  Epirus  to  conquer  the  Peloponnesus.  They  are  as  courageous,  as  war> 
like,  as  fond  of  dominion,  and  as  clannish  as  were  their  ancestors.  Their  dress, 
likewise,  is  nearly  the  same,  and  the  white  tunio  {Juatanelle)  neatly  fastened 
round  the  waist  fairly  represents  the  ancient  ehlamyt.  The  Gheges,  like  the 
Dorians  of  old,  are  addicted  to  that  mysterious  passion  which  the  historians  of 
antiquity  have  confounded,  unfortunately,  with  a  nameless  vice,  and  which  links 
men  to  children  by  a  pure  and  ideal  love,  in  which  the  senses  have  no  part. 

There  is  no  modem  people  respecting  whom  more  asfAunding  acts  of  bravery 
are  recorded  than  of  the  Albanians.  In  the  fifteenth  century  they  had  their 
Scauderbeg,  who,  though  the  theatre  of  his  glory  was  more  circumscribed  than 
that  of  his  namesake  of  Macedonia,  was  hardly  inferior  to  him  in  genius,  and 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIBUS. 


121 


as  clever 

aterioT  of 
istricts  in 
1  formerly 
Mussulman 
ry,  for  fear 
Jommeroial 
own  of  the 
founded  by 
B  'Wealthier 
rounded  by 
themselves 
d  they  hope 
Brnt  to  look 
I.     They  do 
spirations  as 
any  of  these 
ras  inhabited 
,t  country  as 
Rvimania,  as 
mains  that  at 
f  the  Pindus. 
Lvlona,  Berat, 
ive  idiom. 
,  and  the  few 

trouB  Gheges 
in  the  course 
jthese  modem 
a  scene  that 

the  Odyssey. 

Ls  upon  thetn 
[brth  from  the 
lus,  as  war- 
Their  dress, 
itly  fastened 

)ges,  like  the 
historians  of 

[d  which  links 

10  part. 

icts  of  bravery 

[hey  had  their 

Lscribed  than 

genius,  and 


certainly  surpassed  him  in  justness  and  goodness  of  heart.  Or  what  nation  has 
ever  exceeded  in  courage  the  Suliote  mountaineers,  amongst  whom  not  an  aged 
man,  a  woman,  or  a  child  was  found  to  beg  for  mercy  from  Ali  Pasha's  executioners? 
The  heroism  of  these  Suliote  women,  who  set  fire  to  the  ammunition  waggons,  and 
then  hand  in  hand  precipitated  themselves  from  the  rocks,  or  sought  death  in  the 
mountain  torrents,  chanting  their  own  funeral  song,  will  at  all  times  stand  forth 
in  history  as  an  astounding  fact. 

This  valour,  unfortunately,  is  associated  amongst  many  tribes  with  a  fearful 
amount  of  savageness.  Human  life  is  held  cheap  amongst  these  warlike  popula- 
tions ;  blood  calls  for  blood,  and  victim  for  victim.  They  believe  in  vampires  and 
phantoms,  and  occasionally  an  old  man  has  been  burnt  alive,  on  suspicion  of  his 
being  able  to  kill  by  the  breath  of  his  mouth.  Slavery  does  not  exist,  but  woman 
is  held  in  a  state  of  servitude ;  she  is  looked  upon  as  an  inferior  being,  having  no 
rights  or  mind  of  her  own.  Custom  raises  a  more  formidable  barrier  between  the 
sexes  than  do  walls  and  locked  doors,  elsewhere.  A  young  girl  is  not  permitted  to 
Rpcak  to  a  young  man  ;  such  an  act  is  looked  upon  as  a  crime,  which  her  father  or 
brother  may  feel  called  upon  to  punish  by  a  deed  of  blood.  The  parents  sometimes 
consult  the  wishes  of  their  son  when  about  to  marry  him,  but  never  those  of  their 
daughter.  The  latter  is  frequently  affianced  in  her  cradle,  and,  whon  twelve  years 
of  age,  she  is  handed  over  to  a  young  man  on  his  presenting  a  wedding  outfit  and 
a  sum  of  money  fixed  by  custom,  and  averaging  twenty  shillings.  From  that 
moment  he  becomes  the  absolute  master  of  his  bride,  though  not  without  first 
going  through  the  farce  of  an  abduction,  as  is  customary  amongst  nearly  all 
ancient -nations.  The  poor  woman,  thus  sold  like  a  slave,  is  bound  to  work  for  her 
:v.uid.  She  is  his  housekeeper  as  well  as  his  labourer,  and  the  national  poets 
'^ '  ^re  her  to  the  "ever-active  shuttle,"  whilst  the  father  of  the  family  is 
likened  to  the  "majestic  ram  marching  at  the  head  of  the  flock."  Tet  woman, 
scorned  though  she  be,  and  brutalised  by  heavy  work,  nuy  traverse  the  whole 
country  without  fear  of  being  insulted,  and  the  life  of  an  unfortunate  who  place* 
himself  under  her  protection  is  held  sacred. 

Family  ties  are  very  powerful  amongst  the  Albanians.  The  father  retains  the 
rights  of  sovereign  lord  up  to  an  advanced  age,  and  as  long  as  he  lives  the 
<9aming8  of  his  children  and  grandchildren  are  his  own.  Frequently  this  com- 
ninnism  continues  after  his  death,  the' eldest  son  taking  his  place.  The  loss  of  a 
member  of  the  family,  and  particularly  of  a  young  man,  gives  rise  to  fearful 
lamentations  amongst  the  women,  who  frequently  swoon  away,  and  even  lose  their 
senses.  But  the  death  of  persons  who  have  reached  the  natural  limits  of  human 
life  is  hardly  mourned  at  all.  The  descendants  of  the  same  ancestor  never  lose 
sight  of  their  parentage.  They  form  clans,  called  phis  or  pharos,  which  are 
bound  firmly  together  for  purposes  of  defence  or  attack,  or  in  the  pursuit  of  their 
common  interests.  Brotherhood  by  election  is  known  amongst  the  Albanians,  as 
well  a«  amongst  the  Servians  and  other  ancient  nations,  and  its  ties  are  as  strong 
as  those  of  blood.  Toung  men  desirous  of  becoming  brothers  bind  themselves  by 
solemn  vows  in  the  presence  of  their  families,  and,  having  opened  a  vein,  they 


128 


TUBKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


drink  each  other's  blood.  The  need  of  these  family  bonds  is  felt  bo  strongly  in 
Albania,  that  young  people  brought  up  together  frequently  remain  united  during 
the  remainder  of  their  lives,  forming  a  regular  community,  having  its  days  of 
meetings,  its  festivals,  and  a  common  purse. 

But  in  spite  of  these  family  associations  and  clans,  in  spite  of  the  enthusiastic 
love  which  the  Albanian  bears  his  native  land,  there  exists  no  political  cohesion 
amongst  the  various  tribes.  The  physical  conditions  of  the  country,  no  less  than 
an  unhappy  passion  for  war,  have  scattered  their  forces,  and  rendered  them 
imable,  consequently,  to  maintain  their  independence.  The  religious  animositie.s 
between  Mussulman  and  Christian,  Greek  and  Roman  Oatholic,  have  contributed 
to  the  like  result. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  majority  of  the  A  Ibanians  are  Mohammedans. 
When  the  Turks  became  masters  of  the  country  the  most  valiant  amongst  them 
fled  to  Italy,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  tribes  tliat  remained  behind  were  compelled 
to  embrace  Islamism.  Many  of  the  chiefs,  moreover,  turned  Mussulmans,  in  order 
that  they  might  continue  their  life  of  brigandage,  on  pretence  of  carrying  on  a 
holy  war.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  of  the  aristocracy  of  the  country  being  for 
the  most  part  Mohammedan,  and  in  possession  of  the  land.  The  Christian  peasant 
who  tills  it  is  nominally  a  free  man,  but  in  reality  he  is  at  the  mercy  of  his  lord, 
who  keeps  him  at  the  point  of  starvation.  These  Albanian  Mussulmans,  however, 
are  fanatic  warriors  rather  than  religious  zealots,  and  many  of  their  ceremonies, 
particularly  those  connected  with  their  native  land,  differ  in  nothing  from  those 
of  their  Christian  compatriots.  They  have  been  converted,  but  not  convinced,  and 
cynically  they  say  of  themselves  that  their  "  sword  is  wherever  their  faith  is." 

In  many  districts  the  conversion  has  been  nominal  only,  and  xealous  Christians 
have  continued  to  conduct  their  worship  in  secret.  Many  Mohammedans  of  this 
class  returned  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers  as  soon  as  the  tolerance  of  Oovemment 
permitted  them  to  do  so.  As  to  the  warlike  mountain  dans,  the  Mirdits,  Suliotes, 
and  Acroceraunians,  they  had  no  need  to  bend  to  the  will  of  the  Turks,  and 
remained  Greek  or  Roman  Christians.  The  boundary  between  Gheges  and  Tosks 
coincides  approximately  with  the  boundary  between  these  two  denominations, 
the  Roman  Catholics  living  to  the  north  of  the  Shkumbi,  the  orthodox  Greeks  to 
the  south  of  the  river.  The  Hellenes  and  Zinzares  in  Southern  Albania  are 
orthodox  Greeks.  The  hatred  between  these  two  denominations  of  Christians  is 
intense,  and  this  is  the  principal  reason  why  the  Albanians  have  not  succeeded  in 
regaining  their  independence,  as  have  the  Servians. 

Southern  Albania  and  £pirus  had  feudal  institutions  up  to  the  close  of  last 
century.  The  chiefs  of  the  clans  and  ths  semi-independent  Turkish  pashas  lived 
in  strong  castles  perched  upon  the  rocks,  from  which  they  descended  from  time 
to  time,  followed  by  bands  of  servitors.  War  existed  in  permanency  and  property 
changed  hands  continuously,  according  to  the  fortunes  of  the  sword.  Ali  the 
Terrible,  of  Tanina,  put  a  stop  to  this  state  of  afiairs.  He  reduced  high  and 
low  to  the  same  level  of  servitude,  and  the  central  Government  now  wields  the 
power  formerly  exercised  by  lords  and  heads  of  families. 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIBUS. 


128 


rongly  in 
d  during 
I  days  of 

thuBiastio 
.  cohesion 
less  than 
ired  them 
inimosities 
ontrihuted 

ammedans. 
tngst  them 
3  compelled 
18,  in  order 
rying  on  a 
•y  heing  for 
dan  peasant 
of  his  lord, 
[j8,  however, 
ceremonies, 
r  from  those 
Qvlnced,  and 
aith  is." 
IS  Christians 
dans  of  this 
Government 
lita,  Suliotes, 
Turks,  and 
andTosks 
Lominations, 
»x  Greeks  to 
Albania  are 
I  Christians  is 
succeeded  in 

close  of  last 

pashas  lived 

from  time 

.  property 

Ali  the 

Led  high  and 

•  wields  the 


If  we  would  become  acquainted  with  a  social  condition  recalling  the  Middle 
Ages,  we  must  go  amongst  the  independent  tribes  of  Northern  Albania.  On 
crossing  the  Matis  we  at  once  perceive  a  change.  Every  one  goes  armed ; 
shepherds  and  labourers  carry  a  carbine  on  the  shoulder ;  and  even  women  and 
children  place  a  pistol  in  their  belts.  Families,  clans,  and  tribes  have  a  military 
organization,  and  at  a  moment's  notice  are  ready  to  take  the  field.  A  sheep 
missing  in  a  flock,  an  insult  offered  in  the  heat  of  passion,  may  lead  to  war.  Not 
long  since  the  Montenegrin  was  the  most  frequent  distui  ber  of  the  peace,  for,  shut 
up  iu  his  sterile  mountains,  he  was  often  oblig^  to  turn  brigand  in  order  to 
sustain  life,  and  laid  under  contribution  the  fields  of  his  neighbours.  The  Turks 
have  at  all  times  nourished  this  hatred  between  Albanians  and  Montenegrins. 
They  recompense  the  warlike  services  of  the  tribes  of  the  border  clans  by 
exempting  them  firom  taxation,  and  allowing  them  to  govern  themselves  according 
to  their  own  laws.  Let  these  immunities  be  touched,  and  they  will  make  common 
cause  with  their  hereditary  foes  of  the  Black  Mountains. 

The  Mirdita  are  typical  of  the  independent  tribes  of  Northern  Albania.  They 
inhabit  the  high  valleys  to  the  south  of  the  gorge  of  the  Drin,  and,  though 
hardly  numbering  12,000  souls,  they  exercise,  in  consequence  of  their  warlike 
valour,  a  most  important  influence  in  all  Eastern  Turkey.  Their  country  is 
accessible  only  through  three  difficult  defiles,  and  they  hold  command  of  the  roads 
which  the  Turkish  troops  must  follow  when  operating  against  the  Montenegrins. 
The  Sublime  Porte,  well  aware  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  subdue  these  redoubt- 
able mountaineers,  has  endeavoured  to  attach  them,  showering  honours  upon  them, 
and  granting  them  the  most  complete  self-government.  The  Mirdits,  on  their 
side,  though  Christians,  have  at  all  times  fought  most  valiantly  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Turkish  army,  in  Greece  and  the  Morea,  as  well  as  against  their  fellow-Ohristians 
of  Montenegro.  They  are  formed  into  three  "  banners "  of  the  mountains  and 
two  of  the  plains,  and  in  time  of  war  are  joined  by  the  five  banners  of  Lesh, 
or  Alessio.  The  banner  of  the  renowned  dan  of  Orosh  takes  precedence  of  all 
others. 

The  country  of  the  Mirdits  is  governed  by  an  oligarchy,  of  which  the  Prince 
or  Pasha  of  Orosh  is  the  hereditary  head.  His  power,  however,  is  merely 
nominal,  for  in  reality  the  country  is  governed  by  a  council  consisting  of  the 
elders  (veeehiardi)  of  the  villages,  the  delegates  of  the  banners,  and  the  heads  of 
dans.  The  proceedings  of  this  council  are  regulated  by  ancient  traditions. 
Wives  are  taken  by  force  from  the  enemy,  for  the  members  of  the  five  banners 
look  upon  each  other  as  relatives,  and  the  Mohammedan  girls  in  the  lowland 
villages  look  forward  with  little  fear  to  their  being  carried  off  by  Mirdit  warriors. 
The  vendetta  is  exerdsed  in  an  inexorable  manner,  and  blood  cries  for  blood.  A 
violation  of  hospitality  is  punished  with  death.  Thr  adulieress  is  buried  beneath 
aheap  of  stones,  and  her  nearest  relative  is  bound  to  deliver  the  head  of  her 
accomplice  to  the  injured  husband.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  education  is  at 
a  very  low  ebb  amongst  these  savages.  There  are  no  schools,  and  in  1860  hardly 
fifty  Christians  of  the  Mirdit  country  and  of  the  district  of  Lesh  were  able  to 


^'tmmmm 


TitMiJ-iliriiftii  lit 


WBSKSsssi^ 


IM 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


read.  Agriculture,  nevertheless,  is  in  a  relatively  advanced  state.  The  valleys  of 
the  sterile  mountains  are  cultivated  with  a  certain  amount  of  care,  and  they 
produce  finer  crops  than  do  the  fertile  plains,  inhabited  by  an  indolent  population. 

By  a  strange  contrast,  these  direct  descendants  of  the  ancient  Pelasgians,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  beginning  of  civilisation  in  Europe,  still  number 
amongst  the  most  savage  populationsi  of  our  continent.  But  they,  too,  must  yield 
in  time  to  the  influence  of  their  surroundings.  Until  recently  the  Epirotes  and 
southern  Shkipetars  left  their  country  only  in  order  to  lead  the  easy  but  degrading 
life  of  mercenaries.  In  the  last  century  the  young  men  of  Acroceraunia  uold 
themselves  to  the  King  of  Naples,  to  be  embodied  in  his  regiment  of  "  Royal 
Maoedonians ; "  and  even  in  our  own  days  not  only  Mohammedans,  but  also  Christian 
Tosks,  enter  the  service  of  pashas  and  beys.  These  men,  known  as  Amauts,  may 
be  met  with  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  empire— ;in  Armenia,  at  Bagdad,  and 
in  Arabia.  On  the  expiration  of  their  term  of  service,  the  majority  of  these 
veterans  retire  to  estates  granted  them  by  Government,  and  this  accounts  for 
the  large  number  of  Arnaut  villages  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  empire. 

But  wars  are  less  frequent  now,  the  life  of  a  mercenary  offers  fewer  advantages, 
and  increasing  numbers  of  Albanians  leave  their  country  annually  in  order  to  gain 
a  living  abroad  by  honest  labour.  Like  the  Swiss  of  the  canton  of  Orisons,  many 
Shkipetars  descend  from  their  mountains  at  the  commencement  of  winter  in  order 
to  work  for  wages  in  the  plains.  Most  of  these  return  to  their  moimtain^homea  in 
spring,  enriched  by  their  earnings ;  but  there  are  others  who  remain  abroad  for 
years,  or  who  never  return.  The  advantages  of  a  division  of  labour  appear  to  be  well 
understood  by  these  mountaineers  of  Epirus  and  Southern  Albania,  and  each  moun- 
tain valley  is  noted  for  the  exercise  of  some  special  craft.  One  valley  sends  forth 
butchers,  another  bakers,  a  third  gardeners.  A  village  near  Argyrokastro  supplies 
Constantinople  with  most  of  its  welUsinkers.  The  district  of  Zagori,  perhaps  the 
home  of  the  ancient  Asclepiads,  sends  its  doctors,  or  rather  "  bone-setters,"  into 
every  town  of  Turkey.  Many  of  these  emigrants,  when  they  become  wealthy, 
return  to  their  native  land,  where  they  build  themselves  fine  houses  in  the  midst 
of  sterile  mountains,  and  these  take  the  places  of  the  old  seigneurial  towers,  which 
were  erected  only  for  purposes  of  defence. 

The  Albanians  are  thus  being  carried  along  by  a  general  movement  of  progress, 
and  if  once  they  enter  into  the  common  life  of  Europe,  we  may  expect  them  to  play 
a  prominent  part,  for  they  possess  a  penetrating  mind  and  much  strength  of 
character.  The  Albanians  enjoy  the  advantage  of  having  ready  access  to  the  sea, 
but  hitherto  they  have  derived  only  small  benefit  from  it,  not  only  owing  to  the 
disturbed  state  of  the  country  and  the  absence  of  roads,  but  also  because  of  the 
alluvial  deposits  formed  by  the  rivers  and  the  malaria  of  the  marshes.  Still, 
making  every  allowance  for  these  disadvantages,  they  hardly  account  for  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  maritime  enterprise.  One  would  scarcely  fancy  these 
Epirotes  and  Gheges  to  be  of  the  same  raoe  as  those  Hydriote  corsairs  who  launched 
whole  fleets  upon  the  waters  of  the  Archipelago  at  the  time  of  the  war  for  Hellenic 
independence,  and  who  still  maintain  the  foremost  place  amongst  the  mariners  of 


''  '^-iTiV-'^^M 


mmifmmiimmmmfm'^mimmimimmf' 


tJ^Smm 


j^ 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIR';\ 


126 


Greece.  The  ports  of  Albania — Antivari,  Porto  Medua  (one  of  the  safest  on  the 
Adriatic),  Duruziio,  Avlona,  Purga  (lost  in  a  forest  of  citron-trees),  and  even  strong 
Prevesa,  surrounded  by  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  olive-trees — can  boost  but 
of  a  trifling  commerce,  and  two-thirds  of  that  arc  carried  on  in  Austrian  vessels 
from  Trieste.  With  the  exception  of  the  Aoroceraunians  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Duloigno,  which  is  the  port  of  Scutari,  no  Mohammedan  Albanian  ventures  upon 
the  sea,  not  even  as  a  fisherman.  In  spite  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  there  are 
hardly  any  articles  to  export.  The  mines  of  he  country  arc  unexplored,  agricul- 
ture is  in  a  most  backward  state,  and  in  Epirus  hardly  any  industry  is  known 
except  the  rearing  of  sheep  and  goats. 

At  the  time  of  the  Romans  these  countries  were  equally  forsaken.  There  was 
one  magnificent  city,  Nicopolis,  built  by  Augustus  on  a  promontory  to  the  north 
of  the  modem  Prevesa  to  commemorate  his  victory  at  Aotium.  The  only  other 
town  of  importance  was  Dyrrhachium,  called  Durazzo  by  the  Italians.  It  formed 
the  terminus  of  the  Via  Egnatia,  which  traversed  the  whole  of  the  Ikan  penin- 
sula from  west  to  east,  and  constituted  the  great  highway  between  Italy  and  the 
Orient.  Avlona  may  aspire  one  day  to  take  the  place  of  ancient  Dyrrhachium. 
Its  geographical  positic.  is  superior  to  that  of  Durazzo,  for  it  is  nearer  to  Italy, 
and  its  deep  and  secure  harbour  enjoys  the  shelter  of  the  island  of  Suseno  and  of 
the  Linguetta  of  Acroceraunia. 

In  the  meantime  all  the  commerce  of  the  country  is  concentrated  in  Scutari 
and  Yanina,  and  in  some  other  towns  of  the  interior.  The  most  considerable 
amongst  the  latter  are  Prisrend,  at  the  foot  of  the  Skhar,  whose  nobles  boast  of 
their  magnificent  dresses  and  fine  weapons;  Ipek  (Pech),  Prishtina,  Jakovitza 
(Takova),  in  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the  country,  and  on  rr«ads  which  lead 
from  Macedonia  into  Bosnia.  Nearer  the  coast  are  Tirana,  Berat,  and  Elbasan, 
the  ancient  Albanon,  whose  name  recalls  that  of  the  entire  country.  Gyoroha 
(Eoritza),  to  the  south  of  the  Lake  of  Okhrida,  is  likewise  a  place  of  much  trade, 
thanks  to  its  position  on  a  road  joining  the  Adriatic  to  the  Jigean  Sea.  Scutari 
and  Yanina  occupy  sites  at  the  foot  of  thc>  mountains,  whose  natural  advantages 
could  not  fail  to  attract  a  numerous  population.  Yanina,  the  capital  of  Epirus,  is 
the  more  picturesque  of  these  two  cities.  It  is  situated  on  the  shore  of  a  fine 
lake,  opposite  the  somewhat  heavy  masses  of  the  Pindus,  but  in  sight  of  the 
mountains  of  Greece,  which  are  of  a  "  himinouii  grey,  jittering  like  a  tissue  of 
silk."  At  the  timo  of  Ali  Pasha,  Yanina  became  the  capital  of  an  empire,  and  its 
population  then  exceeded  that  of  Scutari.  But  the  latter  has  now  regained  its 
pre-eminence.  It  is  admirably  situated,  and  the  roads  from  the  Danube  and  the 
.^gean,  horn  the  Lower  Drin  and  the  Adriatic,  converge  upon  it.  Scutari,  or 
Shkodra,  is  the  first  oriental  city  which  a  traveller  coming  from  Italy  meets 
with,  and  the  first  impression  made  by  its  numerous  gardens  enclosed  by  high 
walls,  its  deserted  streets  and  irregular  buildings,  is  sufficiently  curious.  Long 
after  he  has  entered  the  town,  the  traveller  will  remain  imcertain  as  to  its 
whereabouts.  But  let  him  climb  to  the  summit  of  the  limestone  rock  surmsunted 
by  the  old  Yenetian  castle  of  Rosapha,  and  the  most  magnificent  panorama  will 


126 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPB. 


unfold  itself  before  his  eyes.  The  domes  of  Scutari,  its  twenty  niinareta,  the 
emerald  verdure  of  the  plain,  the  surrounding  amphitheatre  of  fantastically  shaped 
mountains,  the  winding  waters  of  the  Boyana  and  Drin,  and  the  placid  surface  of 
the  lake  glittering  in  the  tun — these  all  combine  to  produce  a  spectacle  of  rare 
magnificence.  The  sea  alone  is  wanting  to  render  this  picture  perfect,  but,  though 
near,  it  is  not  within  sight.* 


y. — The  Illyrian  Alps,  Bosnia,  and  Herzroovina. 

Bosnia,  in  the  north-western  comer  of  Turkey,  is  the  Switsserland  of  the 
European  Orient,  but  it  is  a  Switzerland  whose  mountains  do  not  reach  the 
zone  of  perennial  snow  and  ice.  In  many  respects  the  mountoip  ranges  of  Bosnia, 
and  of  its  southern  province,  the  Herzegovina,  resemble  those  o.  the  Jura.  They, 
too,  are  composed  principally  of  limestone,  and  rise  in  parallel  ridges,  surmounted 
here  and  there  by  sharp  crests.  Like  the  successive  ridgett  of  the  Jura,  they  are 
of  unequal  height,  and,  taken  as  a  whole,  assume  the  appearance  of  a  plateau 
traversed  by  parallel  furrows,  and  gently  sloping  in  one  direction.  The  most 
elevated  chain  of  Northern  Bosnia  is  that  which  separates  it  from  the  coast  of 
Dalmatia,  and  the  less  elevated  ridges  running  parallel  with  it  gradually  decrease 
in  height  towards  the  north«east,  in  the  direction  of  the  plains  of  the  Save., 

Bocks  not  belonging  to  the  Jurassic  system,  such  as  crystalline  slates,  dolo- 
mites, tertiary  deposits,  and  serpentine,  are  met  with  in  various  localities,  and 
impart  some  variety  to  the  orographioal  features  of  Bosnia.  Several  crater-shaped 
depressions  in  the  east  and  south-east  separate  the  mountains  of  Bosnia  from  the 
mountain  masses  of  Sorvia.  The  most  remarkable  amongst  these  plains  is  that 
of  Novibazar,  into  which  numerous  torrents  discharge  themselves,  and  which 
commands  roads  diverging  in  various  directions.  This  is  the  strategical  key  of 
the  country,  and  is  destined  on  this  account  to  become  an  important  railway 
junction. 

Nearly  all  the  mountain  ranges  which  pass  from  Oamiola  and  Austrian  Croatia 
into  Bosnia  increase  in  height  as  we  advance  towards  the  centre  of  the  peninsula. 
The  bleached  pyramid  of  the  Durmitor,  dose  to  the  northern  frontier  of 
Montenegro,  attains  an  elevation  of  nearly  8,000  feet,  and  the  plateau  surrounding 
it  is  cut  up  by  deep  cavities,  some  of  which,  like  the  troughs  of  the  Herzegovina, 
open  out  in  one  direction,  whilst  others  are  completely  shut  in  by  declivities.  The 
Prokletya,  or  "  cursed  "  mountain,  still  farther  to  the  south-east,  rises  to  a  height 
even  more  considerable,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  most  formidable  mountain 
masses  of  all  Turkey.  A  huge  depression  occupies  its  centre,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  covered  by  the  Lake  of  Plava.  Even  in  summer  patches  of  snow  may  be  seen 
on  some  of  the  mountains  which  surround  this  abyss.     But  Mount  Eom,  the 

•  Population  of  the  principal  oitiei  of  Albania :— Primrmd,  3fi,000 ;  Ssutari  (Shkodra),  3fi,000 ;  Tanins, 
26,000;  Jakovitn  (Yakova),  17,000;  Ipek  (Pech),  16,000;  Elbaaan,  12,004;  Bent,  11,000;  FriihtiiM, 
11,000;  Tirana,  10,000;  Koritsa,  10,000;  Argyrokaatro,  8,000;  Praveaa,  7,000  Duloigno,  7,000; 
Dnnuio,  6,000. 


inareta,  the 
jttUy  shaped 
id  aurface  of 
Aole  of  rare 
but,  though 


and  of  the 
Dt  reach  the 
B8  of  Bosnia, 
ura.     They, 

surmounted 
lira,  they  are 
}f  a  phiteau 
,    The  most 

the  coast  of 
ally  decrease 
Save., 

slates,  dolo- 
Ksalities,  and 
irater-shaped 
nia  from  the 
lains  is  that 
\,  and  which 
9gical  key  of 
tant  railway 

itrian  Croatia 

lie  peninsula. 

frontier    of 

surrounding 

Herzegovina, 

iivities.     The 

IS  to  a  height 

>le  mountain 

torn  of  which 

may  be  seen 

at  Eom,  the 

,  3fi,000 ;  Yuiiiu, 
1,000;  Pxiahtiiia, 
)aloigno,  7,000; 


iU^'J.l('iCla)l-;..iat^^PJti«.'l'»'>''lW.»'l>rrfitiT  -jtlJM 


T1 


TIIK  TLI.YRIAN  Alii*.  ItOHNlA.  AND  HRR/KOOVINA. 


sr 


highont  of  all,  never  retains  iU  cap  of  iinow  during  the  whole  of  the  year,  for  it 
roelta  away  before  the  hot  Aft-ican  winda  to  which  it  ia  oxpoaod.  Mount  Kora 
may  poaaibly  turn  out  to  be  the  nulminating  point  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  It  ia 
certainly  one  of  the  highoat  auinmitH,  and  it*  doublo  ponk,  riaing  above  tho  plateau 
of  Montenegro,  ia  deaoried  from  afar  by  tho  mariner  navigating  tho  Adriatic.  It 
haa  been  anoended  by  aeveral  travellera,  for  ita  nlopea  are  gentle.* 

The  rivera  of  Hoania,  like  thoae  of  the  Jura,  flow  Iwtween  parallel  mountain 
range*  towards  the  north-east,  along  the  Airrowa  traced  out  for  them  by  nature. 
But  theae  oalcareoua  mountain  ramparts  of  Boania,  like  thoae  of  the  Jura,  are 
broken  up  by  narrow  gorgea,  or  cltuet,  through  which  the  pent  up  watcra  find 
a  way  fVom  furrow  to  furrow.  Inatead  of  taking  a  aerpentine  course,  aa  do  moat 
rivera  flowing  through  a  plain,  those  rivers  of  Boania  ohango  from  valley  to  valley 
by  abrupt  bends.  Gentle  and  furious  in  turns,  they  gradually  roach  the  lower 
regions,  and  are  finally  swallowed  up  by  the  Save.  Only  one  river,  the  Narenta, 
finds  its  way  into  the  Adriatic  ;  all  others,  in  accordance  with  the  general  slope  of 
the  country,  flow  in  the  direction  of  the  Danube.  These  river  valleys,  with  their 
audden  turnings,  would  be  available  aa  natural  roads  for  reachin;^  the  plateau,  if 
most  of  the  gorges  were  not  exceedingly  diflioult  of  access ;  and  un'  A  regular  roads 
have  been  constructed,  as  in  the  cluses  of  the  «i Vra,  travellers  are  obliged  to  scale 
steep  heights  in  order  to  pass  from  valley  to  valley.  It  is  this  want  of  practicable 
roads  which  renders  military  operations  in  Boania  so  difiioult  and  perilous. 

Great  armies  have  at  all  times  remained  to  the  east  ci  the  mo  ./i tain  atasaoa 
referred  to,  passing  from  the  valley  of  the  Vardar  into  that  of  tbr  Iv.o.-ava,  whose 
springs  almost  intermingle  their  waters.  In  that  locality  we  meet  with  the 
bed  of  an  ancient  lake,  through  which  flows  the  Sit?;  it.it  ^■,  one  of  the  ■  ;->per 
tributaries  of  the  Servian  Morava :  this  is  the  plain  of  Ki  aovo,  i)x9  "  field  of  black 
birds,"  which  reminds  all  southern  Slavs  of  painful  events.  It  was  there  the 
power  of  the  Servians  succumbed  in  1380,  and,  if  we  may  credit  ancient  heroic 
songs,  more  than  100,000  men  perished  in  a  single  day.  Fiv(>  hundred  years  have 
passed  away  ainoe  this  great  disaster,  but  the  Slavs  have  never  oeased  to  hope  for 
a  day  of  vengeance,  and  they  look  forward  to  the  time  when  on  this  very  field 
they  may  reconquer  the  independence  they  have  lost. 

The  similarity  between  the  mountains  of  Boania  and  of  the  Jura  is  rendered 
complete  by  the  existence  of  grottoes,  sink-holes,  and  subterranean  rivers.  Sink- 
holes from  60  to  100  feet  in  diameter,  and  shaped  like  funnels,  are  met  with 
in  many  localities.  Several  rivers  appear  a.rllonly  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  and, 
after  flowing  on  for  a  few  miles,  disappear  agai.i  beneath  some  portal  in  the  rocks. 
The  table-land  of  the  Heraegovina  especially  abounds  in  phenomena  of  this  kind. 
The  ground  there  is  pierced  by  "sinks"  or  ponors,  which  swallow  up  the  water 
derived  from  precipitation.  "  Blind  vt  Ueys  "  and  "  troughs  "  present  everywhere 
the  traces  of  currents  of  water  and  of  temporary  lakes,  and  after  heavy  rains  the 
subterranean  basins  sometimes  rise  to  the  surface,  and  a  river  then  flows  for 
a  time  along  the  valley.  Aa  a  rule,  however,  the  inhabitants  are  compelled  to 
•  AlUtndM :— Mount  Kom,  9,360  feet ;  Uonat  Durmitor,  8,860  feat ;  GUeb,  6,77S  feet 


-^—mmmmm 


■M 


*8!Mgs;;ife>b  .<  V  fc<-w»3t"?Jt 


128 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


collect  the  water  they  require  in  cisterns,  or  to  fetch  it  from  long  distances. 
Elsewhere  the  hydrography  of  the  country  is  suhject  to  annual  changes.  Lakes 
which  still  iigurc  upon  our  maps  are  drained  through  subterranean  passages  only 
recently  opened ;  other  lakes  are  formed  in  consequence  of  some  passage,  which 
formerly  carried  off  the  surface  water,  having  become  choked  with  alluvium. 
No  more  curious  river  probably  exists  in  the  world  than  the  Trebinishtitza,  in  the 
Western  Herzegovina.  It  appears  and  disappears  many  times.  One  of  its  branches, 
flowing  at  one  time  on  the  surface,  at  others  underground,  crosses  the  plains  of 
Eotesi,  in  turns  a  parched  champaign  country  or  a  lake  abounding  in  fish,  and 


Fig.  37.— SUBTBKRANEAN  BbD8  OF  THB  AFFLUENTS  OF  THI  NaRBNTA. 
Scale  1 :  l,92fi,00a 


?^ 


U'Cr. 


•  rfajy 


--^^vl^v'' 


raviua! 


.,:  4>^ 


P.^^'^Hs 


'^^ 


"^:af^v.v^^- 


w 


lUa 


IIjaboviU!H\[^ 


V 


^"<'>"51,TJi^' 


i.-.v«?< 


L  Plana 


?«Hi 


M 


0' 


IONTCNC61V0 


SubterraneHa  Bedt. 
jWMllea. 


enters  the  Narenta.  Other  branches  pass  beneath  the  mountains,  and  gush  out 
near  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  springs  is  that 
of  Ombra,  which  pours  its  waters  into  the  Bay  of  Gravosa,  to  the  north  of 
Ragusa. 

"Where  the  rockp  finish  and  the  trees  appear,  there  begins  Bosnia."  So  said 
the  Dalmatians  formerly.  But  many  parts  of  Bosnia  have  now  lost  their  clothing 
of  verdure.  The  table-lands  of  the  Herzegovina  and  Montenegro,  no  less  than 
Dalmatia,  have  been  deqrailed  of  their  forests,  but  Bosnia  proper  still  remains  a 
country  of  woods.  Nearly  one-half  its  area  is  covered  with  forests.  In  the 
valleys  trees  have  almost  disappeared,  for  the  peasant  is  allowed  to  wield  his  axe 


w 


gp  distances, 
iges.     Lakes 
tassages  only 
asage,  which 
bh  alluvium, 
btitza,  in  the 
'  its  branches, 
the  plains  of 
^  in  fish,  and 


and  guflh  out 

I  springs  is  that 

the  north  of 

bsnia."  So  said 
;  their  clothing 
b,  no  less  than 
Ltill  remains  a 
Irests.  In  the 
I  wield  his  axe 


THE  ILLYRIAN  ALPS,  BOSNIA.  AND  HERZEGOVINA. 


199 


without  hindrance,  but  in  the  virgin  forests  of  the  mountains  trees  still  abound. 
The  principal  trees  of  Europe  are  met  with  in  these  magnificent  woods  :  walnut- 
trees,  chestnut-trees,  limes,  maples,  oaks,  beeches,  ash-trees,  birches,  pines,  firs, 
and  larches.  Austrian  speculators,  unfortun.'itely,  avail  themselves  of  the  roads 
which  begin  to  open  up  the  interior  of  the  country  to  devastate  these  forests, 
which  ought  to  be  preserved  with  the  greatest  care.  The  song  of  birds  is  but 
rarely  heard  in  these  sombre  woods,  but  wild  animals  abound  in  them.  They 
shelter  bears,  wild  boars,  and  deer,  and  th<<)  number  of  wolves  is  so  large  that  their 
skins  form  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  Bosnian  commerce.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  Bosnia  ranks  among  the  most  fertile  countries  of  Europe,  and  few  regions 
surpass  it  in  the  beauty  of  its  rural  scenery.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  and 
particularly  near  the  Save,  large  herds  of  hogs,  almost  wild,  roam  through  the 
oak  forests.  Hence  the  epithet  of  "  country  of  hogs "  which  the  Turks  have 
derisively  given  to  Bosnia. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Jews,  the  gipsies,  and  the  few  Osmanli  officials, 
soldiers,  and  merchants  in  the  principal  towns,  the  entire  population  of  the  country 
is  of  Slav  race.  The  inhabitants  of  Kraina,  near  the  Austrian  frontier,  call 
themselves  Croats,  but  they  scarcely  differ  from  the  Bosnian  Servians  and 
Raitzes  of  ancient  Bascia,  now  known  as  the  sandjak  of  Novibazar.  On  the 
classical  soil  of  Rascia  originated  most  of  those  cherished  piestnm,  or  popular 
songr>,  in  which  the  Southern  Slavs  have  deposited  their  national  traditions.  The 
Herzegovinians,  in  some  respects,  differ  from  their  Bosnian  kinsmen.  They  are 
the  descendants  of  immigrants  who  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Vistula  in  the 
seventh  century.  Like  their  neighbours  the  Montenegrins,  they  are  more  voluble 
in  their  speech  than  the  Servians  proper,  and  make  use  of  numerous  peculiar 
turns  of  expression  and  a  few  words  of  Italian  which  have  glided  into  their 
language. 

Although  most  of  the  Bosnians  are  of  the  same  race,  they  are  divided  by 
religious  animosities,  and  these  account  for  their  state  of  political  servitude.  At 
the  first  glance  it  may  cause  surprise  that  the  Slavs  of  Bosnia  should  not  have 
succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  like  their  kinsmen  of  Servia.  Their 
country  is  more  remote  f^m  the  capital,  and  far  less  accessible  than  Servia.  A 
conquering  army  coming  from  the  south  has  not  only  to  force  numerous  defiles, 
but  has  to  contend,  too,  with  the  climate,  which  is  liu"inore  severe  than  that  of 
the  remainder  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  But,  in  spite  of  these  great  natural 
advantages  from  a  defensive  point  of  view,  every  revolt  has  hitherto  failed 
lamentably.  We  need  not  seek  far  for  the  cause  of  this :  Christian  and  Moham* 
medan  Bosnians  are  at  enmity,  and  the  Christians  themselves  are  split  up  into 
Greeks,  who  are  led  by  their  popes,  and  Romans,  who  follow  blindly  their 
Franciscan  priests.  In  their  divided  state  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  their 
oppressors,  and  servitude  has  degraded  their  character. 

The  Mussulmans  of  Bosnia  call  themselves  Turks,  but  they  are  Slavs  never- 
theless,  like  their  Christian  compatriots,  and,  like  them,  speak  Servian  with  a  large 
admixture  of  Turkish  words.     They  are  the  Jpscendants  of  the  nobles  who,  in 


■-mmmm 


HMH 


warn 


imii  nuiiiiwiii'lni 


180 


TUBKEY  IN  EUBOPB. 


the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  embraced  Islamism  in  order  to  save  their 
feudal  privileges.  '  They  also  number  amongst  their  ranks  the  descendants  of 
brigands,  who  chang^  their  religion  in  order  to  be  able  to  continue  their  trade 
without  fear  of  punishment.  This  apostaoy  gave  to  the  lords  even  greater  power 
over  their  wretched  dependants  than  they  had  formerly  possessed.  The  hatred  of 
caste  was  augmented  by  religious  animosity,  and  they  soon  surpassed  in  fanaticism 
the  Mohammedan  Turks,  and  reduced  the  Ohristian  peasantry  to  a  condition  of 
veritable  slavery.  A  wild  pear-tree  is  still  pointed  out  near  one  of  the  gates  of 
Sarayevo,  upon  which  the  notables  occasionally  suspended  some  unfortunate  raya 
for  their  amusement.  Whether  beys  or  spahis,  these  Mohammedan  Bosnians  are 
the  most  retrograde  element  of  old  Turkey,  and  on  several  occasions,  as  in  1851, 
they  even  rose  up  in  rebellion  in  order  to  maintain  intact  their  ancient  feudal 
privileges.  Sarayevo,  as  a  Mussulman  city,  stood  imder  the  special  protection  of 
the  Sultan's  mother,  and  possessed  most  extravagant  privilege,  which  converted 
it  into  a  state  in  the  state  more  hostile  to  Christianity  than  the  Sublime  Forte 
itself. 

Even  in  our  own  days  the  Bosnian  Mussulmans  possess  far  more  than  their 
proper  share  of  the  land.  The  country  is  divided  into  spahiliks,  or  Mussulman  fiefs, 
which  are  transmitted,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  Slavs,  indivisibly  to 
all  the  members  of  the  family.  The  latter  choose  the  most  aged  or  most 
valorous  of  their  members  as  their  head.  The  Christian  peasants  are  compelled  to 
work  for  these  Mussulman  communities ;  and,  although  no  longer  serfs,  they  are 
called  upon  to  bear  the  chief  burden  of  taxation  and  of  other  expenses.  It  is 
natural,  under  those  circumstances,  that  the  Christians  of  Bosnia  should  shun 
agriculture  in  order  to  devote  themselves  to  trade,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians  of  the  Herzegovina  and  of  their 
co-religionists  from  Slavonian  Austria.  The  Spanish  Jews  form  communities  in 
the  principal  towns,  where  they  carry  on  their  usual  commercial  pursuits  and 
money-lending  on  tangible  securities.  They  still  talk  Spanish  amongst  themselves, 
and  never  mention  without  emotion  the  name  of  the  country  which  sent  them  into 
exile. 

The  number  of  Mussulmans  hardly  exceeds  one-third  of  the  total  population  of 
Bosnia,  and  they  are  .said  to  remain  stationary,  or  even  to  diminish,  whilst  the 
more  fecund  Christians  increase  in  numbers.*  ; 

For  the  rest,  the  Bosnians,  in  spite  of  the  differences  in  their  religious  belief, 
possess  the  same  natural  gifhs  as  their  Servian  kinsmen,  and,  whatever  destinies 
may  be  in  store  for  them,  they  will  in  the  end  rise  to  the  same  level  of  intelli- 
gence. They  are  frank  and  hospitable,  brave  in  battle,  industrious,  thrifty,  of  a 
poetical  turn,  fast  n    friends,  and  true  as  lovers.    The  marital  ties  are  respected. 


*  According  to  Blau  (1872),  Bosnia,  including  the  Hersegorina  and  Ba8oia,has  1,1<}0,000  inhabitant!, 
oompriaing  690,000  Greek  Catholics,  164,000  Roman  Catholioa,  378,000  MuMulnutna,  12,300  gipsies,  and 
6,700  Jews.  The  same  author  states  the  population  for  1866  to  have  amounted  to  893,384  souls,  including 
286,000  Mussulmans.  According  to  an  English  Consular  Report  (1873),  the  population  is  1,084,162, 
including  461,048  Mussulmans;  and  according  to  Professor  Yakshity,  1,367,984  souls,  including  474,000 
Mussulmans. 


mmm 


BULGARIA. 


181 


save  their 
endants  of 
their  trade 
jater  power 
le  hatred  of 
1  fanaticism 
sondition  of 
the  gates  of 
tunate  raya 
Bosnians  are 
,  as  in  1851, 
icient  feudal 
protection  of 
)h  converted 
iblime  Porte 

•e  than  their 
Bsulman  fiefs, 
indivisibly  to 
ged  or  most 
compelled  to 
lerfs,  they  are 
penses.    It  is 
should  shun 
whole  of  the 
and  of  their 
Immunities  in 
pursuits  and 
)t  themselves, 
intthem  into 

population  <£ 
I,  whilst  the 

LligiouB  belief, 

9ver  destinies 

ivel  of  intelli- 

B,  thrifty,  of  a 

are  respected, 

lo,000  inluLbitante, 
p,a00  gipsiei,  «>d 
B4  aoula,  indading 
Ltion  ia  1,084,162, 
Findudiiig  474,000 


and  even  the  Mussulmans  reject  the  polygamy  permitted  by  the  Koran.  In  the 
Herzegovina  the  women  enjoy  much  liberty,  and  in  many  villages  there  are  even 
back  doors  to  the  houses,  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  gossip  with  their  neigh- 
bours without  going  into  the  street.  In  Northern  Bosnia,  however,  the  Mussulmau 
women  are  wrapped  up  closely  in  white  linen  sheets,  and  are  hardly  able  to  see 
a  few  steps  before  them.  But,  in  spite  of  these  good  qualities,  there  exists  an 
amount  of  barbirity,  ignorance,  superstition,  and  fanaticism,  amongst  Christians 
and  Mohammeaaap  alike,  which  is  truly  astounding.  Incessant  wars,  tyranny  on 
the  one  side,  ana  servitude  on  the  other,  have  brutolised  their  manners.  The  want 
of  roads,  the  extensive  forests,  and  the  precipitous  mountains  have  placed  them 
beyond  the  reach  of  civilising  influences.  There  are  hardly  any  schools,  and  the  few 
monasteries  which  supply  their  places  are  of  little  use,  for  the  monks  themselves 
are  steeped  in  ignorance,  and  their  pupils  at  most  learn  to  chant  a  few  hymns. 
Besides  this,  the  immense  consumption  of  alibovitza  ondermines  the  health  of 
the  people  and  demoralises  them,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  every  Bosnian- 
man,  woman,  or  child — drinks  annually  no  less  than  thirty-four  pints  of  this 
detestable  plum-brandy. 

It  may  be  matter  for  surprise  that  bustling  towns  should  exist  in  so  rude  a 
country,  but  the  natural  resources  of  Bosnia  are  so  great  that  a  certain  amount  of 
local  trade  was  sure  to  spring  up.  Isolated  as  they  are,  the  Bosnians  are  thrown 
upon  their  own  resources.  Thoy  grind  their  own  flour,  manufacture  their  arms, 
stufis,  and  iron  implements,  and  the  exchange  of  these  commodities  has  given 
to  commerce    in    the   cities    most    &vourably  situated  as   entrepots,  the 


nse 


principal  amongst  which  are  Sarayevo,  or  Bosna  Serai,  and  Travnik,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  country,  picturesquely  situated  at  the  foot  of  an  ancient  castle. 
Banyaluka,  which  is  connected  with  Austria  by  a  railway,  has  some  trade  with 
Croatia;  Tuzla  extracts  salt  from  its  abundant  brine  springs;  Zvomik,  which 
guards  the  frontier  of  Servia,  also  carries  on,  some  trade  with  that  country ;  Novi- 
bazar  has  commercial  relations  with  Albania ;  Mostar  and  Trebinye  import  a  few 
articles  from  Dalmatia.  The  populations  of  these  towns  have  not,  however,  been 
solely  attracted  by  trade  and  industry,  for  the  insecurity  of  the  country  has  also 
contributed  to  that  result.  Thnre  is  no  part  of  Europe,  the  neighbouring  Albania 
and  the  polar  regions  of  Scandinavia  and  Russia  excepted,  which  is  so  rarely 
visited  by  strangers,  and  this  isolation  will  only  cease 'when  the  proposed  inter- 
national railway  shall  have  joined  it  to  Saloniki  and  Constantinople.* 


VI. — Bulgaria. 

Thb  centre  plateau  of  Turkey  is  still  amongst  the  least-known  countries  of 
the  Balkan  peninsula,  although  it  is  intersected  by  the  great  highways  which 
connect  Thracia  with  Bosnia,  and  Macedonia  with  the  Danube.     This  plateau, 

*  Prinoipal  town*  of  Bosnia  : — Sarayevo,  60,000  inhabitanta  ;  Banyaluka,  18,000  inhabitants  • 
Zvoraik,  14,000  inhabitanta;  TraTnik,  12,000  inhabitanta;  Xovibaaar,  9,000  inhabitants;  Tiebinje', 
0,000  inhabitants ;  Mostar,  9,000  inhabitants ;  Tuala,  7,000  inhabitants. 


:t;. 


' '°«<milMMMHMMaMMSn 


iiimimmmmtmaiimimimmtiiiiii^ 


182 


TUEKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


known  to  the  ancients  as  Upper  Moesia,  consists  of  a  vast  granitic  table-land,  rising 
to  an  average  height  of  2,000  feet.  Its  surface  is  diversified  by  several  planinas, 
or  mountain  chains,  of  small  relative  height,  and  by  domes  of  trachyte,  the 
remains  of  ancient  volcanoes.  Its  numer'>us  depressions  were  formerly  filled  with 
water,  and  the  contours  of  the  ancient  lakes  can  still  be  traced.  They  have 
been  gradually  filled  up  by  alluvium,  or  drained  by  rivers.  The  most  remarkable 
amongst  these  ancient  lacustrine  basins  are  now  represented  by  the  fertile  plains 
of  Nish,  Sofia,  and  Ikhtiman. 

The  superb  syenitic  and  pw»rphyritio  mountain  group  of  Vitosh  forms  the 

Fig.  38.— Mount  Vitosh  and  its  £nv:hon8. 
Aooording  to  F.  tod  Hoohrtetter.    SoU*  1 : 1,006,000. 


SOMilM. 


eastern  bastion  of  the  Moesian  plateau.  Immediately  to  the  east  of  it  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Isker  pierces  the  whole  of  the  Balkan  Mountains,  and,  crossing  the 
plain  of  Sofia,  takes  its  course  in  the  direction  of  the  Danube.  The  upper  valley 
of  this  river  and  the  plain  mentioned  form  the  true  gpeographical  centre  of 
European  Turkey.  From  Sofia  diverge  some  of  the  most  important  roads  of  the 
peninsula,  one  leading  through  the  valley  of  the  Tsker  to  the  Lower  Danube,  another 
along  the  Morava  valley  into  Servia,  a  third  by  the  way  of  Maritza  into  Thracia, 
and  a  fourth  down  the  Struma  into  Macedonia.  It  is  said  that  Constantino  the 
Great,  struck  by  these  important  natural  advantages  of  Sofia,  then  called  Sardioa, 
thought  of  making  it  the  capital   of  his  empire. 


A 


"■-■^mWiiiiiaii 


fiULQABIA. 


The  Turks  apply  the  name  of  Balkans  to  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  the 
peninsula,  but  geographers  restrict  that  term  to  the  Hromus  of  the  ancients.  This 
mountain  rampart  begins  to  the  east  of  the  basin  of  Sofia.  It  does  not  form  a 
regular  chain,  but  rather  an  elevated  terrace  sloping  down  gently  in  the  direction 
of  the  Danube,  whilst  towards  the  south  it  presents  an  abrupt  slope,  it  appearing 
almost  as  if  the  plateau  on  that  side  had  suddenly  sunk  to  a  lower  level.  The 
Balkan  consequently  presents  the  appearance  of  a  chain  only  when  looked  at 
from  the  south.  But  its  contours  even  there  are  only  slightly  undulating ;  there 
are  neither  abrupt  projections  nor  rocky  pyramids,  and  the  prevailing  character  is 
that  of  long-stretched  mountain  ridges.  The  porphyritic  mountain  group  of 
Ohatal,  which  rises  to  the  south  of  the  principal  chain,  constitutes  the  only 
exception  to  this  gentleness  of  contour.  Though  inferior  in  height  to  the  summits 
of  the  Balkan,  its  steep  precipices,  slashed  crests,  and  chaotic  rook  masses  strike 
the  beholder,  and  the  contrast  between  this  mass  of  erupted  rook  and  the  gentle 
slopes  of  the  calcareous  hills  which  surround  it  is  very  great. 

The  uniformity  of  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Balkan  is  such  that,  in  many 
places,  a  traveller  is  able  to  reach  the  crest  without  having  come  in  sight  of 
mountains.  When  the  woods  have  disappeared  from  the  Balkan,  these  undulating 
slopes  will  be  deprived  of  their  greatest  charm ;  but,  as  long  as  the  forests  ornament ' 
them  as  now,  the  country  will  remain  one  of  the  most  delightful  in  Turkey.  Run* 
ning  streams  flow  through  each  valley,  bordered  by  pastures  as  brilliantly  green 
as  are  those  of  the  Alps ;  the  villages  are  built  in  the  shade  of  beech-trees  and 
oaks ;  and  nature  everywhere  wears  a  smiling  aspect.  But  the  plains  which  extend 
to  the  Danube  are  barren,  and  sometimes  not  a  single  tree  is  visible.  The 
inhabitants,  deprived  of  wood,  are  dependent  upon  cow-dung  dried  in  the  sun 
for  their  fuel,  and  they  dig  for  themselves  holes  in  the  ground,  where  they  seek 
protection  from  the  cold  of  winter. 

The  core  of  the  Balkan,  between  the  basin  of  Sofia  and  that  of  Slivno,  consista  of 
granite,  but  the  terraces  which  descend  towards  the  Danube  present  every  geological 
formation,  firom  the  metamorphic  to  the  most  recent  rocks.  The  cretaceous  formation 
occupies  the  largest  area  in  Bulgaria,  and  the  rivers  rising  in  the  mountains,  in 
traversing  it,  form  picturesque  valleys  and  defiles.  Ancient  fortresses  defend  each 
of  these  valleys,  and  the  towns  hare  been  built  where  they  debouch  upon  the 
plain.  Timova,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  tsars  of  Bulgaria,  is  the  most  remark- 
able of  these  old  bulwarks  of  defence.  The  Tantra,  on  debouching  there  from,  the 
mountains,  winds  about  curiously ;  steep  oli£b  form  an  amphitheatre,  in  the  centre 
of  which  rise  two  precipitous  isolated  rooks,  crowned  formerly  by  walls  and  towers. 
The  houses  of  the  town  are  built  on  the  slopes,  and  its  suburbs  extend  along  the 
footofiheoIiilB. 

A  singular  parallelism  has  been  noticed  on  <3ie  northern  slopes  of  Balkan.  The 
elevated  mountain  saddles,  orosts  of  secondary  chains,  geological  formations,  the 
faults  which  give  rise  to  the  meandering  of  the  rivers,  and  even  the  Danube  itself, 
all  follow  the  same  direction,  from  west  to  east.  As  a  consequence,  each  ol  the 
parallel  valleys  descending  from  the  Balkans  offers  similar  features ;  the  pcqpnla- 

10 


"vmmmsim)^ 


r-tmemmitiitlmiimitm 


184 


TURKEY  IN  EUBOPH 


tion  is  distributed  in  the  same  manner ;  and  the  towns  occupy  analogous  positions. 
The  valley  of  the  Lom  offers  the  only  exception  to  the  rule,  for  its  direction  is 
towards  the  north-west.  It  debouches  upon  the  Danube  at  Rustohuk,  and  its 
green  orchards  and  gardens  are  hemmed  in  by  dazzling  white  cliffs  of  ohulk  rising 
to  a  height  of  about  100  feet. 

The  symmetry  would  be  almost  complete  in  Northern  Turkey  if  it  were  not 
for  the  detached  arid  hills  of  the  Dobruja,  which  force  the  Danube  to  make  a  wide 
detour  to  the  north.  Rising  in  the  low  and  swampy  delta  of  the  Danube,  these  hills 
appear  to  be  much  higher  than  they  are.  In  reality  they  do  not  exceed  1,650  feet 
in  height.  It  is  possible  that  during  some  very  remote  geological  epoch  the 
Danube  took  its  course  to  the  south  of  these  hills,  through  the  depression  which 
has  been  utilised  for  the  construction  of  the  first  Turkish  railway.  Trajan,  who 
feared  that  the  Goths  might  obtain  a  footing  in  this  remote  comer  of  the  Roman 
empire,  constructed  one  of  those  lines  of  fortifications  here  which  are  known 
throughout  the  countries  of  the  Lower  Danube  at  Trajan's  Walls.  Remains  of 
walls,  ditches,  and  forts  may  still  be  traced  along  the  banks  of  the  marshes,  and  on 
the  heights  commanding  them.  This  country  of  the  Dobruja  is  the  "  savage 
hyperborean  region  "  where  Ovid,  exiled  from  Rome,  wept  for  the  splendours 
of  the  capital.  The  port  of  Tomi,  the  place  of  his  banishment,  is  the  modem 
Kustenje. 

To  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Burgas,  which  is  the  westernmost  extremity  of  the 
Black  Sea,  rise  the  fine  porphyry  mountains  which  terminate  in  the  superb  Gape  of 
Emineh.  They  are  sometimes  described  as  an  eastern  prolongation  of  the  Balkan, 
but  erroneously,  for  the  ancibnt  lacustrine  basin  of  Eamabat,  now  traversed  by  a 
railway,  separates  them  from  the  system  of  the  Hsemus.  The  granitic  plateaux  and 
mountains  of  Tunja  and  Stranja,  which  command  the  wide  plain  Of  Thraoia  on  the 
north,  are  likewise  separate  mountain  ranges.  The  Southern  Balkan  is,  in  reality, 
without  ramifications  or  spurs,  except  in  the  west,  where  the  mountains  of 
Ikhtiman  and  of  Samakov,  so  rich  in  iron  ore  and  thermal  springs,  and  other 
transverse  chains,  connect  it  with  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Khodopa  The  upper 
basin  of  the  Maritza  River,  enclosed  between  the  Balkan  and  the  Rhodope,  has  the 
shape  of  an  elongated  triangle,  whose  apex,  directed  towards  the  plain  of  Sofia, 
indicates  the  point  of  junction  between  the  two  systems.  The  whole  of  this 
triangular  depression,  with  its  lateral  ramifications,  was  formerly  occupied  by 
lakes,  now  converted  into  bottom-lands  of  marvellous  fertility.  The  passes  near 
the  apex  of  this  triangle  are  naturally  points  of  the  highest  strategical  and  com- 
mercial importance.  Through  one  of  them,  still  marked  by  ancient  fortifications, 
and  known  as  Trajan's  Chite,  passed  the  old  Roman  highway,  and  there,  too,  the 
railway  now  in  course  of  construction  will  cross  the  summit  between  the  two  slopes 
of  the  peninsula.  This  is  the  true  "gateway  of  Gonstantinople,"  and  from 
the  most  remote  times  nations  have  fought  for  its  possession.  The  numerous 
tumuli  scattered  over  the  neighbpuring  plains  bear  witness  to  many  a  bloody 
struggle. 

The  spurs  of  the  Rhodope  intermingle  with  those  of  the  Balkan,  and  the  lowest 


w 


BULGARIA. 


188 


loritions. 
«otion  ia 
,  and  its 
ik  rising 

were  not 
ce  a  wide 
hese  hills 
L,650  feet 
)pooh  the 
ion  which 
ujan,  who 
lie  Roman 
jre  known 
lemains  of 
Les,  and  on 
B  "savage 
splendours 
he  modem 

mity  of  the 
erh  Gape  of 
the  Balkan, 
reraed  by  a 
ateaux  and 
racia  on  the 
I,  in  reality, 
)antaini  of 
and  other 
The  upper 
ope,  has  the 
of  Sofia, 
■ole  of  this 
ocupied  by 
passes  near 
X  and  com- 
trtifioations, 
),  too,  the 
two  slopes 
and  from 
numerous 
ly  a  bloody 

the  lowest 


pass  whioh  separates  the  two  still  exceeds  3,000  feet  in  elevation.     The  Rilo  Dugh, 
the  most  elevated  mountain  mass  of  the  Rhodope,  boldly  rises  at  its  northern 
extremity,  and,  to  use  the  expression  of  Burth,  forms  the  shoulder*bla(1e  of  junc- 
tion.   Its  height  is  9,580  feet.    It  risea  far  beyond  the  region  of  forests,  and  its 
jagged  summita,  pyramids,  and  platforms  contrast  strikingly  with  the  rounded 
outlines  of  the  Balkan.     But  the  lower  heights,  surrounded  by  this  imposing 
amphitheatre  of  grand  summits,  are  covered  with  vegetation.     Forests  of  pines, 
larches,  and  beech-trees,  the  haunts  of  bears  and  chamois,  alternate  with  clumps  of 
trees  and  cultivated  fielda,  and  the  villages  in  the  valleys  are  surrounded   by 
meadows,  vineyards,  and  oaks.      Picturesque  cupolas  of  numerous  monasteries 
peep  out  amongst  the  verdure :  to  their  exiatence  the  mountain  owea  ita  Turkiah 
name  of  Deapoto  Bagh,  i.e.  "  mountain  of  the  paraona."    The  Rilo  Dagh,  likewiae 
famous  on  account  of  its  monasteries,  has  altogether  the  aspect  of  thn  Swiss  Alps. 
The  moist  winds  of  the  Mediterranean  convey  to  it  much  snow  in  winter  and 
spring,  but  in  summer  the  clouds  discharge  only  torrenti  of  rain,  and  the  snow 
rapidly  disappears  from  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.     Those  sudden  rain-storms 
are  amongst  the  most  remarkable  spectacles  to  be  witnessed.     In  the  forenoon  the 
mist  whioh  hides  the  tops  of  the  mountains  grows  dense  by  degrees,  and  heavy 
copper-coloured  clouds  collect  on  the  slopes.    About  three  in  the  afternoon  the 
rain  begins  to  pour  down,  the  clouds  grow  visibly  smaller,  first  one,  then  another 
summit  is  seen  through  a  rent  in  the  watery  vapours,  until  at  last  the  air  has 
become  purified,  and  the  mountains  are  lit  up  in  the  sunset. 

To  the  south  of  the  Rilo  Dagh  rises  the  mountain  mass  of  Ferim,  hardly 
inferior  to  it  in  height.  This  is  the  Orbelos  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  the  rings 
to  which  Noah  made  fast  his  ark  when  the  waters  subsided  after  the  deluge  are 
still  shown  there,  and  even  Mussulman  pilgrims  pay  their  devotions  at  this 
venerated  spot.  It  is  the  last  high  summit  of  the  Rhodopes.  The  mountains  to 
the  south  rapidly  decrease  in  elevation,  though  the  granitic  formation  to  which 
they  belong  is  spread  over  a  vast  extent  of  country  from  the  plains  of  Thracia  to 
Albania.  The  extent  of  the  hilly  region  connected  with  the  Rhodope  is  still 
further  increased  by  numwous  groups  of  extinct  volcanoes,  whioh  have  poured 
forth  vast  sheets  of  trachytio  lava.  The  rivers  whioh  flow  from  the  central  plateau 
of  Turkey  into  the  ^gean  Sea  have  out  for  themselves  deep  passages  through  these 
granites  and  lavas,  the  most  famous  amongst  whioh  is  the  "  Iron  Ghite  "  of  the 
Yardar,  or  Demir  Eapu,  whioh  formerly  figured  on  our  maps  of  Turkey  as  a  large 
town. 

The  aspect  of  the  crystalline  mountain  masses  to  the  west  of  the  Yardar  is 
altogether  of  an  Alpine  character,  for  the  peaks  not  only  attain  a  high  elevation, 
but  snow  remain.'*  upon  them  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  The 
Gomichova,  or  Nije,  to  the  noi  ih  of  Thessaly,  rises  to  a  height  of  6,560  feet ;  and 
the  Peristeri,  whose  triple  summit  and  snow-clad  shoulders  have  been  likened  to 
the  spread-out  wings  of  a  bird,  and  whioh  rises  close  to  the  city  of  Bitolia,  or 
Monastir,  is  more  elevated  stiU.  The  mountains  of  ancient  Dardania  enclose 
extensive  circular  or  elliptical  plains,  and  the  most  remarkable  amongst  these, 


"?3 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPB. 


namely,  that  of  Monnatir,  ha«  been  compared  by  Oriaeboob,  the  geologist,  to  one  of 
tboM  huge  orater  lakes  which  the  telescope  has  rovealed  to  us  on  the  surface 
of  the  moon.  In  most  of  these  plains  we  meet  with  Hwamps  or  small  lakes, 
the  only  remains  of  the  sheets  of  water  which  at  one  time  covered  them. 
The  most  extensive  of  these  lakes  is  that  of  Ostrovo.  The  Lake  of  Kastoria 
resembles  the  filled-up  crater  of  a  volcano.  In  its  centre  rises  a  limestone 
hill  joined  to  the  shore  by  an  isthmus,  upon  which  is  built  a  picturesque  Greek 
towu. 

According  to  Viquesnel  and  Hochstetter,  traces  of  glaciers  do  not  exist  in 
any  of  these  ancient  lacustrine  basins,  or  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.  It  is 
certainly  remarkable  that  whilst  other  European  mountains — as,  for  instance,  the 
Vosges  and  the  mountains  of  Auvergne — have  passed  through  a  glacial  epoch,  the 
far  more  elevated  Peristeri,  Rilo  Dagh,  and  Balkan,  under  about  the  same  latitude 
as  the  Pyrenees,  should  never  have  had  their  valleys  filled  by  moving  rivers 
of  ice.* 

All  the  large  rivers  of  European  Turkey  belong  to  the  Bulgarian  regions  of 
the  Balkan  or  Haomus.  In  Bosnia  there  are  merely  small  parallel  rivers  flowing  to 
the  Save ;  Albania  has  only  turbulent  torrents  forcing  their  way  through  wild 
gorges,  like  the  Drin ;  but  the  Maritza,  the  Strymon  or  Earasu,  the  Yardar,  and 
the  Inje  Earasu,  which  descend  from  the  southern  flanks  of  the  Balkans,  or 
originate  in  the  crystalline  mountain  massee  of  the  Rhodope,  are  large  rivers, 
which  bear  comparison  with  the  tranquil  streams  of  Western  Europe.  As  yet  we 
know  but  little  about  their  mode  of  action.  The  volume  of  water  discharged  by 
them  has  never  been  mesAured,  and  they  are  hardly  made  use  of  for  purposes  of 
navigation  or  irrigation.  They  all  traverse  ancient  lake  basins,  which  they  have 
filleid  up  gradually  with  alluvium,  and  converted  into  fertile  plains.  Thia  work  of 
filling  up  still  goes  on  in  the  lower  portions  of  these  fluvial  valleys,  where 
extensive  marshes,  and  even  gradually  shrinking  lakes,  abound.  One  of  these 
lakes,  the  Takhino,  through  which  the  Strymon  flows  before  it  enters  the  ^gean 
Sea,  is  said  to  be  the  Prasias  of  Herodotus,  and  its  aquatic  villages  were  no  doubt 
similar  to  the  pile  dwellings  discovered  in  nearly  all  the  lakes  of  Oentral 
Europe. 

The  Danube,  to  the  north  of  the  Dobruja,  performs  an  amount  of  geological 
work,  in  comparison  with  which  that  of  the  Maritza,  the  Strymon,  and  Yardar 
sinks  into  insignificance.  That  mighty  river  annually  conveys  to  the  Black  Sea 
a  volume  of  water  far  in  excess  of  that  which  is  carried  down  the  rivers  of  all 
France,  and  the  solids  which  it  holds  in  suspension  are  sufficient  to  cover  an  area 
of  ten  square  miles  to  a  depth  of  nine  feet.  This  enormous  mass  of  sand  and  clay 
is  annually  deposited  in  the  swamps  and  on  the  banks  of  the  delta,  and  the  slow 
but  steady  growth  of  the  latter  is  thus  sufficiently  explained.    Even  the  ancients 

*  Altitudes  in  Bclgoria,  according  to  Hochatetter,  ViquMnel,  Bout,  Buih,  and  othen :— Vitoab, 
^,080  feet ;  Balkan,  mean  height,  6,600  feet ;  Ohatal,  3,600  feet ;  hills  of  the  Dobn^a,  1,660  feet ; 
Tnyan's  Gate,  2,626  feet;  Paw  of  Dubnitia,  3,660  feet ;  Rilo  Dagh.  0,600  (bet ;  Ferim  Dagh,  7,876  feet; 
OomiohoTa,  or  Nije,  6,660  feet ;  Peristeri,  7,700  feet ;  basin  of  Soils,  1,710  feet ;  basin  of  Monaatir,  l^SO 
feet  i  Lake  of  Oitrovo,  1.680  feet ;  Lake  of  Kastoria,  2,060  feet 


.-.  -'iib^r-iistsj'-: 


lit,  to  one  of 

the  surface 
■mall  lakes, 
vered  them. 

of  Kastoria 

a  limestone 

«8que  Greek 

not  exist  in 
itains.  It  is 
instance,  the 
ial  epoch,  the 
same  latitude 
noving  rivers 

an  regions  of 
rers  flowing  to 
through  wild 
,e  Yardar,  and 
e  Balkans,  or 
i  large  rivers, 
le.    As  yet  we 
discharged  hy 
)r  purposes  of 
iich  they  have 

This  work  of 
ralleya,  where 

One  of  these 
)rs  the  ^gean 
were  no  douht 
of  Central 

of  geological 
n,  and  Yardar 
the  Black  Sea 
(  rivers  of  all 
cover  an  area 
sand  and  clay 
and  the  slow 
in  the  ancients 

1  otheM :— Vitoih, 
tbriqa,  1,060  feet  ( 

Dagh,  7,876  feet; 

of  MooMtir,  1,880 


BULGABIA. 


187 


anticipated  a  time  when  the  Black  Sea  would  he  converted  into  a  shallow  pond 
abounding  in  sand-banks,  and  it  must,  therefore,  afford  some  consolation  to  our 
mariners  to  be  told  that  six  million  yuurs  must  puss  before  the  alluvium  carried 
down  the  river  will  fill  the  whole  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  large  triangular  plain  which  the  Danube  has  conquered  from  the  sea  has 
not  yet  fully  emerged  from  the  waters.  Lakes,  und  the  remains  of  ancient  bays, 
half-obliterated  branches  of  the  Danube,  and  the  ever-changing  beds  of  rivulets, 
have  converted  this  delta  into  a  domain,  half  land,  half  sea.  More  elevated  tracts, 
consolidated  by  the  attack  of  the  waves,  rise  hero  and  there  above  the  melancholy 
mire  and  reeds,  and  bear  a  dense  vegetation  of  oaks,  olives,  and  beeches.     Willows 


Fig.  89.— Thi  Dblta  or  thi  Danvbi. 


fringe  most  of  the  branches  of  the  river  which  take  their  winding  course  through 
the  delta.  Eighteen  years  ago  the  Danube  had  six  mouths ;  it  haa  now  only 
three. 

After  the  Crimean  war  the  Western  powers  determined  that  the  Eilia  branch, 
which  conveys  to  the  Black  Sea  more  than  half  the  volume  of  the  Danube,  should 
thenceforth  form  the  boundary  between  Bumania  and  Turkey.  The  Sultan  thus 
posseMes  not  only  the  whole  of  tho  delta,  which  has  an  area  of  about  4,000  square 
miles,  but  also  the  only  mouth  of  the  river  which  makes  the  possession  of  that 
territory  of  any  value  to  him.  The  mouth  of  the  Eilia  is  closed  by  a  bar  of  sand, 
which  does  not  even  permit  small  vessels  to  enter  it. 


MWBMMiialaMi 


SM  TlJItKKY  IN  EUBOPE. 

The  Knithern  mouth,  that  of  Khidrillii,  or  Ht.  Ooorge,  is  likewiM  intoocMible. 
The  centre  branch,  that  of  the  Silina,  which  hM  served  the  purposes  of  oommeroe 
from  time  immemorial,  can  alone  be  entered  by  vessels.  Uut  oven  this  channel 
would  not  be  practicable,  in  the  oaN«i  of  large  vessel*,  if  our  engfneerb  had 
not  improved  its  facilities  of  access.  Formerly  the  depth  r?  wf\ter  on  the  bar 
hardly  exceeded  a  fathom  during  April,  June,  and  Jul;  ,  'U  uven  at  timjs  of 
flood  was  at  most  two  or  three  fathoms.  But  by  build.  i  .  ^rg  at  jetties, 
which  guide  the  waters  of  the  river  into  the  deep  sea,  the  depth  of  water  has 
been  increased  to  the  extent  of  ten  feet,  and  vessels  drawing  twenty  feet  can 
enter.  Sulina  is  now  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  ports  of  Europe,  and 
a  highly  prized  harbour  of  refuge  on  the  Block  Sea,  which  is  so  much  dreaded  by 
mariners  on  account  of  its  squalls.  We  are  indebted  for  this  great  public  work 
to  an  international  commission,  which  enjoys  almost  soveriegn  rights  over  the 
Danube  as  high  up  as  Isukcha.* 

The  Bulgarians  inhabit  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  Danube  as  far  as  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Pindus,  excepting  only  certain  detached  territories  in  the  occu- 
pation of  Turks,  Wttllachians,  Zinaares,  or  Greeks.    In  the  Middle  Ages  their 


Fig.  40.— CoMVAaATiTB  DiimHAiini  or  thi  Movnia  or  ths  DAmria. 


KUi»  Mouth. 


Buliim  Mouth. 


b(>  Qsoiga'i  Month. 


kingdom  was  even  more  extensive,  for  it  included  the  whole  of  Albania,  and  had 
Okhrida  for  its  capital. 

The  origin  of  the  Bulgarians  has  been  a  theme  of  frequent  discussion.  The 
Bulgarians  of  the  Byzantines,  who  laid  waste  the  plains  of  Thracia  about  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century,  and  whose  name  became  a  term  of  opprobrium,  probably 
were  a  TTgrian  race,  like  the  Huns,  and  spoke  a  language  akin  to  that  of  the 
Samoyds.  The  name  of  these  savage  conquerors  is  sometimes  derived  from  the 
Volga,  on  the  banks  of  which  they  formerly  dwelt ;  but  their  manners  and 
appearance  have  undergone  a  singular  change,  and  nothing  now  indicates  their 
origin.  Originally  Turanians,  they  have  been  converted  into  Slavs,  like  their 
neighbours  the  Servians  and  Russians. 

This  rapid  conversion  of  the  Bulgarians  into  Slavs  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able ethnological  phenomena  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Even  in  the  ninth  century  the 
Bulgarians  had  adopted  the  Servian  language,  and  soon  afterwards  they  ceased 
to  speak  their  own.  Their  idiom  is  less  polished  than  that-  of  the  Servians,  and, 
possessing  no  literature,  has  not  become  fixed.  The  purest  Bulgarian,  it  is  said, 
may  be  heard  in  the  district  of  Ealofer,  to  the  south  of  the  Balkan.  The  gradual 
transformation  of  the  Bulgarians  into  Slavs  is  ascribed  by  some  authoni  to  the 
•  aeued  from  Snlink  (1873),  1,870  xtumHa  of  £38,000  tons.    Yaliui  of  oensk  ezportad,  i8,000/KIO. 


-ir 


e  inMO«Mible. 
«  of  oommeroo 
a  this  ohannel 
mgmeerb  had 
or  on  the  btr 
31)  at  timvs  of 
^rg  .at  jettiea, 
of  water  hM 
enty  feet  can 
)f  Europe,  and 
;h  dreaded  by 
it  public  work 
ghtu  oyer  the 

aa  far  as  the 
I  in  the  oocu- 
Ue  Agee  their 


I 


(•'I  Month. 

•ania,  and  had 

ouuion.  The 
oia  about  the 
ium,  probably 
0  that  of  the 
ved  from  the 
manners  and 
ndicates  their 
vs,  like  their 


m'im 


most  remark* 
h  century  the 
is  they  ceased 
Seryians,  and, 
ian,  it  is  said, 
The  gradual 
uthoni  to  the 

id,  M.000,000. 


iflwnVMllB.       CMUkaUUmtnm 


vnoAMum. 


I  TIMIa.        A  Htlra  of  KopOtft, 


WMwuM*. 


f*iiwinr*iin  iiii>iiin*iTu 


,*j 


BULGAMA. 


189 


prodigiouH  facility  for  imitation  possessed  by  that  people ;  but  it  is  simpler  to 
assume  that,  in  course  of  time,  the  conquering  Bulgarians  and  the  conquered 
Servians  became  amalgamated,  and  that,  whilst  the  former  gave  a  name  to  tho 
new  nation,  the  latter  contributed  their  language,  their  manners,  and  physical 
features.  Thus  much  is  oertain,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Bulgaria  must  now  be 
looked  upon  as  membci'3  of  the  Slavonian  family  of  nations.  Together  with  the 
Servians,  Croats,  and  Herzegovinians,  they  are  the  most  numerous  people  of 
European  Turkey ;  and,  if  the  succession  to  the  dominion  of  the  Turks  is  to  be 
decided  by  numbers  alone,  it  belongs  to  the  Servo-Bulgarians,  and  not  to  the 
Greeks.  . 

The  Bulgarians,  as  a  rule,  are  not  so  tall  as  their  neighbours  the  Servians ; 
they  are  squat,  strongly  built,  with  a  large  head  on  broad  shoulders.  Lejean, 
himself  a  Breton,  and  others,  consider  that  they  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  peasants  of  Brittany.  In  several  districts,  and  notably  in  the  environs  of 
Fhilippopoli,  they  shave  the  head,  a  tuft  of  hair  alone  excepted,  which  they 
cultivate  and  dress  into  a  tail  as  carefully  as  the  Chinese.  Oreeks  and  Wallachiana 
ridicule  them,  and  many  proverbial  expressions  refer  to  their  want  of  intelligence 
and  polish.  This  ridicule,  however,  they  hardly  deserve.  Less  vivacious  than 
the  Wallaohian,  or  less  supple  than  the  Greek,  the  Bulgarian  is  certainly  not 
deficient  in  intelligence.  But  bondage  has  borne  heavily  upon  him ;  and  in  the 
south,  where  he  is  oppressed  by  the  Turk  and  fleeced  by  the  Greek,  he  looks 
unhappy  and  sad ;  but  in  the  plains  of  the  north  and  the  secluded  mountain 
villages,  where  he  has  beeu  exposed  to  less  suffering,  he  is  jovial,  fond  of 
pleasure,  fluent  of  speech,  and  quick  at  repartee.  The  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Balkan,  perhaps  owing  to  a  greater  infusion  of  Servian  blood,  are 
better-looking,  too,  than  other  Bulgarians,  and  dress  in  better  taste.  A  still 
finer  race  of  men  are  the  Fomaris,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the  Bhodope,  to  the 
south  of  Fhilippopoli.  Their  speech  is  Bulgarian,  but  in  no  other  respect  do 
they  resemble  their  compatriots.  They  ore  a  fine  race  of  men,  with  auburn 
hair,  full  of  energy,  and  of  a  poetical  temperament.  We  almost  feel  tempted 
to  look  upon  them  as  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  ancient  Thraoians,  especially 
if  it  should  turn  out  to  be  true  that  in  their  songs  thev  celebrate  Orpheus,  the 
divine  musician. 

The  Bulgarians,  and  especially  those  of  the  plaiys,  are  a  peaceable  people, 
recalling  in  no  respect  the  fierce  hordes  who  devastated  the  Byzantine  empire. 
They  are  not  warlike,  like  their  neighbonrs  the  Servians,  and  do  not  keep  alive 
in  their  national  poetry  the  memory  of  former  struggles.  Their  songs  relate  to 
the  events  of  every-day  life,  or  to  the  sufferings  of  the  oppressed ;  and  the  "gentle 
zaptieh,"  as  the  representative  of  authority,  is  one  of  the  characters  most 
frequently  represented  in  them.  The  average  Bulgarian  is  a  quiet,  hard-working 
peasant,  a  good  husband  and  father ;  he  is  fond  of  home  comforts,  and  practises 
every  domestic  virtue.  Nearly  all  the  agricultural  produce  exported  from  Turkey 
results  from  the  labour  of  Bulgarian  husbandmen.  It  is  they  who  have  converted 
certain  portions  of  the  plain  to  the  south  of  the   Danube  into  huge  fields  of 


U 


•^ 


I 


'i 


iiii»iiiiu.iMjijim-    ii.iMii<ii»fi /iiii><*ii<ii['«>iairii>i»niiiii»MiaaMiMiaiii>lfe^^ 


HMM 


"  '^"i  Jli-.'-x'I'i^'ji"^  i'i'"'ri'"M  I  '^^"''Bffli'flB 


140 


TURKEY  INEUROPB. 


maize  and  corn,  rivalling  those  of  Rumania.  It  is  they,  likewise,  who,  at 
Eski-Za'ara,  at  the  south  of  the  Balkan,  produce  the  best  silk  and  the  best 
wheat  in  all  Turkey,  from  which  latter  alone  the  bread  and  cakes  placed  upon  the 
Sultan's  table  are  prepared.  Other  Bulgarians  have  converted  the  noble  plain 
of  Kezanlik,  at  the  foot  of  the  Balkan,  into  the  finest  agricultural  district  of 
Turkey,  the  town  itself  being  surrounded  by  magnificent  walnut-trees  and  by 
rosarioM,  which  furnish  the  famous  attar  of  roses,  constituting  so  important  an 
article  of  commerce  throughout  the  E^st.  Amongst  the  Bulgarians  between 
Pirot  and  Tumov  (Tirnova),  oii  the  northern  slope  of  the  Balkan,  there  exist 
flourishing  manufactures.  Each  village  there  is  noted  for  a  particular  branch  of 
industry.  Knives  •are  made  at  one,  metal  ornaments  at  another,  earthenware  at 
a  third,  stuffs  or  carpets  elsewhere ;  and  even  common  workmen  exhibit  much 
manual  dexterity  and  purity  of  taste.  An  equally  remarkable  spirit  of  enterprise 
is  manifested  amongst  the  Bidgarians  and  Zinzares  of  the  district  of  Bitolia,  or 
Monastir.  The  town  itself,  as  well  as  Eurshova,  Fiorina,  and  others  in  its 
vicinity,  are  manufacturing  centres. 

The  Bulgarians,  peaceable,  patient,  and  industrious  as  they  are,  are  beginning 
to  grow  tired  of  the  subjection  in  which  they  are  held.  They  certainly  do  not  as 
yet  dream  of  a  national  rising,  for  the  isolated  revolts  which  have  taken  place 
amongst  them  were  confined  to  a  few  mountaineers,  or  brought  about  by  young 
men  whom  a  residence  in  Servia  or  Rumania  had  imbued  with  an  enthusiasm 
for  liberty.  But  though  docile  subjects  still,  the  Bulgarians  begin  to  raise 
their  heads.  They  have  learnt  to  look  upon  each  other  as  members  of  the  same 
nation,  and  are  organizing  themselves  for  the  defence  of  their  nationality.  The 
first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  on  a  question  of  religion.  When  the  Turks 
conquered  the  country  a  certain  number  amongst  them  turned  Mohammedan  to 
escape  oppression ;  but  though  they  visit  the  mosques,  they  nevertheless  still 
cling  to  the  &ith  of  their  forefathers,  veni^rate  the  same  springy,  and  put  their 
trust  in  the  same  talismans.  A  few  joined  the  Roman  Church,  but  a  great 
majority  remained  Greek  Catholics.  Greek  monks  and  priests,  not  long  since, 
enjoyed  the  g^entest  influence,  for  during  centuries  of  oppression  they  had 
upheld  the  ancient  faith.  Their  presence  vagualy  recalled  the  times  of  inde- 
pendence, and  their  churches  were  the  only  sanctuaries  open  to  the  persecuted 
peasant.  But  the  Bulgarians,  in  the  nnd,  grew  discontented  with  a  priesthood 
who  did  not  even  take  the  trouble  to  acquire  the  language  of  its  congregations,  and 
openly  sought  to  subject  them  to  an  alien  nation  like  the  Greeks.  Nothing 
was  further  from  their  thoughts  than  a  religioue  schism,  lliey  merely  desired 
to  withdraw  from  the  authority  of  the  Paticiarch  of  Constantinople,  and  to  found 
a  National  Church  of  their  own,  as  had  been  done  by  the  Servians,  and  even  by 
the  Greeks  of  the  new  Hellenic  kingdom.  The  Yatioan  of  Coustantinopie 
protested,  the  Turkish  Government  proved  anything  but  &vourable  to  this 
movement  of  emancipation,  but  in  the  end  the  Greek  priests  were  forced  to 
retire' — precipitately  in  some  instances — and  the  new  National  Church  was 
established. 


•w 


I,  who,  at 
I  the  best 
1  upon  the 
,oble  plain 
district  of 
es  and  by 
portant  an 
Ls  between 
there  exist 
r  branch  of 
henware  at 
liibit  much 
:  enterprise 
Bitolia,  or 
biers  in  its 

B  beginning 
ly  do  not  as 
taken  place 
it  by  young 
enthusiasm 
^in  to  raise 
of  the  samo 
lality.    The 
a  the  Turks 
ammedan  to 
■theless  still 
id  put  their 
)ut  a  great 
long  since, 
they  had 
LOS  of  inde- 
persecuted 
priesthood 
gations,  and 
Nothing 
irely  desired 
id  to  found 
id  even  by 
istantinopie 
ible  to  this 
forced  to 
lurch  was 


BULGABIA. 


141 


This  pacific  revolution,  though  directed  against  the  Greeks,  cannot  fail  to 
influence  the  relations  between  Bulgarians  and  Turks.  The  former  have 
combined,  for  the  first  time  since  many  centuries,  for  the  accomplishment  of  a 
common  national  object,  and  this  reawakening  of  a  feeling  of  nationality  cannot 
but  prove  detrimental  to  the  rule  of  the  Osmauli.  The  latter  are  not  very 
numerous  in  the  country  districts  of  Western  Bulgaria,  where  they  are  mot 
with  chiefly  in  the  towns,  and  particularly  in  those  which  are  of  strategical 
importance.  Eastern  Bulgaria,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  peopled  by  Turks, 
or  at  all  events  by  Bulgarians  who  have  adopted  the  language,  dress,  manners, 
and  modes  of  thought  of  their  conquerors.  No  Christian  monastery  exists  in  l^his 
stronghold  of  Turkish  power,  though  there  are  several  Mohammedan  places  of 
pilgrimage  held  in  high  repute  for  their  sanctity. 

The  Greeks,  next  to  the  Turks,  are  the  most  important  element  of  the 
population  of  Bulgaria.  They  are  not  very  numerous  to  the  north  of  the  Balkan, 
where  their  influence  hardly  exceeds  that  of  the  Germans  and  Armenians  esta- 
blished in  the  towns.  To  the  south  of  the  Balkan,  though  not  numerous  relatively, 
they  are  much  more  widely  distributed.  One  or  two  Greeks  aro  met  with  in 
every  village,  carrying  on  trade  or  exercising  some  handicraft.  They  make 
themselves  indispensable  to  the  locality,  their  adArice  is  sought  for  by  all,  and  they 
impart  their  own  spirit  to  the  whole  of  the  population.  Where  two  or  three  of 
these  Greeks  meet  they  at  once  constitute  themselves  into  a  sort  of  community, 
and  throughout  the  country  they  form  a  kind  of  masonic  brotherhood.  Their 
influence  is  thus  far  greater  than  could  be  expected  from  their  numbers.  There 
are  a  few  important  Greek  colonies  amongst  the  Bulgarians,  as  at  Fhilippopoli  and 
Bazarjik,  and  in  a  valley  of  the  Bhodope  they  occupy  the  populous  town  of 
Stanimako,  to  the  exclusion  of  Turks  and  Bulgarians.  The  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings,  as  well  as  the  dialect  of  the  inhabitants,  which  contains  over  two 
hundred  Greek  words  not  known  to  modem  Greek,  prove  that  Stanimako  has 
existed  as  a  Greek  town  for  upwards  of  twenty  centuries,  and  M.  Dumont  thinks 
that  it  is  one  of  the  old  colonies  of  Euboea. 

The  initiatory  part  played  by  the  Greeks  in  Southern  Bulgaria  is  played 
in  the  north  by  the  Bumanians.  The  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  from  Oher- 
novada  to  the  Black  Sea,  is  for  the  most  part  inhabited  by  Wallachians,  who 
are  gradually  gaining  upon  the  Turks.  Other  colonists  are  attracted  by 
the  fertility  of  the  plains  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Balkan.  The  Bulgarians 
are  careful  cultivators  of  the  soil  themselves,  but  the  Bumanians  never- 
theless gain  a  footing  amongst  them,  as  they  do  with  the  Servians,  the 
Magyars,  and  the  Germans.  They  are  more  active  and  intelligent  than  the 
Bulgarians,  their  families  are  more  numerou-*.  and  in  the  course  of  a  genera- 
tion they  g^crally  succeed  in  "Rumanising"  a  village  in  which  they  have 
settled. 

Bulgarians  and  Turks,  Greeks  and  Wallachians,  isolated  colonies  of  Servians 
and  Albanians,  communities  of  Armenians  and  of  Sp.:<nish  Jews,  colonies  of 
Zinzares  and  wandering  tribes  of  Mohammedan  Tsigani,  have  converted  the 


gj^...,,. 


TBT 


142 


TUEKET  IN  EUROPE. 


countries  of  the  Balkan  into  a  veritable  ethnological  chaos ;  but  the  confusion  is 
greater  still  in  the  small  district  of  Dobruja,  between  the  Lower  Danube  and  the 
Black  Sea.  In  addition  to  the  races  enume^'ated,  we  there  meet  with  Noga 
Tartars,  who  are  of  purer  blood  than  their  kinsmen  the  Osmanli,  and  exhibit  the 
Asiatic  type  in  greater  purity.  Although  they  cultivate  the  soil,  they  have  not 
altogether  abandoned  their  nomad  habits,  for  they  wander  with  their  herds  over 
hill  and  dale.  They  are  governed  by  an  hereditary  khan,  as  at  the  time  when  they 
dwelt  in  tents. 

After  the  Crimean  war  several  thousand  Nogai  Tartars,  compromised  by  the 
aid  which  they  had  rendered  the  Allies,  joined  their  compatriots  in  the  Dobruja. 
On  the  other  hand,  about  10,000  Bulgarians,  terrified  at  the  approach  of 
these  much-maligned  immigrants,  fled  the  Dobruja,  and  sought  an  asylum  in 
Russia,  where  they  were  assigned  the  lands  abandoned  by  the  Crimean  Tartars. 
This  exchange  proved  disastrous  to  both  nations,  for  sickness  and  grief  carried  o£f 
many  victims.  More  deplorable  still  was  the  lot  of  the  Circassians  and  other 
Caucasian  tribes,  who,  to  the  number  of  400,000,  sought  a  refuge  in  Turkey  in 
1864.  It  was  by  no  m'^ans  easy  to  provide  accommodation  for  so  large  a  host. 
The  pasha  intrusted  with  the  installation  of  these  immigrants  sent  many  of  them 
to  Western  Bulgaria,  in  the  vain  hope  that  they  would  cut  off  all  contact 
between  Servians  and  Bulgarians.  The  rayas  were  compelled  to  surrender  to 
them  their  best  lands,  to  build  houses  for  them,  and  to  supply  them  with  cattle 
and  seed-corn.  This  hospitable  reception,  compulsory  though  it  was,  would  have 
enabled  these  immigrants  to  start  in  their  adopted  country  with  a  fair  chance  of 
success,  had  they  but  deigned  to  work.  This,  however,  they  declined.  Hunger, 
sickness,  and  a  climate  very  different  from  that  of  their  mountains,  caused  them 
to  perish  in  thousands,  and  in  less  than  a  year  about  one-third  of  these  refugees 
had  perished.  Toung  girb  and  children  were  sold  to  procure  bread,  and  this 
infamoiis  traffic  became  a  source  of  wealth  to  certain  pashas.  The  harems 
became  filled  with  young  Circassians,  who  were  a  drug  in  the  market  at  that 
time,  and  the  human  merchandise  not  saleable  at  Constantinople  was  exported 
to  Syria  and  Egypt.  These  Circassians,  after  thus  mffering  from  sickness  and 
their  own  improvident  laziness,  have  now  accommodated  themselves  to  the 
conditions  of  their  new  homes.  Though  of  *^'  :  ^me  religion  as  the  Osmanli,  they 
readily  assimilate  with  the  Bulgarians  amongt^>  whom  they  dwell,  and  adopt  their 
language. 

Other  refugees,  more  kindly  treated  by  fate,  have  found  an  asylum  in  the 
Dobruja.  They  are  Russian  Cossacks,  Ruthenians,  and  Muscovites  of  the  "  Old 
Faith,"  who  left  their  steppes  towards  the  close  of  last  century  in  order  to  escape 
persecution.  The  Padisha,  more  tolerant  than  the  Christian  Empress  of  Russia, 
generously  received  them,  and  granted  them  land  in  various  parts  of  his 
dominions.  The  Russian  colonies  in  the  Dobruja  and  in  the  delta  of  the  Danube 
have  prospered,  and  one  of  their  settlements  on  the  St.  George's  branch  of  the 
river  is  known  as  the  "  Cossacks'  Paradise."  Most  of  these  Russians  are 
engaged  in  the  sturgeon  fishery  and   the  preparation  of  caviare.     They  have 


w 


BULOABIA. 


u$ 


tnfusion  is 
te  and  the 
ith  Noga 
(bibit  tbe 
f  have  not 
iierds  over 
when  tbey 

jed  by  tbe 
9  Dobruja. 
>proacb   of 
asylum  in 
m  Tartars, 
earned  off 
and  other 
Turkey  in 
rge  a  host, 
ly  of  tbem 
all  contact 
.rrender  to 
with  cattle 
would  have 
[r  cbanoe  of 
^     Hunger, 
lused  tbem 
se  refugees 
id,  and  this 
le  barems 
ket  at  tbat 
M  exported 
Lckness  and 
yes  to  the 
manli,  they 
adopt  their 

urn  in  the 
tbe  "  Old 
ar  to  escape 
of  KuBsia, 
rts  of  his 
)be  Danube 
Ach  of  tbe 
uasians  are 
Tbey  have 


proved  grateful  for  tbe  hospitality  extended  to  them,  and  have  always  fought 
valiantly  in  defence  of  tb-^ir  adopted  country.  They  retain  their  national 
dress,  their  language,  and  their  religion,  and  do  not  mix  with  the  surrounding 
populations. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  we  meet  in  the  Dobruja  with  colonies  of  Germans, 
Arabs,  and  Poles,  and,  in  the  new  port  of  the  Sulina,  with  representatives  of 
many  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

There  are  few  countries  where  the  great  international  high-roads  are  as  plainly 
traced  by  nature  as  in  Bulgaria.  The  first  of  these  roads  is  formed  by  the 
Danube.  The  Turkish  towns  along  its  banks — Yiddin,  Sbishtova,  Rustchuk,  and 
Silistria — are  taking  an  increasiag  share  in  European  commerce.  This  highway 
is  continued  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  where  there  are  several  commercial 
harbours,  tbe  most  important  being  Burgas,  a  great  grain  port.  This  natural 
highway,  however,  has  become  too  circuitous  for  purposes  of  commerce.  A  railway 
has  therefore  been  built  across  the  isthmus  of  the  Dobruja,  from  Chemavoda  to 
Eustenje,  and  a  second  line  connects  Bustchuk,  on  the  Danube,  with  Yama,  on  tbe 
Black  Sea,  the  latter  line  crossing  the  whole  of  Eastern  Bulgaria,  and  touching 
tbe  towns  of  Razgrad  and  Shumna.  A  third  line,  now  in  course  of  construction, 
will  cross  the  Balkans  by  a  depression  to  the  south  of  Shumna,  and  traversing  the 
plain  in  which  the  towns  of  Yamboly  and  Adrianople  are  built,  will  connect  the 
Lower  Danube  with  the  ^gean  Sea.  A  third  route,  still  farther  to  the  west, 
passes  Tumov,  or  Timova — the  ancient  capital  of  the  tsars  of  Bulgaria — Eezanlik, 
and  Eski-Za'ara. 

These  railways,  already  opened  for  traffic  or  approaching  completion,  certainly 
shorten  the  journey  between  Western  Europe  and  Oonstantinople ;  but  it  is 
proposed  now  to  avoid  the  circuitous  navigation  of  the  Lower  Danube  altogether, 
by  joining  the  railway  system  of  Europe  to  that  of  Turkey.  One  of  these  pro- 
posed railways  will  pass  through  Bosnia,  and  down  the  valley  of  the  Yardar  to 
Saloniki ;  another  will  follow  the  ancient  Boman  road,  which  connected  Pannonia 
with  Byzantium,  and  which  was  pnved  in  the  sixteenth  century  as  far  as  Belgrad. 
The  principal  cities  along  this  great  highway  are  Nish,  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Morava,  close  to  the  frontier  of  Servia ;  Sofia,  the  ancient  Sardioa,  on  the  Isker, 
a  tributary  of  tbe  Danube;  Bazar jik,  or  "tbe  market;"  and  the  fine  town  of 
Phtlippopoli,  with  its  triple  mountain  communding  the  passage  of  the  Maritza. 
These  towns,  on  the  completion  of  the  railway,  cannot  fail  to  become  of  great  com- 
mercial importance.  A  hideous  monument  near  Nish  wiU,  perhaps,  be  pointed  out 
to  tourists  attracted  thither  on  the  opening  of  the  railway.  It  was  erected  to  remind 
future  generations  of  a  deed  of  "  glory."  Thic  trophy  of  Kele-kalesi  consists  of  a 
tower  built  of  the  skulls  of  Servians,  who,  rather  than  fall  alive  into  the  hands  of 
their  enemies,  blew  themselves  up  together  with  the  redoubt  which  they  defended. 
A  governor  of  Nish,  more  humane  than  his  predecessors,  desired  to  remove  this 
abominable  piece  of  masonry,  which  no  raya  passes  without  a  shudder,  but 
Mussulman  fanaticism  forbade  it. 


144 


TUBKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


Tho  influence  of  commerce  cannot  fail  to  modify  largely  the  manners  and 
customs  of  a  nation  as  supple  and  pliable  as  are  the  Bulgarians.  War  has 
brutalieed  the  Albanians,  and  slavery  degraded  the  Bulgarians.  In  the  towns, 
more  particularly,  they  have  sunk  very  low.  The  insults  heaped  upon  them  by 
Mussulmans,  and  the  contemptuous  manner  in  which  they  were  treated,  rendered 
them  abject  and  despicable  in  their  own  oyes.  Demoralised  by  servitude  and 
misery,  given  up  to  the  mercy  of  their  rich  compatriots,  the  chorhcy'is,  or  "  givers 
of  soup,"  they  became  shameless  and  low-minded  helots.  The  Bulgarian  women, 
in  the  towns  more  particularly,  presented  a  spectacle  of  the  most  shameful 
corruption,  and  their  want  of  modesty,  their  coarseness,  and  ignorance  fully 
justified  the  contempt  in  which  they  were  held  by  their  Mohammedan  sisters. 
Even  as  regards  education  the  Turks  were  in  advance  of  them  :  not  long  ago  their 
schools  relatively  ^ere  more  numerous,  and  the  instruction  given  in  them  was  of  a 
superior  order.  Christian  villages,  moreover,  were  never  so  clean  or  pleasant  as 
those  of  the  Tui'lis.  i  i 

But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  case  in  the  past,  things  have  already  begun 
to  mend.  The  Turks,  as  a  body,  may  still  be  the  superiors  of  the  Bulgarians,  as 
regards  probity  and  a  respect  for  truth,  but  they  work  leas,  and  become 
iiii^^overished  by  degrees.  In  the  country  the  land  gradually  passes  into  the 
hands  of  the  rayas,  in  the  towns  the  latter  monopoli^itt  nearly  all  the  trade.  The 
Bulgarians,  moreover,  have  learnt  to  appreciate  the  importatioe  of  education ; 
they  have  founded  schools  and  colleges,  have  set  up  printing  presses,  and  send 
uheir  young  men  to  be  educated  at  the  universities  of  Europe.  The  young 
Bulgarians  in  the  mixed  colleges  of  Constantinople  invariably  make  tho  most 
sutiolactory  progress  in  their  studies.  This  revival  of  learning  is  a  m6st  hopeful 
sign  cf  vitality.  If  persevered  in,  f\ie  Bulgarian  race,  which  has  been  dead,  as  ii 
wei  J,  for  BO  many  ceuturies,  may  again  play  its  part  in  the  world's  history.  The 
atrocities  of  which  Bulgaria  has  recently  been  the  scene  may  retard  this  regene- 
ration, but  they  certainly  cannot  stop  it.* 

*  The  following  are  the  principal  towns  of  Bulgaria,  with  the  nuaiber  of  their  inhabitants : — 


Shuinna  (Shumla) 

60,000 

Rustchuk     .... 

60,000 

Philippopoli  (Felibp;     . 

40,000 

Bitolia  (Monastir,' 

40,000 

Skoplie  (UskuV.^ . 

28,000 

Kalkandelen 

22,000 

Sofia 

20,000 

Vidin 

20,000 

SilJBtr'i        .... 

20,000 

8hu"V.tOTO     .... 

20,000 

Vr.na           .... 

20,000 

Foki-Za'ara 

UMO 

Bazarjik 
Nish     . 
Velece  (Koprili) 
RaiBgrad 

Tumov  (Timova) 
Sliven  (Slivno) 
Pril.p   . 
Kezanlik 
Stanimako    . 
Fiorina 
Karahora 
Solina 


18,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
10,000 
10,000 
10,00C 
9,000 
6,000 


PRESENT  POSITION  AND  PROSPECTS  OP  TURKEY. 


14» 


men  and 
War  has 
lie  towns, 
them  by 
rendered 
itude  and 
,r  "  givers 
ji  women, 
shameful 
ince  fnlly 
m  sisters. 
;  ago  their 
a  was  of  a 
tleasant  as 

ady  begun 
garians,  as 
id  become 
B  into  the 
rade.  The 
education ; 
,  and  send 
Dhe  young 
I  tho  most 
58t  hopeful 

dead,  as  it 
tory.     The 

is  regene- 

18.000 
16,000 
16,000 
1S,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
10,000 
10,000 
lO.OOC 

9,000 

6,000 


VII. — Present  Position   and  Prospects  of   Turkey. 

The  prophecies  respecting  the  "  sick  man  "  have  not  yet  been  fulfilled,  and  his 
heritage  divided  amongst  the  surrounding  powers.  To  a  great  extent  he  in 
indebted  for  this  continued  existence  to  the  jealousies  of  the  European  powers,  and 
to  the  fact  of  Russia  having  her  hands  full  in  Central  Asia.  Still,  Turkey  has 
recently  exhibited  a  wonderful  amount  of  vitality.  Fresh  provinces  have  been 
incorporated  with  the  empire  in  Arabia,  at  a  distance  of  1,800  miles  from  the 
capital ;  and  a  rebellion  in  the  north-western  portion  of  European  Turkey,  originat- 
ing in  the  misgovemment  of  the  country,  but  aided  and  abetted  by  Russia,  has 
been  suppressed  with  a  strong  hand.  The  Turkish  empire  remains  not  only 
intact,  but  will  actually  be  found  to  have  considerably  increased  in  extent,  if  we 
include  within  it  the  territories  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  whose  arms  have  been 
carried  to  the  Upper  Nile  and  into  Bar  Fur. 

We  must  guard  ourselves,  at  the  same  time,  against  the  assumption  that 
Turkey  has  entered  upon  a  path  of  normal  progress.  On  the  contrary,  Turkey  is 
a  mediaeval  country  still,  and  will  have  to  pass  through  many  intestine  revolutions 
before  it  can  rank  with  the  civilised  states  of  Europe  or  America.  The  country  is 
in  the  occupation  of  hostile  niC6S,  who  would  fall  upon  each  other  were  they  not 
restrained  by  force.  The  Servian  would  take  up  arms  against  the  Albanian,  the 
Bulgarian  against  the  Greek,  and  all  the  subject  races  would  combine  against  the 
Turk.  National  jealousies  are  augmented  by  religious  animosities.  The  Catholic 
Bosnians  hate  other  Slavs,  and  the  Tosks  detest  the  Oheges,  although  they  speak 
the  same  language.  The  Osmanli  oppress  these  various  populations  without  com- 
punction, their  art  of  government  consisting  in  playing  them  off  against  each 
other. 

Nor  can  better  things  be  expected  in  an  empire  in  which  caprice  reigns 
supreme.  The  Padishah  is  lord  of  the  souls  a^d  bodies  of  his  subjects ;  he  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  supreme  judge,  and  sovereign  pontiff.  In  former 
times  his  power  was  practically  limited  by  semi-independent  feudatories,  but  since 
the  fall  of  ,Ali  Pasha  and  the  massacre  of  the  janissaries  he  is  restrained  only  by 
customs,  traditions,  and  the  demands  of  the  Governments  of  Europe.  He  is  the 
most  despotic  sovereign  of  Europe,  and  his  civil  list  the  heaviest  in  proportion  to 
the  revenues  of  the  country.  The  household  of  the  late  Sultan  and  of  the 
members  of  his  family  was  exceedingly  numerous.  There  lived  in  the  Seraglio 
an  army  of  6,000  servants  and  slaves  of  both  sexes,  of  whom  600  were  cooks. 
These  servants,  in  turn,  were  surrounded  by  an  army  of  hangers-on,  who  were  fed 
from  the  imperial  kitchens,  to  which  no  less  than  1,200  sheep  were  supplied  daily 
by  the  contractors. 

Current  expenses  were  sufficiently  heavy,  but  more  considerable  still  was  the 
extraordinary  expenditure  incurred  in  the  construction  of  palaces  and  kiosks,  the 
purchase  of  articles  de  luxe  and  of  curiosities,  and  for  all  kinds  of  prodigalities. 
The  present  Sultan,  driven  thereto  by  the  precarious  position  of  his  empire,  has 
limited  his  expenditure.    But  will  this  last  ? 


J 


146 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


Minister!,  valis,  and  other  high  officials  of  the  empire  faithfully  follow  in  the 
footsteps  of  their  sovereign,  and  their  expenditure  always  exceeds  their  salary, 
though  the  latter  is  fixed  on  a  most  liberal  scale.  As  to  the  lower  officials,  their 
salaries  are  small  and  irregularly  paid  ;  but  it  is  understood  that  they  may  recoup 
themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  ratepayers.  Everything  can  be  purchased  in 
Turkey,  and,  above  all,  jusdce.  The  state  of  the  finances  is  most  lamentable ; 
loans  are  raised  at  usurious  interest ;  and  so  badly  is  the  country  governed  that  it 
has  been  seriously  proposed  to  intrust  the  management  of  its  finances  to  a  syndicate 
of  the  European  powers !  * 

Agriculture  and  industry  progress  but  slowly  under  such  misgovemment. 
Vast  tracts  of  the  most  fertile  land  are  allowed  to  lie  fallow ;  they  appear  to  be 
no  one's  property,  and  any  one  may  settle  upon  and  cultivate  them.  But  woe  to 
him  if  he  conducts  his  operations  with  profit  to  himself;  for  no  sooner  is  he 
observed  to  become  wealthy  than  his  land  is  laid  claim  to  on  behalf  of  the  clergy 
or  of  some  pasha,  and  he  may  consider  himself  lucky  if  he  escapes  a  bastinado. 
The  peasants,  in  many  districts,  are  careful  not  to  produce  more  than  they  abso- 
lutely require  to  live  upon,  for  an  abimdant  harvest  would  impoverish  them — would 
merely  lead  to  a  permanent  increase  of  taxation.  The  tradesmen  in  the  smaller 
towns  are  equally  careful  to  conceal  their  wealth,  if  they  possess  any. 

Many  Mussulman  families  have  ceded,  to  the  mosques  their  proprietary  rights. 
They  thus  enjoy  merely  thie  usufruct  of  their  lands,  but  are  freed,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  the  land  remains  in  the  possession  of  their 
families  until  they  become  extinct.  These  lands  are  known  as  vaku/s,  and  they 
form  about  one-third  of  the  aren  of  the  whole  empii«.  They  contribute  actually 
nothing  towards  the  revenues  of  the  State.  In  the  end  they  aggrandise  the  last 
estates  of  the  Mohammedan  clergy.  Taxation  weighs  almost  exclusively  upon  the 
lands  cultivated  by  the  unfortunate  Christians ;  and  in  proportion  as  the  vakufs 
increase,  ro  does  the  produce  of  taxation  diminish.  This  must  in  the  end  neoes- 
sarily  lead  to  a  secularisation  of  the  estates  of  the  clergy  ;  and  even  now,  to  the 
great  horror  of  the  old  Turks,  the  Ottoman  Government  is  timidly  extending  its 
hands  towards  the  estates  belonging  to  the  mosques  of  Constantinople. 

Th'j  SerA'ian,  Albanian,  and  Bulgarian  peasants  actually  cultivate  their  land 
in  spite  of  their  masters.  A  single  fact  will  show  this.  Certain  collectors  of 
tithes,  in  order  to  prevent  fraud,  insist  upon  the  peasants  leaving  the  whole  of  the 
harvest  upon  the  fields  until  they  have  withdrawn  their  tenth  part.  Maize,  rice, 
and  com  are  exposed  there  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather  and  other  destruc- 
tive agencies  ;  tmd  it  frequently  happens  that  the  harvest  has  deteriorated  to  the 
extent  of  one-hulf  in  value  before  the  Qovemment  impost  is  levied.  Sometimes 
the  peasants  allow  their  grapes  or  fruit  to  rot  rather  than  pay  the  tithes.  But  it 
is  not  the  tax-gatherer  alone  of  whose  conduct  the  peasant  may  complain  ;  for  he 
is  exposed  likewise  to  exactions  by  the  middlemen  with  whom  he  comes  into 
contact  when  selling  his  produce.  "  The  Bulgarian  works,  but  the  Greek  hold» 
the  plough."     So  nays  an  ancient  proverb ;  and  this  is  still  true  at  least  of  the 

•  Iteoeipta  for  1874.  £20,400,000  ;  debte  in  1875,  £220,000,000. 


bllow  in  the 
ibeir  salary, 
fioials,  their 
may  recoup 
urohased  in 
lamentable ; 
rned  that  it 
}  a  syndicate 

l^vemment. 
ppear  to  be 
But  woe  to 
ooner  is  he 
f  the  clergy 
I  bastinado. 
L  they  abso- 
lem — would 
the  smaller 

)tary  rights, 
a  the  other 
ion  of  their 
%  and  they 
ite  actually 
lise  the  vast 
ly  upon  the 
I  the  vakufs 
)  end  neces- 
now,  to  the 
^tending  its 

)  their  land 
iollectors  of 
rhole  of  the 
Maize,  rice, 
her  destruc- 
ated  to  the 

Sometimes 
les.  But  it 
ain  ;  for  he 

comes  into 
3reek  holds 
least  of  the 


mmmmmummm 


mmmmmm  vi  ,  pi..    lilpifUm 


.  imm'ouMuiammt 


#"^^*^' 


<w\mmtiimnnmmmmau' 


MtTBBDUIAH  Of  ADBUHOflU;  iBD  MUMVUCAH  IiADT  OF  PKISBSHJX 


'"^  V.  ^>l^^^"-^  i^;  ^,  ,''^^|;^->  -  r/-£.  ^^/;^.,'s^^ 


PBE8ENT  I'OSITION  AND  PROSPECTS  OF  TUBKEY. 


147 


countries  to  the  nouth  of  the  Balkan,  where  the  Bulgarian  peasant  is  not  always 
the  propriutor  of  the  land  he  tills.  But  where  ho  does  not  directly  work  for  a 
Greek  or  Mussulman  proprietor,  his  harvest,  even  before  it  in  cut,  is  frequently 
the  property  of  a  usurer  ;  but  he  works  on  from  day  to  day,  a  wretched  slave,  in 
the  vain  hope  of  becoming  one  day  a  free  man. 

The  fertility  of  the  soil  on  both  slopes  of  the  Balkans,  in  Macedonia,  and  in 
Thessaly  in,  however,  such  that  in  spite  of  mosques  and  tax-collectors,  in  spite  of 
usurers  and  thieves,  agriculture  supplies  commerce  with  a  large  quantity  of 
produce.  Maize,  or  "  Turkish  corn,"  and  all  cereals  are  grown  in  abundance. 
The  valleys  of  the  Karasu  and  Vardar  produce  cotton,  tobacco,  and  dye  stuffs ; 
the  coast  districts  and  islands  yield  wine  and  oil,  whose  quality  would  leave  nought 
to  be  desired,  were  a  little  more  oare  bestowed  upon  their  cultivation ;  and  forests 
of  mulberry-trees  are  met  with  in  certain  parts  of  Thracia  and  Kumelia,  and  the 
export  of  cocoons  to  Italy  and  France  is  increasing  from  year  to  year.  Turkey, 
with  its  fertile  soil,  is  sure  to  take  a  prominent  part  amongst  the  European  states 
for  the  variety  and  superiority  of  its  products.  As  to  its  manufactures,  they  will 
no  doubt  be  gradually  displaced  on  the  opeTiing  of  new  roads  of  commerce.  The 
manufacturers  of  arms,  stuffs,  carpets,  av  wellery  in  the  cities  of  the  interior 
will  suffer  considerably  from  foreign  co.  Jtition,  and  many  amongst  them  will 
succumb  to  it,  unless  they  pass  into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  great  fairs, 
too,  which  are  now  held  annually  at  Slivno  and  other  places,  and  at  which 
merchants  from  the  whole  of  the  empire  meet  to  transact  business — as  many  as  a 
hundred  thousand  strangers  being  attracted  occasionally  to  a  single  spot — will 
gradually  give  place  to  a  regular  commercial  intercourse. 

It  is  certain  that  the  commerce  of  Turkey  has  increased  of  late  years,  thanks 
to  the  efforts  of  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Franks  of  all  nations..  The  annual 
value  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  whole  of  the  Ottoman  empire  in  Europe 
and  Asia  is  estimated  at  £40,000,000 — a  very  small  sum,  if  we  bear  in  mind  the 
resources  of  these  countries,  their  many  excellent  harbours,  and  their  favourable 
geographical  position. 

The  Turks  themselves  perform  but  a  very  small  share  of  the  work  that  is  done 
in  their  empire.  Various  causes  combine  to  render  them  less  active  than  the  other 
races.  They  are  the  governing  class,  and  their  ambition  naturally  aspires  to  the 
honours  and  the  luxury  of  kiqf;  that  is  to  say,  of  sweet  idleness.  Despising  every- 
thing not  Mohanunedan,  and  being,  besides,  heedless  and  of  a  sluggish  mind,  they 
but  rarely  learn  foreign  language,  and  are  thus  in  a  certain  measure  at  the  mercy 
of  the  other  races,  most  of  whom  speak  two  or  more  idioms.  Moreover,  the 
fatalism  taught  in  the  Koran  has  deprived  the  Turk  of  all  enterprise,  and  once 
thrown  out  of  his  ordinary  routine,  he  is  helpless.  Polygamy  and  slavery  are 
likewise  two  causes  of  demoralisation.  It  is  true  that  the  rich  alone  can  permit 
themselves  the  luxury  of  a  harem,  but  the  poor  learn  from  their  superiors  to 
despise  ^omen,  they  become  debased,  and  take  a  share  in  that  traffic  in  human 
flesh  which  is  a  necessary  sequence  of  polygamy.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  innumerable 
slaves  imported  in  the  course  of  four  centuries  from  all  the  regions  bordering  upon 


i 


':i 


xl 


':i 


i 
ii 


.5 

i 


'5 


14R 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


the  Turkish  empire ;  in  spite  uf  the  millioni  of  CircaMian,  Greek,  and  other  girls 
transplanted  into  the  harems,  the  Osmanli  are  numerically  infer'^r  to  the  other  races 
of  the  peninsula.  This  dominant  race — if  the  term  race  be ;  <  piioable  to  the  product 
of  so  many  crossings — hardly  numbers  ten  per  cent,  of  tl  <  population  of  European 
Turkey.  And  this  numerical  inferiority  is  on  the  increase,  for,  owing  to  polygamy, 
the  number  of  children  surviving  in  Mohammedan  families  is  less  than  in  Ohriitian 
families.  We  are  not  in  possession  of  precise  figures,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  Turks  are  on  the  decrease.  The  conscription,  to  which  they  alone  are  subject, 
has  contributed  towards  this  result,  and  becomes  more  difficult  A:om  year  to  year. 
It  has  often  been  repeated  since  Ohateaubriand  that  the  Turks  have  but  camped 
in  Europe,  and  expect  to  return  to  the  steppes  whence  they  came.  It  would  thus 
be  a  feeling  of  presentiment  which  induces  the  Turks  of  Stambul  to  seek  burial  in 
the  cemetery  of  Scutari,  hoping  thus  to  save  th  "h  bones  from  the  profanation  of 
the  Qiaour's  tread  on  his  return,  as  master,  to  Cur  Nt>anttnople.  In  many  placet  the 
living  follow  the  examples  of  the  dead,  and  a  feeble  current  of  emigration  seta  from 
the  Archipelago  and  the  coast  districts  of  Thracia  in  the  direction  of  Asia,  carry- 
ing  along  many  an  old  Turk  discontented  with  the  stir  of  European  life.  This 
migratioju,  however,  is  but  of.  very  small  importance,  and  does  not  affect  the 
Osmanli  of  the  interior.  Nothing  is  further  from  the  minds  of  the  Turks  of 
Bulgaria,  the  Yuruks  of  Macedonia,  or  the  Koniarides,  who  have  inhabited  the  moun- 
tains of  Ruraelia  since  the  eleventh  century,  thar:  ^o  quit  the  land  which  has  become 
their  second  home.  The  Turkish  element  in  the  Balkan  peninsula  can  be  got  rid  of 
only  by  exterminating  it ;  that  i.*,  by  treating  the  Turks  more  ferociously  than  they 
treated  the  nat '  re  populations  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  We  ought  not  to  for- 
get, at  the  same  time,  that  the  Turks,  though  far  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  other 
races,  are  nevertheless  able  to  reckon  upon  the  support  of  millions  of  Mohammedan 
Albanians,  Bosnians,  BulgariiDS,  Cr. . assians,  and  Nogai Tartars.  The  Mussulmans 
constitute  more  than  a  thi.  d  >  '  thi  ,'  tpulation  of  European  Turkey,  and,  in  spite 
of  differences  of  race,  they  .la  firmly  together.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that 
they  are  backcvi  up  by  a  i  r  Lred  and  fifty  millioni  of  co-religionists  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.* 

*  RaoM  and  religioi^o  of  Turkey  in  Eorope  (Serris,  Ifontenegro,  and  Rnnania  excluded)  :— 


Slavs 


TotaL 

iSerrians  .  1,114,000 
Bulgarians  2,861,000 
RuMians,  &o.      10,000 


Greco- Latins 

Albanians 
Turks  .    .    . 

Semite*    .    . 

Armenians   . 
Circassiaus  ■ 
Tsiganea  (Gipsies) 
Franks. 


1  Greeks 
I  Rumanians 
( Zincares. 


\Tot\u     i 
j  Osmanli    . 
1  Tartars 
(Arabs 
t  Jews 


1,176,000 
fiO,000 
IfiO.OOO 

1,031,000 

l,8fi2,000 

40,000 

3,000 

72,000 

100,000 

144,000 

104,000 

60,000 


442,000 
790.000 

38,000 


773,000 

1,852,000 

40,000 

8,000 


144,000 
«2,000 


GtMkCstbolias. 
492,000 
2,061.000 

1,188,000 

60,000 

160,000 

178,000 


oniaa  CaUmUos. 
180,000 
20,000 
2,000 


80,000 


Otlwr  Ohristisai, 


8,000 


62,000 


10,000 


60,000 


10,000 


Total 


8,267,000     3,684,000         4,111,000 


342,000 


108,000 


d  other  girli 
e  other  raocA 
i  the  product 
of  Kuropean 
0  polygamy, 
in  Ohriitiun 

0  doubt  that 
are  subject, 

Bar  to  year. 
>  but  camped 
t  would  thus 
eek  burial  in 
■ofanation  of 
ly  places  the 
ion  seta  from 
Asia,  carry- 

1  life.  This 
>t  affect  the 
he  Turks  of 
ed  the  moun- 
1  has  become 
be  got  rid  of 
sly  than  they 
It  not  to  for- 
I  to  the  other 
lohammedan 

Mussulmans 
and,  in  spite 
•rgotten  that 
n  other  parts 


ed):- 
OtlNrOhtMm, 

8,000 


10,000 
108,000 


-T^(-CT.:.r-u-(j;iffr:r.'-':s?- 1^ 


"'™~''"— rTr"f"«>iiiiiii  «M<i^     'It 


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*^*^. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


S?  134 


14.0 


6" 


Photographic 

Sdfflices 

Corporation 


4^   ^\  ^^ 


13  WIST  MAIN  STRHT 

WnSTIi,N.Y.  USM 

(716)I72.4S03 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVl/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Inatituta  for  Hiatoricai  Microraproductiona  /  Inatitut  Canadian  da  microraproductiona  hiatoriquaa 


"OiMdl 


PBESENT  POSITION  AND  PBOSPEOrS  OF  TURKEY. 


149 


Let  ua  hope  that  the  future  may  not  give  birth  to  a  struggle  of  extermination 
between  the  races  of  the  peninsula,  but  rather  to  institutions  enabling  these  diverse 
and  pui '  ially  hostile  elements  to  develop  themselves  in  peace  and  liberty.  The 
Turks  tLumselves  begin  to  see  the  necessity  of  such  institutions,  and,  in  theory  at 
least,  have  abandoned  their  policy  of  violence  and  oppression.  All  the  nation- 
alities of  the  empire,  without  reference  to  race  or  religion,  are  supposed  to  be 
equal  before  the  law,  and  Christians  are  admitted  to  Government  offices  on  the  same 
terms  as  Mussulmans.  No  doubt  these  fine  laws  have  for  the  most  part  hitherto 
remained  a  dead  letter,  but  it  would  nevertheless  be  unjust  if  we  denied  that  much 
progress  towards  an  equalisation  of  the  various  races  has  been  made. 

Fortunately  the  despotism  of  the  Turks  is  not  the  despotism  of  learning,  based 
upon  a  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  directed  to  its  debasement.  The  Osmanli 
ignore  the  art  of  "oppressing  wisely,"  which  the  Dutch  governors  of  the  Sunda 
Islands  were  required  to  practice  in  former  times,  and  which  is  not  quite  unknown 
in  other  countries.  The  pashas  allow  things  to  take  their  course  as  long  as  they 
are  able  to  enrich  themselves  and  their  favourites,  to  sell  justice  and  their  favours 
at  a  fair  price,  and  to  bastinade  now  and  then  some  unlucky  wight.  They  do  not 
inquire  into  the  private  concerns  of  their  subjects,  and  do  not  call  for  confidential 
reports  on  families  and  individuals.  Their  Government,  no  doubt,  is  frequently 
violent  and  oppressive ;  but  all  this  only  touches  externals.  Such  a  government 
may  not  be  favourable  to  the  development  of  public  spirit,  but  it  does  not  interfere 
with  individuals,  and  powerful  national  institutions,  such  as  the  Greek  commune, 
the  Mirdit  tribe,  and  the  Slav  community,  have  been  able  to  survive  under  it.  Self- 
government  is,  in  fact,  more  widely  practised  in  Turkey  than  in  the  most  advanced 
countries  of  Western  Europe.  It  would  have  been  difficult  to  force  these  various 
national  elements  under  a  uniform  discipline,  and  the  lazy  Turkish  functionaries 
generally  leave  things  alone.  The  Frankish  officials  in  the  pay  of  the  Turkish 
Government,  in  fact,  more  frequently  interfere  with  the  prejudices  and  privileges 
of  the  governed  than  do  the  Mussulman  pashas  of  the  old  school. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  for  a  moment  that,  in  a  time  not  very  far  distant,  the 
non-Mohammedan  races  of  Turkey  will  take  the  lead  in  politics,  as  they  do  already  in 
commerce,  industry,  and  education.  The  Osmanli  of  the  olden  school,  who  still 
wear  the  green  turban  of  their  ancestors,  look  forward  towards  this  inevitable 
result  with  despair.  They  struggle  against  every  measure  calculated  to  accelerate 
the  emancipation  of  the  despised  raya,  and  European  inventions,  in  their  eyes,  are 
working  a  great  social  transformation  to  their  injury ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  the  raya 
who  profits  most  from  roads,  railways,  harbours,  agricultural  and  other  machines. 
Bosnians,  Bulgarians,  and  Servians  have  learnt  to  look  upon  each  other  as 
brothers ;  Albanians  and  Rumanians  are  drawn  towards  the  Greeks ;  all  alike 
feel  themselves  as  Europeans ;  and  thus  the  way  is  being  paved  for  the  Danubian 
Confederation  of  the  future. 

The  approaching  completion  of  the  railway  from  Vienna  to  Constantinople 
cannot  fail  to  work  a  commercial  revolution  as  far  as  the  trade  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  Eastern  Europe  is  concerned.  It  will  form  a  link  in  the  direct  line 
11 


150 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


between  England  and  India,  and  to  travellers  and  merchandise  will  afford  the 
shortest  route  from  the  centre  of  Europe  to  the  Bosporus.  On  its  opening,  Con- 
stantinople will  be  enabled  to  avail  itself  to  the  fullest  extent  of  the  highways  of 
commerce  which  converge  upon  it.  Still  greater  must  be  the  political  conse- 
quences of  opening  this  line,  for  it  will  bring  the  populations  of  the  Balkan  peuin- 
sula  into  more  direct  and  active  contact  with  those  of  Austro-Hungary  and  the 
rest  of  Europe. 


Fig.  41.— COMMRRCIAL  HIGHWAYS  COMVBROINO  CPON  CoNHTANTINOPLK. 
Seal*  1  :  17,100,000. 


' 


. 


SBOMUm 


^  VIII. — Government  and  Administration. 

The  Turkish  empire  occupies  a  vast  area,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is  governed 
by  vassals,  almost  independent  of  the  Sultan  at  Stambul.  The  vast  territories  of 
Egypt  and  Tunis  are  in  that  position.  The  interior  of  Arabia  is  in  possession  of 
the  Wahabites ;  the  coast  of  Hadramaut  is  inhabited  partly  by  tribes  acknowledg- 
ing the  suzerainty  of  England ;  and  even  between  Syria  and  the  Euphrates  there 


8BSBBSBSSS 


utmtttmmimiim 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


161 


afford  the 
ening,  Con- 
lighways  of 
ticul  conse- 
Ikan  penin- 
iry  and  the 


l*«* 


h  is  governed 
territories  of 
possession  of 
;  acknowledg- 
iphrates  there 


are  numerous  districts  only  nominally  under  the  government  of  Turkish  pashas, 
but  in  reality  in  the  possession  of  predatory  Bedwins.  The  Ottoman  empire, 
properly  so  called,  includes  the  European  provinces,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine, 
the  basins  of  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  Hejaz  and  Yemen  in  Arabia,  and  Tripoli,  with 
Fezzan,  in  Africa.  These  territories,  with  their  dependent  islands,  cover  an  area, 
of  no  less  than  210,156  square  miles  ;  but  their  population,  being  far  less  dense 
than  that  of  Western  Europe,  hardly  numbers  47,000,000  souls. 

Fig.  42.— Thi  Tvhkiiik  Emfiri. 
Scale  1 :  aA,0OO,0OO. 


■lOOOMilM. 


The  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  exclusive  of  Rumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro, 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  British  Islands.  Constantanople,  with  the  surround- 
ing country,  forms  a  district  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  Ministry  of 
Police.  The  remainder  of  the  country  is  divided  into  eight  vilayets,  or  provinces ; 
the  vilayets  are  subdivided  into  muteaariflika,  cjr  aary'aka;  these  latter  into  kazaa,  or 
cantons ;  and  the  kazas  into  rahi^s,  or  parishes.  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Samothrace,  and 
Astypalsea,  with  Rhodes  and  the  islands  along  the  coast  of  Anatolia,  fonn  a 


kT 


108  TURKEY  IN  EUBOPE. 

aeparato  vilayet.  Tbeso  political  diviaions,  however,  are  lubjeot  to  frequent 
changes.* 

The  Sultan,  or  PadUhah,  concentrates  all  powers  within  hia  person.  He  is  Emir 
el  mumenin,  or  head  of  the  faithful,  and  his  conduct  is  guided  solely  by  the  pre' 
scriptions  of  the  Koran  and  the  traditions  of  his  ancestors.  The  two  most  influen- 
tiul  persons  in  the  empire,  next  to  him,  are  the  Sheik-el-Inlam,  or  Great  Mufti,  who 
superintends  public  worship  and  the  administration  of  justice,  and  the  Sadratam, 
or  Grand  Vizier,  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  general  administration,  and  is  assisted 
by  a  council  of  ten  ministers,  or  mmhira.  The  Kislar  Agaai,  or  chief  of  the  black 
eunuchs,  to  whom  is  confided  the  management  of  the  imperial  harem,  is  likewise 
one  of  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  empire,  and  frequently  enjoys  the  very  highest 
influence.  The  legal  advisers  of  the  various  ministries  are  known  as  mufti. 
Ilfemli,  bey,  and  aga  are  honorary  titles  bestowed  upon  certain  Government 
ofHoials  and  persons  of  consideration.  The  title  of  patha,  which  signifies  "  grand 
chief,"  is  given  to  certain  high  civil  or  military  functionaries.  This  title  is 
symbolized  by  one,  two,  or  three  horse-tails  attached  to  the  top  of  a  lance,  a 
usage  recalling  the  time  when  the  nomad  Turks  roamed  over  the  steppes  of 
Central  Asia. 

The  work  of  the  various  ministries  is  done  by  councils,  and  there  thiu  exist 
a  council  of  state,  or  ahurdi  devlet,  councils  of  accounts,  of  war,  of  the  navy,  of 
public  education,  of  police,  &c.  These  various  councils,  in  their  totality,  con- 
stitute the  divan,  or  government  chancery.  There  is  also  a  supreme  court  of 
justice,  with  sections  for  civil  and  criminal  cases.  The  members  of  these  various 
official  bodies  are  appointed  by  Government.  Each  of  the  subject  "nations" 
is  represented  on  the  Council  of  State  by  two  members,  carefully  selected  by  the 
Sadrazam. 

The  vilayet  is  governed  by  a  vali,  the  sanjak  by  a  mutetartf,  the  kaza  by  a 

*  Area  and  population  of  the  Turkish  Empire : — 

S<iaar*liilM.  Fojolattoo.  p«8ti 

ConRtantinople  (including  Army,  Ac.)                 1,040  631,000  M 
VilawU  :— 

Edimeh,  or  Adrianople  (Thrada) .  26,160  1,307,000  39 

Tuna  (Danube),  or  Bulgaria  34,120  2,308,000  40 

Saloniki  (Macedonia)    ....  12,960  409,000  AO 

Priirend  (Upper  Macedonia)  18,820  1,392,000  67 

Shkodra,  or  Scutari  (Upper  Albania)    .           6,310  171,000  48 

Boana  Serai,  or  Serayevo  (Boania)        .  17,000  940,000  42 

Hersegovina 6,720  144,000  41 

Yanina  (Epirua  and  Themaly)  18,320  711,000  86 

Orete,  or  Candia 8,326  210,000  18 

European  Islands 400  60,000  7 

Turkey  in  Eoropo     ....        143,666  8,267,000  44 

Turkey  in  Alia         ....        746,000  13,176,000  86 

.     Tripoli,  &c 344,000  1,160,000  90 

Total  Ottoman  Empire   .        .     I,231,/i66  22,693,000  71 

{Rumania  ....  46,710  6,180,000  — 

Servia  .    ^  .        .  16,820  1,377,000  — 

Egypt  .        .        .        .  869,360  17,000,000  70 

Tunis  ....  46,700  2,000,000  99 

Total  Turkish  Empire    .        .     2.210,166  48,160,000  68 


■,iff !  uisimtmimmmiimmm 


ir 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


10S 


it  to  frequent 

n.  He  is  Emir 
ily  by  the  pre* 
n  moat  influen- 
eat  Mufti,  who 
the  Sadrazam, 
and  is  assisted 
lef  of  the  black 
'em,  is  likewise 
e  very  highest 
lown  as  mtifti. 
a  Govemment 
gnifies  "  grand 
This  title  is 
I  of  a  lance,  a 
the  steppes  of 

here  thus  exist 
of  the  navy,  of 
p  totality,  con- 
[>reme  court  of 
)f  these  variouB 
jeot  "nations" 
selected  by  the 

the  kaza  by  a 


MblwmiiwkUiw 

pwomt. 

M 

» 

40 

m 

67 
48 
42 
41 

M    . 
18 
7 

44 
88 
99 


70 
99 

68 


kaimakan,  the  pariHh  by  a  mudir.  Each  of  tliewj  is  suppoHed  to  act  by  tidvico  of 
a  council  coiiipoBcd  of  the  leading  roligiong  and  civilian  functionuriuB,  Molmniniu- 
dan  and  non-Moluunmodan.  In  reality,  however,  the  vali  appoints  all  those 
councils,  and  they  aro  popularly  known  as  the  "  Councils  of  the  Ayes." 

The  rules  laid  down  by  the  supreme  Government  for  its  own  guidance  are 
embodied  in  the  hatti^herif  oi  Gulhano,  promulgated  in  1839,  and  in  the  hatti- 
humayum  of  1856.  These  hatts  promise  equal  rights  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
empire,  but  have  been  carried  out  hitherto  only  very  partially.  A  "  constitution  " 
was  promulgated  in  December,  1876,  on  the  assembling  of  the  European  Con- 
ference at  Constantinople.  It  provides  representative  institutions,  local  self-gov- 
ernment, and  various  improvements,  but  is  likely  to  remain  a  dead  letter. 

The  religious  and  judicial  organization  of  the  country  is  jealously  watched 
over  by  the  Sheik-el-Islam  and  the  priests,  and  cannot  possibly  be  changed.  The 
imams  are  specially  charged  with  the  conduct  of  public  worship.  They  include 
aheiJeSy  or  preachers ;  khatiba,  who  recite  the  official  prayers ;  and  the  imana  prop- 
erly so  called,  who  celebrate  marriages  and  conduct  interments.  Judges  and  imans 
form  a  body  knovim  as  vlenuu,  at  whoso  head  is  placed  a  kazi-atker,  or  chief  judge, 
and  who  are  divided  hierarchically  into  moUahs,  kazia  (kadis),  and  naihs. 

The  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  as  head  of  the  Church  in  Turkey  and 
civil  director  of  the  Greek  communities,  wields  a  considerable  influence.  He  is 
elected  by  a  synod  of  eighteen  members,  which  administers  the  religious  budget, 
and  whose  decisions  in  matters  of  faith  are  final.  The  heads  of  the  Latin  rite 
are  a  patriarch  at  Constantinople  and  the  two  Archbishops  of  Antivari  and 
Burazzo.    The  two  Armenian  Churches  have  each  a  patriarch  at  Constantinople. 


Tbeaties  of  San  Stetakto  Aim  Berlin. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  preceding  description  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  the 
succeeding  accounts  of  Bnmania,  Servia,  and  Montraegro,  present  the  conditions 
existing  immediately  prior  to  the  late  war  with  Russia,  in  which  the  Turks  were 
completely  overpowered  in  a  few  months.  The  Congress  of  European  powers 
sitting  at  Berlin  in  the  summer  of  1878,  to  consider  the  provisional  treaty  of  San 
Stefano  (March  2)  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  materially  modified  its  provisions 
in  the  joint  treaty  signed  July  13,  disposing  of  European  Turkey  in  the  following 
manner :  1.  The  tributary  principality  of  Bulgaria  is  created  (with  less  than  half 
the  dimensions  assigned  to  it  by  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano),  to  be  governed  by  a 
prince  (who  shall  not  be  a  member  of  any  ruling  dynasty)  chosen  by  the  people 
within  nine  months,  and  confirmed  by  the  Porte  and  the  otiier  powers,  and  in  the 
mean  time  by  Russian  commissioners  assisted  by  delegated  European  consuls.  2. 
South  of  the  Balkans  is  formed  the  autonomous  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia, 
under  a  Christian  governor-general,  appointed  for  five  years  by  the  Porte  with  the 
assent  of  the  powers,  which  are  to  determine  within  three  years  the  administrative 
requirements  of  the  province.    3.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to  be  occupied  and 


2M 


TURKEY  IN  EUROI'E. 


adtniniHtcrod  by  AuMtria-TInngury,  excepting  ^'ovi-Hazar  and  a  flinall  mirrounding 
diHtrict.  Tliitt  proviMion,  uiiliiuitud  um  to  tinu',  practicuUy  annuxcH  thoHu  provincuH 
to  the  AiiHtro-HunguHuii  Enipiri>,  and  ha«  alruu<ly  (OctolHjr,  lH7^i)  Ihsvii  uxecutod, 
aftur  M'riuuH  ariiiud  ruHiMtaneo  hy  their  M<wlen>  inlmbitatita.  4.,  liiunania,  Bervia, 
and  Montenegro  are  made  independent,  with  the  enlarged  boundaricH  Hhown  by 
the  annexed  map.  Uumaniu  receivoa  tho  Dobnija  from  Itufuiia,  to  which  it  waH 
ceded  by  the  treaty  of  8an  Stefano,  with  tho  undentanding  that  it  was  to  be  ex- 
changed for  tlio  Htrip  of  l^emarabia  tranHterred  from  KubhIu  to  Itumania  by  the 
tn^aty  of  l*aris  of  1H56,  whicli  haH  accordingly  been  restored.  The  additions  to 
Montenegro  include  the  port  of  Antivari,  which  is  closed  to  war-ships  of  all 
nations ;  and  Montenegro  is  to  have  no  national  Hag  nor  ships  of  war,  its  merchant 
flag  to  be  protected  by  Austrian  consuls.  6.  Austrian  Dalmatia  receives  from 
Albania  the  small  port  of  Spitza.  6.  The  services  of  the  powers  are  offered 
for  *.he  rectiilcation  of  the  northern  frontier  of  Greece.  7.  Entire  religious  liberty 
and  political  equality  are  provided  for  in  all  the  territories  affected  by  the  treaty. 

Map  aHowiNO  Ciiamokr  in  Eukopian  Tvrkit  and  Amunia,  am  pboposed  by  the  Tmeatt  or  Sam 
Htkpano,  and  am  drirmimbd  bt  thb  TauTT  or  Biblih. 


NOTE    Tkt  Tnriliirflmktn/nim  7Wptf|ltr<'<  Tr—li  1/ Bn m^amutii mkirMl Iti lur  if  iJtt  Cimtrm  rf BtrliK U  liuud Hmt. 


mlti 


WiiittWrH 


1  Hurroundinft 
lOMu  provinouH 
et'u  uxecuted, 
nunia,  Hurvia, 
ioH  Hhown  by 
>  which  it  wuH 
was  to  be  ox- 
ti  mania  by  the 
le  additions  to 
ir-ehips  of  all 
r,  its  merchant 
receivuB  from 
re  are  offered 
)ligiouB  liberty 
)y  the  treaty. 

riiKATT  or  San 


?ilB?! 


ui««n^ 


VHM 


(■(Ml  lit.  . 


RUMANIA/ 


HE  Kuraanians  are  certainly  one  of  the  most  ourioua  amongst 
European  nationi.  The  descendants  of  the  conquerors  of  the 
ancient  world,  they  live  detached  from,  and  far  to  the  north- 
eaat  of,  the  other  nations  of  (he  Oreoo-Latin  family,  and  not 
many  years  ago  they  were  hardly  known  by  name.  The  grave 
events  of  which  the  Lower  Danube  haa  been  the  scene  since  the  middle  of  this 
century  have  brought  these  Rumanians  prominently  to  the  fore,  and  we  know 
now  that  they  differ  essentially  from  their  neighbours,  bo  they  Slav,  Turk,  or 
Magyar.  They  constitute,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  important  elements  amongst 
the  populations  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  numerically  they  are  the  strongest  nation 
on  the  Lower  Danube,  the  Bulgarians  alone  excepted. 

The  ethnological  boundaries  of  Rumania  are  far  wider  than  are  the  political 
ones,  for  they  embrace  not  only  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  beyond  the  Carpathians, 
but  also  Russian  Bessarabia,  a  portion  of  the  Bukovina,  the  greater  portion  of 
Transylvania,  as  well  as  extensive  tracts  in  the  Banat  and  Eastern  Hungary. 
The  Rumanians  have  likewise  crossed  the  Danube,  and  established  themselves  in 
portions  of  Serviaand  Bulgaria;  and  the  settlements  of  their  kinsmen,  the  Zinzares, 
sporadically  extend  far  south  to  the  hills  of  Thessaly  and  Greece.  Rumania 
proper  has  an  area  of  only  46,709  square  miles,  but  the  countries  of  the  Rumanians 
occupy  at  least  twice  that  extent,  and  their  n  imbers  exceed  8,000,000,  most 
of  whom  dwell  in  a  compact  mass  on  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  adjoining 
portions  of  Hungary  and  Russia.! 

The  Roman  territories  on  the  Lower  Danube  almost  encircle  the  mountain 

*  0£Bcia1Iy  called  Romania,  and  frequently  spelt  Roumania:  in  French  it  is  Sooouuiie. 
t  Wallachia  and  Moldavia 4,460,000 


Austro-Hungary  .... 
Bessarabia  and  other  parts  ot  Russia 
Serria  ..... 

Tnrkey 

Oreace  .        . 


Total 


2,806,000 

600,000 

108,000 

200,000 

4,000 

8,310,000 


166 


TUEKEY  IN  EUEOPE. 


masses  of  the  Eastern  Carpathians,  as  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  our  map,  but 
only  about  one-half  of  this  territory  has  been  formed  into  an  autonomous  state,  the 
remainder  belonging  to  Hungary  and  Russia.  If  the  national  ambition  of  the 
Rumanians  were  to  be  realised,  the  natural  centre  of  their  country  would  not  lie 
within  the  actual  limits  of  the  territory,  but  at  Hermannstadt  (called  Sibiu  by  the 
Wallachians),  or  elsewhere  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Carpathians.  Thrust 
beyond  the  Carpathians,  and  extending  from  the  Iron  Gate  to  the  upper  affluents 
of  the  Pruth,  the  independent  Rumanians  occupy  a  country  of  most  irregular 
shape,  and  separated  into  two  distinct  portions  by  the  river  Sereth  and  one  of  its 
tributaries,  which  join  the  most  advanced  spur  of  the  Eastern  Carpathians  to  the 
great  bend  of  the  Lower  Danube.  To  the  north  of  this  boundary  lies  Moldavia, 
thus  named  after  a  tributary  of  the  Sereth ;  to  the  south-west  and  west  is  Wallachia, 
or  the  "  Plain  of  the  Wolsh,"  i.e.  of  the  Latins.    This  plain,  the  tzara  Rumaneatca, 

Fig.  43. — ^Tmb  Rumanians. 


inUiu 


Bal)(aruii* 


I  Cm  iuiih 


,  Tnrki 
<  Ikrura 


or  Roman-land  proper,  is  intersected  by  numerous  parallel  water-courses,  forming 
as  many  secondary  boundaries,  and  the  river  Olto  separates  it  into  Great 
Wallachia  to  the  east,  and  Little  Wallachia  to  the  west.  The  Danube  forms  the 
political  boundary  down  to  its  mouth.  It  is  a  wide  and  sinuous  river ;  below  the 
Iron  Gate,  lakes,  forests,  and  swamps  render  access  to  its  banks  almost  impossible 
in  many  places;  and  migratory  nations  and  conquerors,  instead  of  crossing  it,  as 
they  could  easily  have  done  in  Austria  and  Bavaria,  rather  sought  to  avoid  it  by 
seeking  for  a  passage  through  the  mountains  to  the  north.  The  abrupt  bend  of  the 
Lower  Danube  and  its  extensive  swampy  delta  still  further  shielded  the  plains  of 
Wallachia,  and  invaders  not  provided  with  vessels  were  thus  turned  to  the  north, 
in  the  direction  of  the  Carpathians.  The  lowlands  of  Moldavia  were  protected, 
though  in  a  less  degree,  by  the  rivers  Dnieper,  Bug,  Dniester,  and  Pruth  running 
parallel  with  each  other. 


llipliL»ft«liiiuTlII»»« 


RUMANIA. 


167 


our  map,  but 
I0U8  state,  the 
.bition  of  the 
KTould  not  lie 
[  Sibiu  by  the 
ans.  Thrust 
pper  affluents 
Lost  irregular 
ind  one  of  its 
ithians  to  the 
ies  Moldavia, 
is  Wallachia, 
I  Eumaneofca, 


aa* 


M 


SEA 


w 


»f        w 


irses,  forming 
t  into  Great 
ube  forms  the 
)r;  below  the 
ast  impossible 
crossing  it,  as 
o  avoid  it  by 
)t  bend  of  the 
the  plains  of 
to  the  north, 
}re  protected, 
ruth  running 


But,  in  spite  of  these  natural  bulwarks,  it  remains  matter  for  surprise,  and 
proves  the  singular  tenacity  of  the  Rumanians,  that  they  preserved  their  tradi- 
tions, their  language,  and  nationality,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  onslaughts  from 
invaders  of  every  race  to  which  they  were  exposed.  Ever  since  the  retreat  of 
the  Roman  legions,  the  peaceable  cultivators  of  these  plains  were  preyed  upon  so 
frequently  by  Goths,  Huns,  and  Pecheneges,  by  Slavs,  Bulgars,  and  Turks,  that 
their  extinction  as  a  race  appeared  to  be  inevitable.  But  they  have  emerged 
from  every  deluge  which  threatened  to  destroy  them,  thanks,  no  doubt,  to  the 
superior  culture  for  which  they  were  indebted  to  their  ancestors,  and  again  claim 
a  place  amongst  independent  nations.  They  have  fully  justified  their  old  proverb, 
which  says,  Rotnun  no  pere  ! — •'  the  Roman  perishes  not." 

The  Transylvanian  Alps  lie  within  the  territory  of  the  Rumanians,  who 
occupy  both  slopes.  Their  upper  valleys,  however,  are  but  thinly  inhabited,  and 
we  may  travel  for  days  without  meeting  with  any  habitations  excepting  the  rude 
huts  of  shepherds.  The  political  boundary  traced  along  the  crest  of  the  moun- 
tains  is  merely  an  imaginary  line,  passing  through  the  forest  solitudes  of  vast 
extent.  Excepting  near  the  only  high-road,  and  the  paths  which  join  Transyl- 
vania to  the  plains  of  Wallachia,  these  mountains  remain  in  a  state  of  nature. 
The  chamois  is  still  hunted  there,  and  not  long  since  even  bisons  were  met  with. 
The  Tsigani  penetrates  these  mountains  in  search  of  the  brown  or  black  bears 
which  he  exhibits  in  the  villages.  He  places  a  jar  filled  with  brandy  and  honey 
near  the  beast's  haunt,  and,  as  soon  as  the  bear  and  his  family  have  become  help- 
lessly intoxicated,  they  are  seized  and  placed  in  chains. 

The  physical  configuration  of  Rumania  is  extremely  simplo.  In  Moldavia  low 
ridges  running  parallel  with  the  high  mountain  chain  extend  from  the  north-west 
to  the  south-east,  being  separated  from  each  other  by  the  valleys  of  the  Bistritza, 
Moldava,  and  Sereth,  and  sinking  down  gradually  into  the  plains  of  the  Danube. 
In  Wallachia  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Transylvanian  Alps  ramify  with  remark- 
able regularity,  and  the  torrents  which  descend  from  them  all  run  in  the  same 
direction.  The  rivers,  whether  they  rise  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  or  traverse  the 
entire  width  of  the  mountains,  such  as  the  Sil,  Shil,  or  Jiul,  the  Olto  or  Aluta, 
and  the  Buseo,  turn  towards  the  east  before  their  waters  mingle  with  those  of  the 
Danube. 

The  slope  of  the  hiUs  is  pretty  uniform  flrom  the  crest  of  the  mountains  to  the 
plain  of  the  Danube,  and  the  zones  of  temperature  and  vegetation  succeed  each 
other  with  singular  regularity.  Summits  covered  with  forests  of  conifers  and 
birch,  and  clad  with  snow  during  winter,  rise  near  the  frontiers  of  Transylvania. 
These  are  succeeded  by  mountains  of  inferior  height,  where  beeches  and  chestnuts 
predominate,  and  all  the  picturesque  beauties  of  European  fwest  scenery  are  met 
with.  Lower  still  we  come  upon  gentle  hills,  with  groves  of  oaks  and  maples, 
and  their  sunny  sides  covered  with  vines..  Finally,  we  enter  the  wide  plains  of  the 
Danube,  with  their  fruit  trees,  poplars,  and  willows.  The  zone  lying  between  the 
high  mountains  and  the  plain  abounds  in  localities  rendered  delightful  by  pic- 
turesque rocks,  luxuriant  and  varied  verdure,  and  limpid  streams.    In  this  "  happy 


il 


188 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


Arcadiu  "  we  meet  with  most  of  the  large  monasteries,  magnificent  castles  with 
domes  and  towers,  standing  in  the  midst  of  parks  and  gardens.  As  to  the  plains, 
they  are  no  doubt  barren  and  monotonous  in  many  places,  but  the  villagers, 
though  their  habitations  are  half  buried  in  the  ground,  enjoy  the  magnificent 


Fig.  44.— Thb  Rivers  8hil  and  Olto. 
SciUe  1 : 1,400^000 


;i3*Kdc(.r 


S6MIIM. 


prospect  of  the  blue  mountains  which  bound  the  horizon.  The  most  oharaoteristic 
objects  in  these  lowlands  are  the  huge  hay-ricks  already  figured  upon  Trajan's 
column  at  Borne. 


jHIHiiirirmiiiaii'triiniiiniium 


— mtittH>jft<ciw!iii  I 


BUMANIA. 


180 


I;  castles  with 
to  the  plains, 
the  villagers, 
B  magnificent 


L*>.-^. 


% 


^ 


>st  charaoteristio 
1  upon  Trajan's 


The  Rumanian  campagna  is  a  second  Lombardy,  not  because  of  the  high  state 
of  its  agriculture,  but  because  of  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  beauty  of  the  sky,  and 
of  the  distant  views.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  mountain  barriers  to  protect  it 
against  the  cold  north-easterly  winds  which  predominate  throughout  the  year. 
Extremes  of  cold  and  heat  have  to  be  encountered.*  The  vines  have  to  be  covered 
with  earth  to  protect  them  against  the  colds  of  winter;  and  in  South-eastern 
Wallachia,  which  ia  most  exposed  to  the  violence  of  the  winds,  it  happens  some- 
times that  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  flying  before  a  snow-storm,  precipitate 
themselves  into  the  floods  of  the  Danube.  Several  districts  su£Per  from  want  of 
rain,  and  are  veritable  steppes.  Amongst  these  are  the  plains  of  the  Baragan, 
between  the  Danube  and  Yalomitza,  where  bustards  abound,  and  a  tree  is  not  met 
with  for  miles. 

Geologically  we  meet  with  a  regular  succession  of  formations,  from  the  granite 
on  the  mountain  sxmimits  to  the  alluvial  deposits  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 
The  rooks  encountered  on  these  southern  slopes  of  the  Carpathians  are  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  found  in  Oalicia  on  their  northern  slopes,  and  they  yield  the  same 
mineral  products,  such  as  rock-salt,  gypsum,  lithographic  stones,  and  petroleum. 
Tertiary  strata  predominate  in  the  plains,  but  to  the  east  of  Ploiesti  and  Bucharest 
only  quaternary  deposits  of  day  and  pebbles  are  met  with,  in  which  are  found 
the  bones  of  mammoths,  elephants,  and  mastodons.  The  muddy  rivers  which 
traverse  these  plains  have  excavated  themselves  sinuous  beds,  and  resemble  large 
ditches. 

The  plain  of  Rumania,  like  that  of  Lombardy,  is  an  ancient  gulf  of  the  sea 
filled  up  by  the  debris  washed  down  from  the  mountain  sides.  But  though  the  sea 
has  retired,  the  Danube  remains,  pouring  out  vast  volumes  of  water,  and  oflfering 
g^reat  advantages  to  navigation.  At  the  famous  defile  of  the  Iron  Qate,  where 
this  river  enters  the  plain,  its  bed  has  a  depth  of  155  feet,  its  surface  lies 
66  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  its  volume  exceeds  that  of  the  com- 
bined rivers  of  Western  Europe,  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Rhine.  The  Romans,  in 
spite  of  this,  had  thrown  a  bridge  across  the  river,  immediately  below  the  Iron 
Oate,  which  was  justly  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  This  work 
of  architecture,  which  Apollodorus  of  Damas  had  erected  in  honour  of  Trajan,  was 
pulled  down  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  who  was  anxious  to  save  the 
expenses  of  the  garrison  required  for  its  protection.  There  only  remain  now  the 
two  abutments,  and  when  the  waters  are  low  the  foimdations  of  sixteen  out  of  the 
twenty  piers  which  supported  the  bridge  may  still  be  seen.  A  Roman  tower,  which 
has  given  name  to  the  little  town  of  Tumu  Sevenn,  marks  the  spot  where  the 
Romans  first  placed  their  foot  upon  the  soil  of  Dacia.  The  passage  from  Servia 
to  Rumania  is  as  important  as  it  was  of  yore,  but  modem  industry  has  not  yet 
replaced  Trajan's  bridge. 

The  Danube,  like  most  rivers  of  our  northern  hemisphere,  presses  upon  its 
right  bank,  and  this  accounts  for  the  difierenoe  between  its  Wallachian  and  Bul- 
garian banks.    The  latter,  gnawed  by  the  floods,  rises  steeply  into  little  hills  and 

*  Meu  temperature  at  Bnohareit,  46'  F. ;  maximum,  113°  F. ;  minimum,  -  22°  F. ;  diffiwenoa,  186"  F. 


L1II1IMIWWHI,,.'  -r—TO'-'.t.— .UK-ii" 


160 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


terraces,  whilst  the  former  rises  gently,  and  merges  almost  imperceptibly  in  the 
plains  of  Wallachia.  Swamps,  lakes,  creeks,  and  the  remains  of  ancient  river  beds 
form  a  riverine  network,  enclosing  numerous  islands  and  sand-banks.  These 
channels  are  subject  to  continual  change,  and  to  the  south  of  the  Yalomitza 
may  still  be  seen  a  line  of  swamps  and  lagoons,  which  marks  the  course  of  an 
ancient  river  no  longer  existing.  The  lowlands  on  the  Wallachian  side  of  the 
Danube  are  constantly  increasing  in  extent,  whilst  Bulgaria  continuously  suffers 
losses  of  territory.  The  latter,  however,  is  amply  compensatea  for  this  by  the 
salubrity  of  its  soil  and  the  fine  sites  for  commercial  emporiums  which  it  offers. 
It  is  said  that  the  beaver,  which  has  been  exterminated  almost  in  every 
other  part  of  Europe,  is  still  common  in  these  half-drowned  lands  of  Wallachia. 

At  a  distance  of  thirty-eight  miles  from  the  sea,  in  a  straight  line,  the  Danube 
strikes  against  the  granitic  heights  of  the  Dobruja,  and  abruptly  turns  to  the 
north,  subsequently  to  spread  out  into  a  delta.  In  the  course  of  this  detour  it 
receives  its  last  tributaries  of  importance,  viz.  the  Moldavian  Sereth  and  the 
Fruth.  Thirty  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  latter  the  Danube  bifurcates.  Its 
main  branch,  known  as  that  of  Eilia,  conveys  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
volume  of  its  waters  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  forms  the  frontier  between  Rumania 
and  Turkish  Bulgaria.  The  southern  branch,  or  that  of  Tulcha,  flows  entirely 
through  Turkish  territory  It  separates  into  two  branches,  of  which  that  of  Sulina 
is  the  main  artery  of  navigation. 

The  main  branch  of  the  river  is  of  the  utmost  importance  when  considering 
the  changes  wrought  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  through  aqueous  agencies. 
Below  Ismail  it  ramifies  into  a  multitude  of  channels,  which  change  continuously, 
new  channels  being  excavated,  whilst  others  become  choked  with  alluvial  deposits 
carried  down  by  the  floods.  Twice  the  waters  of  the  river  are  reunited  into  a 
single  channel  before  they  finally  spread  out  into  a  secondary  delta  jutting  into 
the  Black  Sea.  The  exterior  development  of  this  new  land  amounts  to  about 
twelve  miles,  and  supposing  the  sea  to  be  of  a  uniform  depth  of  thirty-three  feet,  it 
would  advance  annually  at  the  rate  of  660  feet.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  rapid  increase, 
the  coast,  at  the  Eilia  mouth,  juts  out  far  less  to  the  east  than  it  does  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  delta,  and  we  may  conclude  from  this  that  the  ancient 
gulf  of  the  sea,  now  filled  up  by  the  alluvial  deposits  brought  down  by  the  KiUa 
branch,  was  far  larger  and  deeper  than  those  to  the  south.*  On  examining  a  map 
of  the  Danubian  delta,  it  will  be  found  that,  by  prolonging  the  coast-line  of 
Bessarabia  towards  the  south,  it  crosses  the  delta.  This  is  the  ancient  coast.  It 
rises  above  the  half-drowned  plains  like  an  embankment,  through  which  the 
branches  of  the  river  forced  themselves  a  passage  tx>  the  sea.  The  aUuvium 
brought  down  by  the  Sulina  and  St.  George's  mouths  has  been  spread  over  a  vast 
plain  lying  outside  this  embankment,  whilst  that  carried  down  through  what  is  at 
present  the  main  branch  forms  only  a  small  archipelago  of  ill-defined  islands 

*  Mean  volumo  of  the  Danube  (according  to  C.  Hartley),  2,000,000  gallona  per  second ;  nmximniii 
Tolume,  6,160,000  gallons ;  mean  volume  of  Kilia  mouth,  1,276,')00  ^lons ,  mean  of  St.  Oeorge'a  mouth, 
672,000  gallons;  mean  of  Sulina  mouth,  176,000  gallons  per  second.  Mean  alluvial  deposit!  of  Danube, 
2,119  cubic  feet  per  annum. 


II  IV'iinil"iliiiiil'*iJM«HJi].i.. 


#■ 


BUMANIA. 


161 


>tibly  in  the 
it  river  beds 
iks.  These 
e  Yalomitza 
course  of  an 
,  side  of  the 
ously  suffers 
this  by  the 
lich  it  offers, 
it  in  every 
iTallaohia. 
,  the  Danube 
turns  to  the 
;hi8  detour  it 
'eth  and  the 
urcates.  Its 
the  entire 
ten  Rumania 
owB  entirely 
hat  of  Sulina 

considering 
bus  agencies, 
continuously, 
uvial  deposits 
united  into  a 
i  jutting  into 
ints  to  about 
-three  feet,  it 
apid  increase, 
i  does  in  the 
,t  the  ancient 

by  the  Eilia 
mining  a  map 

ooast-line  of 
ent  coast.  It 
fh  which  the 
rhe  alluvium 
iA.  over  a  vast 
igh  what  is  at 
efined  islands 

Boond;  muximnm 
,  Oeorge'a  mouth, 
posiUof  Dannbe, 


beyond  it.     We  may  conclude  from  this  that  the  latter  is  of  more  recent  orig^ 
than  the  other  arms. 

In  the  course  of  its  gradual  encroachment  upon  the  sea,  the  river  has  out  off  several 
lakes  of  considerable  extent.  On  the  coast  between  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester  and 
the  delta  of  the  Danube  there  are  .several  lagoons,  or  limam,  of  inconsiderable 
depth,  the  water  of  which  evaporates  during  the  heat  of  summer,  depositing  a  thin 
crust  of  salt.  In  their  general  coittiguration,  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  land, 
and  parallelism  of  the  rivers  which  flow  unto  them,  these  sheets  of  water  are  very 
much  like  the  lakes  met  with  more'-tb  the  west,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Pruth.    These  latter,  however,  are  filled  with  fresh  water,  and  the  sandy  barners  at 

Fig.  46.— Tai  Danvbb  and  Yalomitsa. 
Soals  1  : 1,448,000. 


1«^      CT 


•8* 


,<6MflM. 


their  lower  ends  separate  them  not  from  the  Black  Sea,  but  from  the  Danube. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  lakes  were  anciently  gulfs  of  the  sea,  similar  in  all 
respects  to  the  lagoons  still  existing  along  the  coast.  The  Danube,  by  converting 
its  ancient  gulf  into  a  delta,  separated  them  from  the  sea,  and  thi  ir  saline  water 
waa  replaced  by  fireeh  water  carried  down  by  the  rivers.  The  existing  saline 
lagoons  will  undergo  the  same  metamorphosis,  in  proportion  as  the  delta  of  the 
Danube  gains  upon  the  sea. 

The  plains  of  Wallaohia  were  defended  formerly  by  an  ancient  line  of  fortifi- 
cations passing  to  the  north  of  these  Danubian  lakes  and  lagoons,  and  known  as 
"Trajan's  Wall,"  like  the  ditches,  walls,  and  entrenched  camps  in  the  Southern 
Dobruja.    The  inhabitants  ascribe  their  construction  to  Cassar,  although  they  are  of 


162 


TUEKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


much  later  date,  having  been  erected  by  Trajan  as  a  protection  against  the  Visigoths. 
This  ancient  barrier  of  defence  coincided  pretty  nearly  with  the  political  boundary 
between  Russian  and  Rumanian  Bessarabia,  and  extended  probably  to  the  west  of 
the  Pruth,  across  the  whole  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  Vestiges  of  it  still  met 
with  there  are  known  as  the  "Road  of  the  Avares."  A  second  wall,  still  traceable 
between  Leova  and  Bender,  defended  the  approaches  to  the  valley  of  the  Danube. 

In  spite  of  the  diverse  races  which  have  overrun,  conquered,  or  devastated 
their  territory,  the  inhabitants  of  Rumania,  more  fortunate  than  their  neighbours, 
have  preserved  their  unity  of  race  and  language.  Wallaohians  and  Moldavians 
form  one  people,  and  not  only  have  they  kept  intact  their  national  territory,  but 
they  have  actually  encroached  upon  the  territories  of  their  neighbours.  Through- 
out Rumania,  with  the  exception  of  that  portion  of  Bessarabia  ceded  by  the 
Western  powers  after  the  Crimean  war,  the  inhabitants  belonging  to  alien  races 
are  in  the  minority. 

The  origin  of  this  Latin-speaking  nation  is  still  shrouded  in  mystery.  Are 
they  the  descendants  of  Getsa  and  Latinised  Dacians,  or  does  the  blood  of  Italian 
colonists  brought  thither  by  Trajan,  of  legionaries  and  Roman  soldiers,  predomi- 
nate amongst  them  P  To  what  extent  have  they  become  amalgamated  with  their 
neighbours,  the  Slavs  and  Illyrians  P  What  share  had  the  Celts  in  the  formation 
of  their  nationality  P  Are  the  "  Little  "  Wallachians,  the  "  men  with  the  eighty 
teeth," — so  called  on  account  of  their  bravery, — ^the  descendants  of  Celts  P  We 
cannot  say  with  certainty,  for  men  of  learning  like  Shafarik  and  Mikloaioh  differ 
on  all  these  points.  The  vast  plains  at  present  inhabited  by  the  Rumanians 
became  a  wilderness  in  the  third  century,  when  the  Emperor  Aurelian  compelled 
their  inhabitants  to  migrate  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.  If  it  is  true  that 
the  descendants  of  these  emigrants  ever  returned  to  the  seats  of  their  ancestors,  in 
the  meantime  occupied  by  Slavs,  Magyars,  and  Feoheneges,  when  did  they  do  so  P 
Miklosioh  presumes  that  they  did  so  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century; 
Roesler  thinks  in  the  fourteenth,  although  ancient  chroniclers  of  the  eleventh 
century  mention  Rumanians  as  dwelling  in  the  Carpathians.  Other  authorities 
deny  that  there  was  any  re-immigration;  they  maintain  that  the  residue  of 
the  Latinised  population  sufficed  for  reconstituting  the  nationality.  Thus  much 
is  certain,  that  this  small  people  has  increased  wonderfully,  and  has  become  now 
the  preponderating  race  on  the  Lower  Danube  and  in  Transylvania. 

Even  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  language  spoken  by  the  Rumanians 
was  treated  as  a  rural  dialect,  and  Slavonian  was  used  in  ohurohes  and  courts 
of  justice.  At  the  present  day,  on  the  contrary,  Rumanian  patriots  are  anxious 
to  purge  their  language  of  all  Servian  words,  and  of  Greek  and  Turkish 
expressions  introduced  during  the  dominion  of  the  Osmanli.  The  "Romans" 
of  the  Danube  are  endeavouring  to  polish  their  tongpie,  so  that  it  may  rank 
with  Italian  and  French.  They  have  abandoned  the  Russian  characters, 
and  their  vocabulary  is  being  continually  enriched  by  new  words  derived 
from  the  Latin.    The  idiom  spoken  in  the  towns,  which  was  the  most  impure 


liHH 


JummM.!'-! 


iie  Yisigotha. 
sal  boundary 
I  the  west  of 
I  it  still  met 
till  traceable 
he  Danube. 

r  devastated 
'  neighbours, 
I  Moldavians 
erritory,  but 
I.  Through- 
ded  by  the 
>  alien  races 

irstery.  Are 
)d  of  Italian 
irs,  predomi- 
id  with  their 
lie  formation 
li  the  eighty 
Celts  P  We 
kloaich  differ 
I  Bumanians 
in  compelled 

is  true  that 
ancestors,  in 
I  they  do  so  P 
fth  century; 
the  eleventh 
sr  authorities 
9  residue   of 

Thus  much 
I  become  now 

)  Bumanians 
IS  and  courts 
B  are  anxious 
and  Turkish 
9  "Romans" 
it  may  rank 
a  characters, 
rords  derived 
most  impure 


^1 


•* 


.  -     •■'(|g||||)|||||)g||t1|i|(j||ji|^iiiliiij^ii^     iiiiiiiiiiiifrt>NiHiiiii'»iillliili  niiiii mill  If 


rr. 


WateBinfit*iiwiimifiiiiiili>iiMi>;iiiiTtrnir.: — 


'  k'^.jsj^4irara-fe!S^:-ii(iiigtena^^ 


RUMANIA. 


168 


formerly,  in  consequence  of  the  influx  of  Btrangers,  has  now  become  more  I^atin 
than  that  spoken  in  the  country.  There  are,  however,  about  two  hundred 
words  not  traceable  to  any  knovm  tongue,  and  these  are  supposed  to  be  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  Ducian  spoken  at  the  period  of  the  Roman  invasion.  The  Wal- 
laohian  differs,  moreover,  from  the  Latin  tongues  of  Western  Europe  by  always 
placing  the  article  and  the  demonstrative  pronoun  after  the  noun.  The  same  rule 
obtains  in  Albanian  and  Bulgarian,  and  Miklosich  is  probably  right  when  he 
looks  upon  this  as  a  feature  of  the  ancient  language  of  the  aborigines. 

These  niceties,  however,  are  altogether  unnoticed  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
The  Rumanian  peasant  is  proud  of  the  ancient  conquerors  of  his  country,  and 
looks  upon  himself  as  the  descendant  of  the  patricians  of  Rome.  Several  of  his 
customs,  at  the  birth  of  children,  betrothals,  or  burials,  recall  those  observed  by 
the  Romans,  and  the  dance  of  the  Calmharea,  it  is  said,  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  earliest  Italian  settlers.  The  Wallaohian  is  fond  of  talking  about  Father 
Trajan,  to  whom  he  attributes  all  ■  those  feats  which  in  other  coimtries  are 
associated  with  Hercules,  Fingal,  or  Ossion.  Many  a  mountain  valley  has  been 
rent  asunder  by  Trajan's  powerful  hand ;  and  the  avalanches  descending  from  the 
hills  are  spoken  of  as  Trajan's  thunder.  The  Rumanian  completely  ignores 
OetsB,  Dacians,  or  Goths,  though  in  the  hills  we  still  meet  with  tall  men  having 
blue  eyes  and  long  flaxen  hair,  who  are  probably  descended  from  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  the  country. 

The  Rumanians  have  generally  fine  sunburnt  features,  fair  hair,  expressive 
eyes,  a  mouth  finely  shaped,  and  beautiful  teeth.  They  allow  their  hair  to  grow 
long,  and  sometimes  even  prefer  to  expatriate  themselves  to  sacrificing  it  to  the 
exigencies  of  military  service.  They  exhibit  grace  in  all  their  moyements,  are 
indefatigable  on  the  march,  and  support  the  heaviest  labour  without  complaining. 
Even  the  Wallaohian  herdsman,  with  his  sheepskin  cap,  or  caahula,  his  wide 
leather  belt  used  as  a  pocket,  a  sheepskin  thrown  over  his  shoulders,  and  drawers 
which  recall  those  of  the  Dacians  sculptured  on  Trajan's  Oolumn,  is  noble  in  his 
bearing.  In  the  large  towns,  where  much  intermixture' has  taken  place  with 
Greeks,  Southern  Russians,  and  Magyars,  the  brown  complexion  predominates. 
The  Rumanian  women  are  grace  itself.  They  always  charm  us  by  taste  and 
neatness,  whether  they  have  adopted  a  modem  dress  or  still  patronise  the 
national  costume,  consisting  of  an  embroidered  chemisette,  a  floating  vest,  a  party- 
coloured  apron,  a  golden  net,  and  golden  sequins  placed  in  the  hair.  These 
external  advantages  are  combined  in  the  Rtmianian  with  quickness  of  appre- 
hension, a  gay  spirit,  and  the  gift  of  repartee,  which  entitle  them  to  be  called  the 
Parisians  of  the  Orient. 

In  the  midst  of  this  homogeneous  Rumanian  population  we  meet  with 
Bulgarian  colonisto,  whose  number  has  increased  recently  in  consequence  of 
the  persecutions  of  Turks  and  Greeks.  The  character  of  the  Bulgarians  bom  in 
the  country  has  undergone  considerable  modifications.  They  are  at  present  the 
most  industrious  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns  they  occupy 
themselves  principally  with  horticulture.     Many  of  these  Bulgarians  live  in  that 


IM 


TUBKEY  IN  BUBOPE. 


portion  of  Beararabia  which  was  ceded  by  Ruuia  in  1855.  They  settled  there  in 
1829,  more  particularly  in  the  But/zak,  or  southern  "  comer  "  of  Bessarabia,  and 
their  fields  are  better  tilled,  their  roads  in  bettor  condition,  thun  those  of  their 
Moldavian  neighbours.  Their  villages  still  bear  Tartar  names,  from  the  time 
when  their  country  was  occupied  by  Nogai  Tartars,  and  they  contrast  favourably 
with  the  villages  of  the  surrounding  peoples.  Bolgrad,  the  capital  of  this  colony, 
is  a  small  bustling  town,  the  schools  of  which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  These 
Bulgarians,  so  distinguished  for  industry,  sobriety,  and  thrift,  have  more  or  less 
amalgamated  with  Russians,  Greeks,  and  gipsies,  and  they  talk-  almost  every 
language  of  the  East. 

The  Russians  of  Moldavian  Bessarabia  have  their  settlements  on  the  banks  of 
the  Danube,  to  the  east  of  these  Bulgarian  colonies.  They,  too,  are  good 
agriculturists.    The  Russians  met  with  in  the  towns  are  generally  engaged   in 


Fig.  46.— ErHNOLontcAL  Map  op  Moldavian  BmsAmAVU. 
1 1 :  1,800,000. 


BdfwiMM 


ViiUiaVito4 


commerce,  and  enjoy  a  high  reputation  for  honesty.  Most  of  them  belong  to  the 
old  sect  of  the  Lipovani,  and  fled  from  Russia  about  a  century  ago  to  escape  religious 
persecution.  They  nearly  all  speak  Rumanian.  Yilkof,  a  village  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube,  is  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  these  Lipovani,  who  are 
expert  fishermen,  and  share  the  produce  of  their  labour  in  common.  Others 
amongst  the  Russians  belong  to  the  sect  of  the  Skoptzi,  or  "  mutilated,"  which 
is  said  to  recruit  itself  by  stealing  children.  These  Skoptzi  are  recognised  by 
their  portliness  and  smooth  faces,  and  at  Bucharest  they  are  reputed  to  be  excel- 
lent coachmen. 

Magyar  Szeklers  from  Transylvania,  known  in  the  country  as  Changhei,  are 
the  only  other  foreign  element  of  the  population  occupying  distinct  settlements. 
These  Changhei,  who  first  came  into  the  country  when  the  Kings  of  Hungary 
were  masters  of  the  valley  of  the  Sereth,  are  gradually  becoming  RumanianB 


ittled  there  in 
tcRsarabia,  and 
those  of  their 
Tom  the  time 
ist  favourably 
of  this  colony, 
tation.  These 
9  more  or  less 
almost  every 

1  the  banks  of 
too,  are  good 
y  engaged   in 


belong  to  the 
)8cape  religious 
lage  near  the 
ovani,  who  are 
imon.  Others 
tilated,"  which 

recognised  by 
ed  to  be  excel- 

I  Changhei,  are 
ict  settlements. 
{8  of  Hungary 
ng  Rumanians 


BUMANIA. 


166 


in  dress  and  language,  and  would  have  become  so  long  ago  were  they  not  Roman 
Oatholics,  whilst  the  people  among  whom  they  live  are  Greeks.  They  are  joined 
annually  by  a  few  compatriots  from  Transylvania,  attracted  by  the  mild  climate 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  spring  and  autumn  large  bands  of  Hungarian 
reapers  and  labourers  descend  into  the  plains  of  Moldavia. 

The  Hellenic  element  was  strongly  represented  last  century,  when  the 
government  of  the  country  was  farmed  out  by  the  Sultan  to  Greek  merchants 
of  Oonstantinople.  At  the  present  time  the  Greeks  are  not  numerous — not 
exceeding,  perhaps,  10,000  souls,  even  if  we  include  amongst  them  Hellenized 
Zinzarea — but  they  occupy  influential  positions  as  managers  of  estates  or 
merchants,  and  the  export  of  com  is  almost  exclusively  in  their  hands.  Traces 
of  the  ancient  government  of  these  Phanariotes  still  exist  in  the  language  of 
the  country,  and  in  the  relationships  resulting  from  intermarriages  between 
seignorial  families.  Far  more  numerous  than  these  Greeks,  and  of  greater 
importance,  are  the  members  of  thope  homeless  nations — the  Jews  and  Tsigani 
(or  gipsies).  A  few  Spanish  Jews  are  met  with  in  the  large  towns,  but  the 
majority  are  "  German  "  Jews,  who  have  come  hither  from  Poland,  Little  Russia, 
Galicia,  and  Hungary.  As  publicans  and  middlemen  they  come  into  close 
contact  with  the  poor  people,  and  they  are  universally  detested,  not  on  accoimt 
of  their  religion,  but  because  of  the  wonderfid  skill  with  which  they  manage  to 
secure  the  savings  of  the  people.  Imaginary  crimes  of  all  kinds  are  attributed 
to  them,  and  they  have  repeatedly  been  exposed  to  maltreatment  on  the 
frivolous  charge  of  having  eaten  little  children  at  their  Passover.  The  Ruma- 
nians, however,  can  hardly  manage  without  these  detested  Jews,  and  their  laws, 
by  preventing  the  Jews  fV*om  acquiring  land,  fortify  their  commercial  monopoly. 
The  Jews,  if  certain  estimates  may  be  credited,  constitute  one-fifth  of  the  total 
population  of  Moldavia.  The  Armenians,  the  other  great  commercial  people  of 
the  Orient,  are  represented  by  a  few  flourishing  colonies,  more  especially  in 
Moldavia.  These  Haikanes  are  the  descendants  of  immigrants  who  settled  in  the 
country  at  various  epochs  between  the  eleventh  and  seventeenth  centuries.  They 
live  amongst  themselves,  and,  though  not  exactly  liked  by  the  people,  they  have 
known  how  to  avoid  becoming  objects  of  hatred.  A  few  Armenians  from  Con- 
stantinople, and  speaking  Turkish,  are  met  with  on  the  Lower  Danube. 

The  Tsigani,  or  gipsies^  so  despised  formerly,  become  merged  by  degrees  in 
the  rest  of  the  population.  Not  long  ago  they  were  slaves,  the  property  of  the 
State,  of  boyards,  or  monasteries.  They  led  a  wandering  life— working,  trafficking, 
or  stealing  for  the  benefit  of  their  masters.  They  were  divided  into  castes,  the 
principal  of  which  were  the  lingurari,  or  spoon-makers ;  uraari,  or  bear-leaders ; 
ferrari,  or  smiths ;  aurari,  or  collectors  of  gold  dust ;  and  lautari,  or  musicians. 
These  latter  were  the  most  polished  of  all,  and  were  employed  to  celebrate  the 
glory  and  the  virtues  of  the  boyards.  They  are  now  the  minstrels  of  the  country 
and  ihe  muuoians  of  the  town.  Very  few  in  number  are  the  Neiotzi,  a  degraded 
caste  who  live  in  woods  or  tents,  subsist  upon  the  foulest  food,  and  do  not  buty 
their  dead.  The  Tsigani  were  assimilated  in  1837  with  the  peasantry,  nnd  since 
12 


■WKSSWMIW1S 


II.  J,  .III   'iia, 


m 


TURKEY  IN  BUROPB. 


their  ciiiunoipution  nearly  all  of  them  load  a  nettled  life,  oultiTating  the  soil  with 
great  oare,  or  exeroiHing  lomo  handicraft.  The  Aition  between  Tsigani  and 
Rumanians  ia  making  rupid  progrom,  for  both  racea  have  the  lamo  religion  and 
■peak  the  same  language.  Intermarriagen  between  the  two  are  fh)quont,  and  in 
a  time  not  far  off  the  Tsigani  of  Rumania  will  be  a  thing  of  the  pait.  Th«y  are 
•uppoeed  itill  to  number  between  100,000  and  300,000  souls.* 

The  Rumanian  nation  is  still  in  a  state  of  transition  from  a  feudal  to  a 
modem  epoch.  The  revolution  of  1848  shook  the  anoient  system  to  its  founda- 
tion, but  did  not  destroy  it.  As  recently  as  1856  the  peasants  weio  attached  to 
the  soil.  They  had  no  rights,  but  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  boyards  and  monas- 
teries whose  soil  they  were  doomed  to  till,  and  lived  in  miserable  hovels.  The 
whole  of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants  belonged  to  five  or  six  thousand  boyards, 
who  wore  either  the  descendants  of  the  anoient  "  braves,"  or  had  purchased  their 
patents  of  nobility.  Most  of  these  boyards  were  only  small  proprietors,  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  land  belonged  to  seventy  feudatories  in  Wallaohia,  and  three 
hundred  in  Moldavia. 

This  state  of  affitirs  led  to  the  most  ftightful  demoralisation  amongst  masters 
and  serfs,  and  even  the  good  qualitiea  of  the  Rumanian — his  energy,  his  gene- 
rosity, and  fHendliness — were  turned  into  evil.  The  nobles  lived  far  away  from 
their  estates,  spending  the  income  forwarded  by  their  Ghreek  bailiffs  in  debauchery 
and  gambling.  The  peasants  worked  but  little,  for  they  had  no  share  in  the 
produce  of  the  soil ;  they  were  mistrustful  and  Aill  of  deceit,  as  arc  all  slaves ; 
they  were  ignorant  and  superstitious,  for  they  depended  for  their  education  upon 
illiterate  and  fanatical  priests.  Their  popea  were  magicians,  and  cured  maladies 
by  incantations  and  holy  philtres.  As  to  the  monks,  some  of  them  were  rich 
proprietors,  as  rapacious  as  the  temporal  lords ;  others  lived  on  alms,  having 
exchanged  a  life  of  slavery  for  mendicity. 

Not  long  ago  the  Rumanians,  deprived  of  all  education  except  that  sup- 
plied by  their  doinat,  or  anoient  songs,  were  lost  almost  in  mediaeval  darkness. 
Even  now  some  of  the  ancient  onatoms  of  their  ancestors  survive  in  the  rural 
diatriots.  Funerals  are  attended  by  hired  weeping  women,  whose  shrieks 
accompany  the  farewell  of  relatives.  Into  the  co£Bn  they  place  a  stick  upon 
which  to  rest  when  crossing  the  Jordan,  a  piece  of  cloth  to  serve  as  a  garment, 
and  a  coin  as  a  bribe  to  St.  Peter  for  opening  the  gate  of  heaven.  Nor  are  wine 
and  bread  forgotten  for  the  journey.  Red-haired  people  are  suspected  of 
returning  to  earth  in  the  guise  of  a  dog,  a  frog,  or  a  flea,  and  to  penetrate  into 
houses  in  order  to  suok  the  blood  of  good-looking  young  girU  In  their  case  it  is 
as  well  to  dose  the  coffin-lid  tightly,  or,  still  better,  to  pierce  the  throat  of  the 
defunct  with  a  stick. 

The  peasantry  will  doubtless  no  longer  be  haunted  by  these  hallucinations,  for  the 


•  Approziinate  population  of  Ramuia  in  187A,  ff,332,A00  lonls,  of  whom  8,260,000  ware  in  WallaoUa, 
and  1,673,500  in  Moldavia.  There  weie  4,460,000  Rumaniana,  00,000  Bolgariana,  40,000  RoMiami  and 
other  Slave,  50,000  Magyara,  130,000  Tiigiuii,  400,000  Jewa,  10,000  Aimeniaai,  and  52,MO  foreigiMrs 
80,000  Auteiana,  10,000  Qreeka,  6,000  Oormau,  1,600  Fraaoh). 


NN^MMliilliii 


rnKssfttsrsmmm 


-r 


BUlfAKIA. 


167 


tho  ioil  with 

Tiigant   and 

religion  and 

quent,  and  in 

■t.    They  are 

\  tbudal  to  a 
to  ita  founda- 
attaohed  to 
8  and  monaa- 
hovela.  The 
■and  boyardi, 
rohaaed  their 
•ra,  and  nearly 
lia,  and  three 

longit  maatera 
•gy,  hia  gene- 
far  away  from 
in  debauchery 

share  in  the 
^rc  all  slayea ; 
duoati'on  upon 
lured  maladies 
em  were  rich 

alms,  having 

ept  that  sup- 

aval  darkneaa. 

I  in  the  rural 

irhoae    shrieks 

a  stick  upon 

as  a  garment, 

Nor  are  wine 

suspected  of 

penetrate  into 

their  case  it  ia 

throat  of  the 

lations,  for  the 


veninWalkohk, 
,000  RuHiuui  and 
(2,600  fwaigiMn 


moral  and  intelleotuui  progress  of  the  nation  has  kept  pace  with  its  material  pros« 
parity  since  the  peasant  has  cultivated  his  own  land.  Officially  made  a  freeman 
in  18d6,  but  hold  for  several  years  afterwards  in  a  kind  of  limited  bondage,  the 
peasant  now  owns  at  leaat  a  portion  of  the  land.  By  a  law  pawed  in  1802,  each 
head  of  a  family  is  entitled  to  a  plot  of  land  from  seven  to  sixty -Hovon  acres  in 
extent,  and  evnr  Nin^^e  that  time  the  peasants  have  gained  immonnely  in  self- 
respect.  His  land,  thouf^h  still  cultivated  with  the  ancient  Roman  plough,  and 
deprived  of  manure,  produces  immense  quantities  of  cereals,  the  sale  of  which 
brings  wealth  into  the  <»untry  and  encourages  progress.  Rumania  is  now  one 
of  the  great  corn-f-xporting  <  r>untries  of  Europe,  and  in  favourable  years,  when 
the  crops  are  neither  oaten  up  by  locusts  nor  destroyed  by  frosts,  ita  exports  exceed 
those  of  Hungary.  In  less  than  ten  years  the  export  of  wheat,  maize,  barley,  and 
oats  has  doubled,  and  the  sum  annually  realised  varies  between  £4,000,000  and 
£8,000,000  sterling. 

Unfortunately  the  peasants  eat  but  little  of  the  com  they  grow.  They  are 
content  with  the  maiae,  from  which  they  prepare  their  mamaligo  and  the  detestable 
spirits  which  cheer  their  hearts  on  a  hundred  and  ninety-four  annual  ftte  days.  The 
cultivation  of  the  vine,  which  was  altogether  neglected  formerly,  is  likewise  making 
progress,  and  the  produce  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Carpathians  is  justly  esteemed. 
The  time  is  past  now  when  "Wallachian"  and  "herdsman"  were  synonyms 
throughout  the  East.  Still,  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  country  remains 
uncultivated,  and  the  soil  is  allowed  to  lie  fallow  every  third  year.  Moldavia  is 
better  cultivated,  upon  the  whole,  than  Wallaohia,  and  this  is  principally  owing 
to  the  fact  of  the  Moldavian  boyards  residing  upon  their  estates,  and  taking  a  pride 
in  their  management.  Progress,  however,  is  apparent  throughout  the  country,  and 
ihere  is  hardly  a  large  estate  without  its  steam  threshing-machine.  Even  the 
small  proprietors  are  gradually  introducing  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  and 
in  many  villages  they  have  formed  co-operative  associations  for  the  cultivation  of 
extensive  tracts  of  country.* 

Rumania  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country.  The.  ores  of  the  Oarpathians 
are  not  utilised,  for  there  are  no  roads  which  give  access  to  them.  The  petroleum 
wells  only  supplied  3,810,000  gallons  in  1873.  Four  of  the  principal  salt-works 
are  carried  on  by  Qovemment,  partly  with  the  aid  of  convict  labour,  and  yield 
aunnally  80,000  tons  of  salt.  The  fisheries  are  of  some  importance.  The  inha- 
bitants on  the  Lower  Danube  salt  the  fish  which  abound  in  the  river  and 
the  neighbouring  lakes,  and  prepare  caviare  from  sturgeons.  There  are  no 
manufactories  excepting  near  the  large  towns,  and  the  country  is  noted  only  for 
its  carpets,  embroidered  cloth  and  leather,  and  pottery.  The  housewives  are 
famed  for  their  confectionery. 

Oommeroe  is  annually  on  the  inoreascf    Its  only  outlet  in  former  times  was 

*  Of  tlie  total  MM  of  BuiimbU  6,000,000  aons  are  ooro-Undi,  600,000  aorea  prodnce  wine,  tobacco, 
Ac.,  6,000,000  oonaiat  of  Ibraata,  O^MO.OOO  of  paakues  and  meadowa,  and  8,000,000  are  uncultiTated.  In 
1874  then  ware  600,000  hoisea,  3,900,000  head  of  OHttle,  100,000  bafffJoM,  6,000,000  aheep,  1,200,000 
pjgi,  and  600,000  goata. 

t  Bxporto,  average  of  1866—76,  £6,700,000 ;  import*,  £4,300,000. 


■il.u.,,U.8!iU..-Jmw 


iijjimiiii. . 


jjtWSS-; 


giaaa»fli'f»fer(yg?^ifri|iiiiri^ 


168 


TUEKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


I  I 


? 


)  ^ 


the  Danube.  Nearly  the  whole  produce  of  the  country  was  carried  to  Galatz, 
at  the  bend  of  the  river,  upon  which  the  principal  routes  of  the  country  con- 
verge. For  many  years  to  come  the  Danube  will  remain  the  g^reat  commercial 
highway  of  the  country ;  the  Pruth,  too,  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  as  far  as 
Sculeni,  to  the  north  of  Yassy ;  whilst  the  numerous  rivers  descending  from  the 
Carpathians  will  always  prove  useful  for  the  conveyance  of  timber.  New  outlets 
have  been  created  by  the  construction  of  railways.  Rumania  is  now  joined  to 
the  railway  systems  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  and  the  proposed  bridge  across  the 
Danube  will  T)lace  it  in  direct  communication  with  Varna,  on  the  Black  Sea. 
The  level  nature  of  the  country  facilitates  the  construction  of  railways,  but  its 
inhabitants  look  upon  their  extension  with  a  feeling  of  apprehension,  for  they 
fancy  that  a  commercial  invasion  may  bring  in  its  train  a  military  one.* 

The  Rumanians  complain  much  about  the  left  bank  of  the  Sulina  branch  of 
the  Danube  not  having  been  ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris.  In  former 
times  the  whole  of  the  delta  of  the  Danube  belonged  to  Moldavia,  as  is  proved 
by  the  ruins  of  a  town  built  by  the  Rumanians  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
river,  opposite  to  Eilia.  Tip  to  the  close  of  last  century  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Moldavian  governor  of  Ismail  extended  to  the  port  of  Sulina,  and  he  was 
charged  with  keeping  the  mouth  of  the  river  free  from  obstructions.  The 
Western  powers,  in  spite  of  this,  allowed  Turkey  to  occupy  the  whole  of  the 
delta,  whilst  they  confined  the  Rumanians  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Kilia  branch. 
The  country,  consequently,  has  no  direct  access  to  the  Black  Sea,  except  by  means 
of  small  vessels,  for  the  mouth  of  the  Eilia  branch  is  obstructed  by  a  bar. 
M.  Desjardins  and  other  engineers  who  have  devoted  some  attention  to  the 
subject  propose  to  construct  a  ship  canal,  about  eight  miles  in  length,  which  will 
connect  the  Duiube  with  the  Bay  of  Sibriani.  In  the  meantime  Rumania  is  at 
liberty  to  make  use  of  the  Sulina  mouth,  which  is  kept  open  at  the  expense 
of  the  Western  powers,  and  a  canal,  therefore,  hardly  appears  to  be  called  for. 

Bucharest  (or  Bucuresci,  pron.  Bukureshti),  the  capital  of  Wallaohia  and  of  the 
whole  of  Rumania,  already  numbers  unongst  the  great  cities  of  Europe.  Next  to 
Oonstantinople  and  Buda-Pest,  it  is  the  most  populous  town  of  South-eastern 
Europe,  and  its  inhabitants  fondly  speak  of  it  as  the  "  Paris  of  the  Orient." 
The  town  not  very  long  since  .was  hardly  more  than  a  collection  of  villages, 
very  picturesque  from  a  distance  on  account  of  numerous  towers  and  glittering 
domes  rising  above  the  surrounding  verdure,  but  very  unpleasant  within.  But 
Bucharest  has  been  transformed  rapidly  with  the  increasing  wealth  of  its 
inhabitants,  It  may  boast  now  of  wide  and  clean"  streets,  bounded  by  fine 
houses,  of  public  squares  full  of  animation,  and  of  well-kept  parks,  and  fully 
deserves  now  its  sobriquet  of  the  "  joyful  city." 

Yassy  (Jasi,  or  Yashi),  which  became  the  capital  of  Moldavia  when  Suchova 
was  annexed  by  Austria,  occupies  a  position  far  less  central  than  does  Bucharest, 
but  the  fertility  of   the  surrounding  country,  the  proximity  of  the  navigable 

*  RaOroada,  1,800  miles ;  high-roadi,  2,650  maw ;  telegrapha,  2,600  mflei ;  atesman  on  the  Daanba, 
20,  of  7,620  tona  burden. 


IL 


■m^wflNPNMMMNM^^ 


yss«m 


BUMANIA. 


169 


le 


ed  to  Galatz, 

country  con- 

jat  commercial 

ners  as  far  as 

ding  from  the 

New  outlets 

now  joined  to 

ge  aorom  the 

Black  Sea. 

ilways,  but  its 

ision,  for  they 

me.* 

Una  branch  of 
is.    In  former 
1,  as  is  proved 
a.  bank  of  the 
jurisdiction  of 
%,  and  he  was 
uctions.      The 
whole  of  the 
Kilia  branch, 
coept  by  means 
ted  by  a  bar. 
ention  to   the 
;th,  which  will 
Rumania  is  at 
%t  the  expense 
I  called  for. 
Dhia  and  of  the 
!ope.     Next  to 
South-eastern 
f  the  Orient." 
m  of  villages, 
and  glittering 
within.     But 
wealth  of  its 
mded  by  fine 
rks,  and  fully 

when  Sttchova 
oes  Bucharest, 
the  navigable 

m  Ob  the  DaaulM, 


Pruth  and  of  Russia,  with  which  it  maintains  a  brisk  commerce,  and  its  position 
on  the  high-road  joining  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  have  caused  it  to  increase 
rapidly  in  population.  It  is  a  flourishing  town  now,  though  no  longer  the  seat 
of  an  independent  government.  Built  upon  the  foot-hills  of  the  Carpathians, 
the  city  presents  itself  magnificently  from  afar,  and  its  exterior  is  not  belied  by 
its  finer  quarters.  Jews,  Armenians,  Russians,  Tsigani,  Tartars,  and  Magyars 
are  numerously  represented  amongst  its  population,  which  is  semi-Oriental  in 
type.     We  may  almost  fancy  ourselves  standing  upon  the  threshold  of  Asia. 

Fig.  47. — Vnw  or  BpeHAUHX. 


nr-^'^  1 


The  church  of  the  Three  Saints  is  distinguished  for  its  originality,  and  is  a  master- 
piece of  ornamentation  in  the  Moorish  style. 

All  the  other  towns  of  Rumania  are  indebted  for  their  importance  to  their 
position  on  commercial  high-roads.  Botosani,  in  Northern  Moldavia,  lies  on  the 
road  to  Ghdicia  and  Poland,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Falticeni,  whose  inter- 
national fiurs  are  always  well  attended.  Commerce  causes  the  towns  on  the 
Danube  to  flourish.  Yilkof  is  a  great  mart  for  fish  and  caviare;  EiUa,  the 
ancient  Achillea,  or  city  of  Achilles ;  Ismail,  where  the  Russian  Lipovani  are 
nnmorous ;  Reni ;  Galata,  said  to  be  an  ancient  colony  of  the  Gblatians,  now  the 


imk 


.-•( 


170 


TUBEEY  IN  EUBOFE. 


moat  important  commercial  emporium  on  the  Lower  Danube,  and  Mat  of  tlie 
European  commissioners  for  its  regulation  ;  Braila,  a  poor  village  as  long  as  the 
Turks  held  it,  but  now  important  on  account  of  its  grain  trade,  and  the  literary 
centre  of  the  Bulgarians.  All  these  ton^ns,  though  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danube,  may  be  looked  upon  almost  as  ports  of  the  Black  Sea,  through  which  the 
produce  of  the  country,  and  especially  its  grain,  finds  an  outlet  to  foreign 
markets.  Giurgiu  (Jurjevo)  is  the  port  of  Bucharest  ou  the  Danube ;  Turnu- 
Severinu  is  the  gateway  of  Wallachia,  below  the  great  narrows  of  the  river ; 
Craiova,  Fitesci,  Ploiesti,  Buzeu,  and  Focsani  form  the  terminal  points  of  the 
roads  descending  from  the  high  valleys  of  Transylvania.  Alecsandria,  a  town 
recently  built  in  the  centre  of  the  plain  which  extends  from  Bucharest  to  the  Olto, 
has  become  a  dep6t  for  agricultural  produce. 

Formerly,  when  incessant  wars  rendered  a  strong  strategical  position  of 
greater  importance  than  commercial  advantages^  the  capital  of  the  country  was 
established  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Carpathians.  In  the  thirteenth  century  it 
was  at  Campu-Lungu,  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains,  and  subsequently  it  was 
transferred  to  Curtea  d'Argesia,  founded  by  Prince  Negoze  Bessaraba  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Of  this  ancient  capital  there  remain  now 
only  a  monastery  and  a  wonderful  church :  the  walls,  cornices,  and  towers  are 
covered  with  sculptures,  like  the  work  of  a  jeweller.  Targu-Yestea,  or  Tirgovist, 
on  the  Talomitza,  was  the  third  capital,  but  of  the  fine  palace  built  there  by  the 
domni  there  remain  now  only  blackened  walls.* 

Rumania  includes  the  two  ancient  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia, 
and  forms  a  semi-independent  stato  under  the  protection  of  the  great  powers, 
and  paying  an  annual  tribute  of  about  £40,000  to  the  Porto.  The  country 
has  placed  a  member  of  the  Hohenzollem  family  at  the  head  of  the  State.  The 
constitution  of  1866  confers  upon  this  prince  the  right  of  appointing  all  public 
functionaries  and  the  officers  of  the  army,  of  coining  money,  and  of  pardoning. 
All  laws  require  his  signature  b^ore  they  can  be  enforced.  He  enjoys  a  civil  list 
of  £48,000. 

The  legislative  powers, are  vested  in  two  chambers,  the  members  of  which  are 
elected  by  a  process  designed  to  favour  the  interests  of  the  rich.  All  Bamanians 
above  twenty  •one  years  of  age,  except  servanto  in  receipt  of  wages,  are  inscribed  in 
the  electoral  lists.  They  are  divided  into  four  "  colleges,"  or  classes,  having  widely 
different  privileges.  The  first  college  includes  all  those  electors  of  a  district 
whose  income  from  landed  property  amounts  to  £132  a  year ;  electors  having  an 
income  of  between  £44  and  £132  form  a   second    college;    merchants   and 

*  Kamber  of  inhaUtsnti  of  the  principal  towni  of  BnouuiiA  (olBoial  ■paUing ;  vnlgar  or  phooetio  ipaO- 
ing  in  parentheiii) : — 

iralkuihia.—BvumnaA  (Bncharat),  221,800;  Floieiti  (PloMhti),  M,000;  Bnik,  28,270;  Oniova, 
22,764 ;  GKorgin  (JnrjoTO,  or  OiurgaTo),  20,866 ;  Baaen  (Biuan),  11,100 ;  Aleoaandria,  11,000 ;  Gampnlnng, 
9,900;  Piteaci  (Piteahti),  8,600;  Cancalu,  8,600. 

jr«UMM.— Jaii  (Yawy),  90,000;  Oalati  (Oalats),  80,000;  BotoHuu,  89,000;  Barlada  (Bjrlat), 
26,600;  Smaila  (Innail),  21,000;  Focaani,  20,800;  Peatra,  20,000;  Hnd,  18,600;  Boman,  16,000; 
Faltioeni,  16,000;  Bacaa,  18,000;  Dorohoi,  10,000;  Bolgrado,  9,600;  Ohilie  (KiUa),  8,900;  Rani, 
7,600. 


!IHW.!M.BI 


ai>!",!.'M]i'i41'j 


■■Wlte* 


>.w  <.  ■■TMii!.^m\mi\mmjm\'MM&MWii*'^ 


BUMANIA. 


171 


id  seat  of  tlie 
as  long  aa  the 
nd  the  literary 
te  banks  of  the 
>ugh  which  the 
det  to  foreign 
nube ;   Turnu- 

of  the  river; 

points  of  the 
landria,  a  town 
rest  to  the  Olto, 

cal  position  of 
he  country  was 
anth  century  it 
equently  it  was 
issaraba  in  the 
sre  remain  now 
and  towers  are 
aa,  or  Tirgovist, 
lit  there  by  the 

and  Moldavia, 
e  great  powers, 
).  The  country 
the  State.  The 
inting  all  public 
d  of  pardoning, 
njoys  a  civil  list 

)rs  of  which  are 
All  Rumanians 
are  inscribed  in 
8,  having  widely 
rs  of  a  district 
stors  having  an 
merchants   and 

fu  or  phonetio  ipall- 

a,  28,370;  OraioTS, 
11,000;  Ounpalong, 

Burladn  (Byrkt), 
I;  Soman,  16,000; 
^ilia),  S,000;  Bad, 


tradesmen  of  the  towns  paying  a  tax  of  23«.  annually,  Oovemment  pensioners, 
half-pay  officers,  professors  anC  graduates  of  universities,  form  the  third  college ; 
and  the  remainder  of  the  electors  belong  to  the  fourth  college.  The  first  two 
colleges  elect  a  deputy  each  for  their  district ;  the  third  college  elects  from 
one  to  six  deputies  for  each  town,  according  to  its  size ;  the  fourth  college  elects 
delegates  by  whom  the  representatives  are  chosen. 

The  Senate  represents  more  especially  the  large  landed  proprietors.  Senators 
must  have  an  income  of  £352,  and  are  elected  by  the  landed  proprietors  whose 
income  amounts  to  at  least  £132  a  year.  The  universities  of  Bucharest  and 
Tassy  are  represented  by  a  senator  each,  elected  by  the  professors,  and  the  crown 
prince,  the  metropolitan,  and  the  diocesan  bishops  are  ex-offieio  members  of  the 
Senate.    Senators  are  elected  for  eight,  and  deputies  for  four  years. 

The  Rumanian  cor.stitutioii  grants  all  those  rights  and  privileges  usually  set 
forth  in  documents  of  that  kind.  The  right  of  meeting  is  guaranteed ;  there  is 
liberty  of  the  press ;  the  muuicipal  pfficers  and  mayors  are  elected,  but  the  Prince 
may  intervene  in  the  case  of  towns  inhabited  by  more  than  a  thousand  families ; 
the  punishment  of  death  is  abolished,  except  in  time  of  war ;  and  education  is  free 
and  compulsory  "wherever  there  are  schools."  There  is  liberty  of  religion, 
though  there  is  a  State  Ohuroh,  and  Christians  alone  can  be  naturalised.  No 
marriage  is  legal  imless  it  has  been  consecrated  by  a  priest.  The  Rumanian 
Ohuroh,  as  far  as  dogmas  are  concerned,  is  that  of  the  Greeks,  but  it  is  altogether 
independent  of  the  Greek  patriarch  residing  at  Oonstantinople,  and  is  governed 
by  its  own  Synod.    Most  of  the  monasteries  have  been  secularised. 

The  country  is  divided  into  four  judicial  districts,  each  having  a  court  of 
appeal,  whilst  a  supreme  court  sits  at  Bucharest.  The  French  codes,  slightly 
modified,  were  introduced  in  1865. 

The  army  is  partly  modelled  upon  that  of  Prussia.  All  citizens  are  called 
upon  to  serve  sixteen  years,  eight  of  which  are  passed  in  the  standing  army  or  its 
reserve,  and  eight  in  the  militia.  The  National  Guard  includes  all  men  up  to 
fifty  not  belonging  to  either  of  the  other  categories.  By  calling  out  all  its  men, 
Rumania  can  easily  send  an  army  of  100,000  men  mto  the  field.  There  are  like- 
wise a  few  gunboats  on  the  Danube. 

The  finances  of  Rumania  are  in  a  more  satis&ctory  condition  than  those  of 
most  other  states  of  Europe.  The  Gbvemment  has  certainly  been  living  upon 
loans,  for  which  eight  per  cent,  have  to  be  paid,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  annual 
income  is  spent  upon  the  payment  of  interest,  the  army,  and  the  revenue  senrices. 
The  credit  of  Rumania  is,  however,  good,  for  the  loans  are  secured  upon  vast 
domains,  the  property  of  the  secularised  monasteries,  several  thousand  acres  of 
which  are  sold  every  year.  The  sale  of  salt  and  the  manu&cture  of  tobacco  are 
Government  monopolies.* 

Rumania  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  3d  departments  and  164 
districts,  or  pUui.    There  are  62  towns  and  3,020  rural  communes. 

•  Average  umnalezpenditan,  1871—76,  )e3,6«0,00O ;  pnblio  debt,  £1»,A00.000,  indadiag  £11,000,000 
eoq^nded  upon  raUwaya ;  eatimatad  valae  of  the  domaina,  £20,000,000. 


SERVIA  AND  MONTENEGRO/ 


Sbrvia. 


pEBYIA,  like  Rumania,  was  until  recently  a  semi-independent  state, 
paying  a  tribute  of  £25,000  a  year  to  the  Porte,  and  submitting  to 
the  presence  of  a  Turkish  garrison  at  Mali-Zvomik,  on  the  Bosnian 
frontier.  But  even  these  vestiges  of  ancient  oppression  irritated 
the  national  pride  to  an  inconceivable  degree,  and  the  moment 
when  a  blow  might  be  struck  on  behalf  of  Servia  and  the  neighbouring  countries 
inhabited  by  Slavs  still  groaning  under  the  Turkish  yoke  was  looked  forward  to 
with  impatience.  The  blow  has  been  struck,  and  were  it  not  for  the  support 
extended  to  it  by  the  great  powers,  Servia  would  ere  this  have  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
semi-independent  state. 

Servia,  within  its  actual  limits,  includes  only  a  small  portion  of  the  northern 
slope  of  the  mountains  rising  in  the  centre  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  It  is 
separated  from  Austro-Hungary  l^  the  Save  and  the  Danube,  but  no  natural 
boundary  divides  it  from  Turkey ;  and  the  valleys  of  the  Morava,  the  Drina,  and 
the  Timok,  the  former  in  the  centre,  the  others  on  the  eastern  and  western 
frontiers  of  the  country,  a£ford  easy  access  to  a  foreign  invader.  The  difficulties 
to  be  surmounted  by  the  latter  would  begin  only  after  he  had  entered  the  vast 
forests,  the  narrow  valleys,  and  unfathomable  kluurtu  amongst  the  mountains. 

The  only  plains  of  any  extent  are  on  the  banks  of  the  Save.  Every  whwe  else 
the  country  is  hilly,  rocky,  or  mountainous.  The  most  prominent  mountain 
range  is  that  which  extends  from  the  "  Iron  Gate "  and  the  defile  of  Eiasan,  on 
the  Danube,  through  Eastern  Servia,  and  forms  a  marked  continuation  of  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps,  with  which  it  agrees  in  geological  structure.  In  the  northern 
portion  of  these  Servian  Carpathians,  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Danube  and  Morava,  where  masses  of  porphyry  have  burst  through  limestones 
and  schists,  we  find  ourselves  in-  the  great  mineral  region  of  Servia.    Copp«<', 

•  Antlioritiw:— KaniU,  "Sarbien;"  TTbioini,  "Lm  Serbet  do  Toiqnie;"  OypriMi  Bobatt,  «'Lm 
Oaret  de  Turquia ; "  Louii  L6ger,  "  Le  Monde  Slave ; "  Lcjeui, "  YUte  «a  Montenegro." 


"nmm 


SEBTIA. 


178 


indent  state, 
ibmitting  to 
the  Bosnian 
ion  irritated 
the  moment 
ng  countries 
I  forward  to 
the  support 
to  exist  as  a 

ihe  northern 
sula.  It  is 
no  natural 
oDrina,  and 
and  western 
e  difficulties 
red  the  vast 
untains. 
rywhece  else 
nt  mountain 
>{  Kasan,  on 
of  theTran- 
)he  northern 
uence  of  the 
limestones 
ha.  Copper*, 
I  Bobarti  "Las 


iron,  and  lead  ores  are  being  worked  here,  especially  at  Maidanpek  and  Euohaina, 
but  the  old  zino  and  silver  mines  have  been  abandoned.  The  valley  of  the 
Timok,  in  the  southern  portion  of  this  mountain  range,  is  likewise  rich  in 
minerals,  and  gold  dust  is  collected  from  the  sand  of  the  river.  There  are  few 
valleys  which  can  rival  that  of  the  Timok  in  beauty  and  fertility,  and  the  basin 
of  Enyashevatz,  where  the  head-streams  of  the  river  unite,  is  more  especially 
distinguished  by  its  rural  beauty,  sparkling  rivulets  flowing  through  the 
meadows,  vines  covering  the  hills,  and  forests  the  surrounding  mountains.  A 
narrow  defile  immediately  below  this  basin  leads  into  the  valley  of  Zaiohar,  near 
which,  at  Gamzigrad,  there  still  exist  ruins  of  a  Roman  fortress,  its  walls  and 
towers  of  porphyry  in  ft  capital  state  of  preservation.  Looking  northward  from 
this  position  we  perceive  the  Stol  (3,638  feet),  whilst  in  the  south-west  there  rises 
a  huge  pyramid  of  chalk,  which  might  almost  be  mistaken  for  the  work  of 
human  hands.  This  is  the  Btan  (4,943  feet),  at  whose  foot  burst  forth  the  hot 
springs  of  Banya,  the  most  frequented  and  efficacious  of  all  Servia. 

The  valleys  of  the  Morava  and  of  its  main  tributary,  the  Bulgarian  Morava, 
divide  Servia  into  two  parts  of  unequal  extent.  The  valley  of  the  Morava  forms 
a  natural  highwi^  between  the  Danube  and  the  interior  of  Turkey,  passing 
through  the  frontier  town  of  Alexinatz.  A  Roman  road  formerly  led  along  it. 
Erushevatz,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Servian  empire,  occupies  the  centre  of  a 
plain  in  the  valley  of  the  Servian  Morava,  not  far  above  the  defile  of  Stalaj, 
where  the  two  Moravas  unite  at  the  foot  of  a  promontory  crowned  with  ruins. 
The  remains  of  the  palace  of  the  Servian  tsar  are  still  shown  there,  and  it  is  stated 
that  Krushevatz,  at  the  height  of  Servian  power,  had  a  circumference  of  three 
leagues.    It  is  only  a  poor  village  now. 

The  wildest  mountain  masses  of  Servia  rise  between  the  two  Moravas,  their 
culminating  point  being  the  Eopaonik  (6,710  feet),  which  attains  a  greater  height 
than  any  other  summit  between  the  Save  and  the  Balkans.  A  wide  prospect 
of  incomparable  beauty  opens  from  its  base  and  rooky  summit,  extending  south- 
wards over  plains  and  mountains  to  the  pinnacles  of  the  Skhar  and  the  pyramidal 
Dormitor.  In  itself,  however,  the  Eopaonik  is  quite  devoid  of  beauty,  and  where 
its  slopes  have  been  deprived  of  the  forests  which  once  covered  them,  the  bare 
rocks  of  serpentine  present  a  picture  of  utter  desolation.  Its  vaUeys  are  far  from 
fertile,  their  inhabitants  are  sulky  and  poor,  and  many  amongst  them  suffer  from 
goitre. 

The  mountains  whii^h  extend  to  the  north  of  the  Eopaonik,  along  both  banks 
of  the  Ibar,  are  for  the  most  part  still  clothed  with  oaks,  beeches,  and  conifers. 
The  broad  valley  of  the  Servian  Morava,  rivalling  in  fertility  the  plains  of 
Lombardy,  penetrates  into  these  mountain  masses.  But  they  rise  again  to  the 
north  of  that  river,  attaining  a  height  of  3,622  feet  In  the  mountain  mass  of 
Rudnik.  Oretaoeous  rooks  p^ominate,  frequently  surmounted  by  granitic 
peaks.  The  valleys  are  narrow  and  tortuous.  This  is  the  famous  Sumadia,  or 
"  forest  region "  of  Servia,  which  during  the  rule  of  the  Turks  offisred  a  safe 
Myliim  to  the  persecuted  rayas,  and  in  the  war  of  independence  became  the 
18 


174 


TUBKEY  IN  BXJEOPB. 


citadel  of  Servian  liberty.  The  little  town  of  Emguyevatz,  in  one  of  its  narrow 
valleys,  was  ohoson  to  be  the  seat  of  government,  and  it  still  retains  a  gun 
foundry,  supplied  with  coal  from  the  basin  of  Chupriya.  A  secluded  capital  like 
this  may  have  suited  a  people  constantly  engaged  in  war,  but  when  Servia  entered 
upon  a  career  of  progress  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Belgrad. 
This  city — the  Beogr&d,  or  "  white  town,"  of  the  Servians,  the  Singidunum  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  Alba  Oram  of  the  Middle  Ages — is  delightfully  situated  upon  a 
hill  near  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  and  Save,  and  overlooks  the  swampy  plains 
of  Syrmia.  Belgrad,  from  its  favourable  geographical  situation,  has  become  a 
place  of  much  trade,  and  is  likewise  an  important  strategical  position. 

To  the  west  of  Belgrad  we  merely  meet  with  hills,  and  with  the  fertile  plains 

Fig.  48.— CoNFLVRifCB  or  thb  Danvbb  and  Sats. 
1 1 :  l.t 


watered  by  the  Eolubara.  It  is  only  towards  the  south-west,  on  nearing  the 
Drina,  that  we  again  find  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  calcareous  mountains,  attaining 
a  height  of  3,630  feet,  and  connected  with  spurs  of  the  Eopaonik  in  the  south. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  portions  of  the  country.  Ruins  of  houses 
and  fortresses  abound,  amongst  which  those  of  XTshitza  are  the  most  extensive. 
These  fortresses  have,  however,  failed  to  protect  the  country,  and  no  portion  of 
Servia  has  more  fhiquently  been  laid  waste  by  ruthless  invaders. 

In  former  times  Servia  could  boast  of  some  of  the  most  extensive  oak  forest 
in  Europe^  "  To  kill  a  tree  is  to  kill  a  Servian,"  says  ar-  jiu-en'j  proverb,  dating 
probably  from  the  time  when  ^e  forests  afforded  shelter  to  the  oppressed  rayas. 
This  proverb,  unfortunately,  is  no  longer  acted  upon.  In  many  parts  of  the 
country  the  forests  have  disappeared,  and  the  naked  rook  obtrudes  itself  as  in 


■■Hi 


of  its  narrow 
retains  a  gun 
d  capital  like 
Servia  entered 
i  to  Belgrad. 
idunum  of  the 
ituated  upon  a 
swampy  plains 
has  become  a 
1. 
e  fertile  plains 


T 


m  nearing  the 
ttains,  attaining 
k  in  the  south, 
iluins  of  houses 
most  extensive, 
d  no  portion  of 

nsive  oak  forest 
proverb,  dating 
>pprc<s8ed  rayas. 
ly  parts  of  the 
des  itself  as  in 


w*WBPW|»!«Mf^P»iP«WW! 


^ 


jnji|ii  fWiji^Wjiiiy^JjiIliiK 


8EBVU. 


176 


Dalmatia  and  Oamiola.  A  peusant  in  need  of  a  branch  outa  down  an  entire  tree, 
and  the  herdimen  are  not  content  to  feed  their  bivouac  firea  with  dry  sticks,  but 
must  needs  hare  an  oak.  The  greatest  enemies  of  the  forests,  next  to  herdsmen, 
are  goats  and  hogs,  the  former  browsing  upon  small  trees  and  leaves,  the  latter 
laying  bare  the  roots.  An  old  tree,  thrown  down  by  a  tempest  or  sacrificed  to 
the  woodman's  axe,  is  not  replaced.  Laws  for  the  protection  of  the  forests  have 
certainly  been  passed,  but  they  are  not  enforced,  and  t><«  wood  required  for  fuel 
has  to  be  imported,  in  many  instances,  from  Bosnia,  .'he  destruction  of  the 
forests  has  naturally  been  attended  by  a  deterioration  of  the  climate.  Mr.  Edward 
Brown,  who  travelled  in  Servia  in  the  seventeenth  century,  tells  us  that  the 
Morava  was  then  navigable  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course ;  but  at  the 
present  time,  owing  to  its  irregularities,  it  is  no  longer  available  as  a  navigable 
channel. 

Servia,  by  despoiling  the  mountains  of  great  forests,  has  got  rid  of  the  wild 
animak  which  formerly  infested  them.  Wolves,  bears,  wild  boars,  previously  so 
numerous,  have  almost  disappeared,  and  those  still  met  with  occasionally  are 
supposed  to  come  from  the  forests  of  Syrmia,  crossing  the  frozen  Save  in  winter. 
The  fauna  and  flora  of  Servia  are  gradually  losing  their  original  featureit.  The 
introduction  of  the  domesticated  animals  and  cultivated  plants  from  Austria  has 
given  to  Servia  a  South  German  aspect.  Nor  does  the  climate  much  ditter  from 
some  parts  of  Southern  Germany.  Servia,  though  under  the  same  latitude  as 
Tuscany,  rejoices  by  no  means  in  an  Italian  climate.  The  Daknatian  or  Bosnian 
mountain  ramparts  shut  out  the  vivifying  south-westerly  winds,  whilst  the  dry 
and  cold  vrinds  from  the  steppes  of  Russia  have  free  access  over  the  plains  of 
Wallaohia.  Strangers  do  not  readily  acclimatise  themselves,  owing  to  abrupt 
changes  of  temperature.* 

Servia  includes  within  its  limits  but  a  small  proportion  of  all  the  Servians  of 
Eastern  Europe,  but  its  inhabitants  are  probably  not  far  wrong  when  they  look 
upon  themselves  as  the  purest  representatives  of  their  race.  They  are,  as  a  rule, 
tall,  vigorous,  with  broad  shoulders  and  an  erect  head.  Their  features  are 
marked,  the  nose  straight  and  often  aquiline,  and  the  cheek-bones  a  trifle 
prominent ;  the  hair  is  abundant  and  rarely  black,  the  eyes  are  piercing  and 
cold,  and  a  well-cultivated  moustache  imparta  a  military  air  to  the  men.  The 
women,  without  being  good-looking,  have  a  noble  presence,  and  their  semi- 
oriental  costume  is  distinguished  by  an  admirable  harmony  of  colours.  Even 
in  the  towns,  where  French  fashions  carry  the  day,  Servian  ladies  occasionally 
wear  the  national  dress,  consisting  of  a  red  vest,  a  belt  and  chemisette  embroi- 
dered with  pearls,  strings  of  sequins,  and  a  little  fea  stuck  jauntily  upon  the 
head. 

Unfortunately  the  custom  of  the  country  requires  that  a  Servian  woman 

should  have  an  abundance  of  black  hair  and  a  daezUng  white  complexion.    Paint, 

dyes,  and  false  tresses  are  universal  in  town  and  country.    Even  in  the  most 

remote  villages  the  peasant  women  dye  their  hair  and  paint  their  cheeks,  lips, 

*  Mesa  tenpanton  at  Bdgnd,  48*  F. ;  exiremas,  106*  and  3*;  rang*,  108*  F. 


"3»SBS!'.; 


176 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


and  eyebrows,  frequently  making  uae  of  poiaonou*  aubitanoei  injurioui  to  health. 
Rich  oountry>people  are,  moreover,  in  the  habit  of  making  an  exhibition  of 
their  wealth  by  meana  of  their  clothes,  which  they  overload  with  gold  and  silver 
ornaments  and  gewgaws  of  every  kind.  In  some  districts  brides  and  young 
women  wear  a  most  extraordinary  head-dress,  consisting  of  an  enormous  crescent 
of  cardboard,  to^  which  are  attached  nosegays,  leaves,  peacock  feathers,  and 
artificial  roses  with  silver  petals.  This  heavy  head-dress  may  symbolise  the 
"  burdens  of  matrimony ; "  it  certainly  exposes  the  wearer  to  great  incon- 
venience. 

The  Servians  are  honourably  distinguished  amongst  the  people  of  the  East 
by  the  nobility  of  their  character,  their  dignified  bearing,  and,  in  spite  of  recent 
events,  incontestable  bravery.  For  centuries  they  resisted  oppression,  and,  not- 
withstanding their  isolution  and  poverty,  they  conquered  their  independence  in  the 
-beginning  of  this  century.  They  are  said  to  be  idle  and  suspicious— qualities 
which  their  former  servitude  accounts  for — but  at  the  same  time  honest  and 
truthflil.  It  is  difficult  to  cheat  them,  but  they  themselves  never  cheat.  Equals 
when  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  they  are  equals  still.  "  There  are  no 
nobles  amongst  us,"  they  say,  "  for  we  are  all  nobles."  In  their  dear  and 
sonorous  language,  so  well  suited  to  oratory,  they  fraternally  address  eaoh  other 
in  the  second  person  singular.  Even  prisoners  are  looked  :ipon  as  brothers,  and 
it  is  customary  to  permit  a  condemned  criminal  to  visit  hh  family  on  his  giving 
his  word  of  honour  to  return  to  prison. 

The  ties  of  family  and  friendship  are  a  great  power  in  Sorvia.  It  fk«quently 
happens  that  young  men  who  have  learnt  to  like  eaoh  other  take  an  uath  of 
fraternal  friendship,  in  the  manner  of  the  brothers  in  anna  of  Scythia,  and  this 
fraternity  of  heart  is  more  saored  to  them  than,  that  of  blood.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  and  one  which  speaks  favourably  for  the  high  moral  tone  of  the  Servians, 
that  their  deep  family  affections  and  frienutuiipq  do  not  lead  to  incessant  acts 
of  retaliation  and  vengeance,  as  amongst  theii  neighbours  the  Albanians.  The 
Servian  is  brave ;  he  is  always  armed,  but  he  is  also  peaceable,  and  does  bot 
demand  blood  for  blood.  Still,  like  other  men,  he  is  not  perfect  As  an 
agriculturist  he  follows  the  more  obsolete  routine.  He  is  ignorant  and  luper- 
stitious.  The  peasants  firmly  believe  in  vampires,  sorcerers,  and  magicians,  and, 
in  order  to  guard  against  their  evil  influences,  they  rub  themselves  with  garlic  on 
Christmas-eve. 

Land  is  held  by  families  in  common,  as  amongst  the  other  Slavs  of  the  South. 
The  ancient  zadruga,  such  as  it  existed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  is  still  preaerved, 
and  has  never  been  interfered  with  by  Roman  or  German  laws,  as  in  Dalmatia  or 
Slavonia.  On  the  contrary,  the  law  of  Servia  protects  this  ancient  form  of  tenure, 
and,  in  oases  of  a  disputed  will,  relativea  by  adoption  take  precedence  of  those  by 
blood.  Servian  patriots  are  desirous  to  see  these  ancient  customs  respected,  and 
the  members  of  the  Skupthtina,  or  parliament,  have  never  attacked  this  common 
proprietorship  in  the  soil,  for  they  look  upon  it  as  one  of  the  surest  safeguards 
against  pauperism.    Servia  offers  the  best  opportunity  for  studying  agrioultozal 


^'wmmmsmmmsm! 


SEBYIA 


177 


ioui  to  health. 

exhibition  of 
;old  and  riWer 
es  and  young 
rmous  orescent 

feathers,  and 
symbolise  the 
I  great  inoon- 

le  of  the  East 
ipite  of  recent 
•ion,  and,  not* 
pendenoe  in  the 
sioos — qualities 
me  honest  and 
cheat.  Equals 
"There  are  no 
their  dear  and 
Iress  each  other 
M  brothers,  and 
y  on  his  giving 

It  frequently 
take  an  uath  of 
loythia,  and  this 

is  a  remarkable 
of  the  Servians, 
»  incessant  acts 
Albanians.  The 
e,  and  does  Hot 
perfect.  As  an 
rant  and  super* 

magicians,  and, 
as  with  garlic  on 

ftvs  of  the  South. 
I  still  preserved, 
kS  in  Dalmatia  or 
,t  form  of  tenure, 
snce  of  those  by 
OS  respected,  and 
ced  this  common 
surest  safeguards 
ying  agricultural 


it.iroi-  '^f  family  life  oquBlly 
eveni   ,sf  (levored  to  pleoflure. 


.(•)(enda  of  old, 
zk.  All  thow 
Tb* 
the 
U8eful 


communities  of  this  kind.     Nowhere  else  ar^  tl 

delightful.    The  heavy  day's  work  is  followe<l  by  t> 

The  children  gather  round  their  parents  to  \\H»x\       the  ifsrlil 

or  the  young  men  sing,  accompanying  themselvo      ipon  the 

belonging  to  the  association  are  looked  upon  as  ni<ff*>^cra  uf  i   e  Um\\ 

ttaryethina,  or  head  of  thn  cf^miuaaity,   has  charge  of  the  edwcati<> 

children,  whom  he  is  required  to  bring  up  as  "  good  and  honest  citize: 

to  their  fatherland."     Yet,  in  spite  of  all  these  advantages,  the  nadruyw 

from  year  to  year.    The  demands  of  commerce  and  industry  interfere  wuh  t  htir 

accustomed  routine,  and  they  will  hardly  survive  much  longer  in  their  present 

form. 

A  great  portion  of  Eastern  Servia  has  been  occupied  by  Wallaohians,  who 
were  invited  to  the  country  after  the  war  of  independence,  when  vast  districts 
had  been  depopulated.  These  new  settlers,  being  more  prolific  than  their 
neighbours,  gradually  gain  upon  th?  Servians,  and  already  some  6f  their  colonies 
are  met  with  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Morava.  Many  Servian  village*  have 
become  Wallachian  as  fur  as  language  can  make  them  so.  It  is  a  strange  fact 
that  these  Rumanian  colonists  should  prosper  in  Servia,  whilst  Servian  colonists 
from  Hungary  and  Slavonia  do  not. 

Zinsares,  or  Southern  Wallachians,  are  met  with  in  most  towns,  where  they 
work  as  masons,  carpenters,  and  bricMayers. 

Bulgarians  have  settled  in  the  valleys  of  the  Timok  and  Morava,  in  the  south* 
east.  They  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  industry,  and  quickly  assimilate  with 
the  Servians.  Near  Alexinats  there  is  a  small  colony  of  Albanians,  whilst 
Tsigani,  or  gipsies,  are  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  They  profess  to 
be  Ohristians,  and  one  of  their  principal  occupations  is  the  manufacture  of  bricks. 
The  Spanish  Jews,  so  numerous  formerly  at  Belgrad,  have  most  of  them  retired  to 
Semlin,  their  places  being  filled  by  German  and  Hungarian  Jews.* 

Taken  as  a  whole,  Servia  was  a  prosperous  country  before  the  recent  war. 
The  population  has  increased  rapidly  since  the  declaration  of  independence,  but 
is  not  nearly  as  dense  yet  aa  in  the  neighbouring  plains  of  Hungary  or  Wallachia. 
Scarcely  one-eighth  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation,  and  agricultural  operations 
are  for  the  most  part  carried  on  in  the  rudest  manner.  Excepting  in  the  most 
fertile  valleys,  such  as  that  of  the  Lower  Timok,  the  fields  are  allowed  to  lie 
fallow  every  second  year.  The  exports  of  Servia  clearly  exhibit  the  rudimentary 
condition  of  its  agriculture,  for  they  consist  principally  of  lean  pigs,  which  find 
their  way  in  thousands  to  the  markets  of  Germany,  and  of  cattle.  The  peasant 
of  Servia  derives  most  of  his  revenue  from  the  sale  of  these  animals.  Within  the 
last  few  years  he  has  also  exported  some  wheat  to  the  markets  of  Western  Europe.  If 
it  were  not  for  the  Bulgarian  labourers  who  annually  flock  to  the  country  in  search 
of  field-work,  Servia  would  not  produce  sufiicient  com  for  its  own  consumption.f 

*  TIm  population  of  ServU  in  1976  wu  1,877,068,  of  whom  aboat  1,110,000  were  Serriau,  160,000 
WaUaohiana,  'iO.OOO  Zinaarea,  A0,000  Bulgarian*,  80,000  gipaiea,  &a 

t  The  exporU  in  1874  were  valued  at  £1,400,000,  and  included  84,104  head  of  oattla,  271,210  pigs 
1,172,671  aheep  and  goat  akina,  wheat,  laki,  Ac. 


m 


TUBKIST  IN  RUBOPE. 


I  ;  t 


ItuluHtry  throughout  the  country  in  ■till  in  itH  infunoy.  The  Servian  deapiie* 
all  manual  labour  excepting  agriculture,  and  it  in  for  this  reaaoa  he  looka  down 
upon  the  Gorman  mechanics  in  the  towna.  Young  men  of  the  leaat  education 
aapiro  to  government  employment,  and  the  bureaucratic  plague,  which  haa 
wrought  such  injury  in  the  neighbouring  Auatro* Hungarian  empire,  is  thua  being 
developed.  There  are,  however,  others  who  have  studied  at  foreign  universitiea, 
and  who  devote  their  energiea  to  the  spread  of  education  at  home.  The  progreaa 
made  in  this  respect  within  the  last  few  years  has  been  enormous.  In  1830  the 
sovereign  of  the  country  could  neither  reitd  nor  write,  whilst,  at  the  preaent  time, 
Servia,  with  its  numerous  schools  and  colleges,  is  becoming  the  intellectual  centre 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula.* 

The  Servians  have  used  their  best  efforts  to  remove  from  their  country 
everything  reminding  them  of  the  ancient  dominion  of  the  Mussulman,  and  they 
have  nearly  accomplished  this.  The  Belgrad  of  the  Turks  has  been  converted 
by  them  into  a  Western  city,  like  Vienna  or  Buda>Pest ;  palaces  in  European 
style  have  arisen  in  the  place  of  mosques  and  minarets ;  magnificent  boulevards 
intersect  the  old  quarters  of  the  town ;  and  the  esplanade,  where  the  Turks 
exposed  the  heads  of  their  victims  stuck  on  poles,  haa  been  converted  into  a 
park.  Shabatz,  on  the  Save,  has  become  a  "little  Paris;"  Semendria 
(Smederevo),  on  the  Danube,  which  gave  the  signal  of  rebellion  in  1806,  haa 
arisen  like  a  phoenix  from  its  ashes;  whilst  Posharevatz,  known  as  Passaroyits 
in  the  history  of  treaties,  haa  likewise  been  transformed,  i 'regress  is  slower  iu 
the  interior,  but  good  roads  now  extend  to  the  most  remote  comers  of  the 
country. 

Servia  is  an  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  The  Prince,  or  KhioM, 
governs  with  the  aid  of  responsible  miniaters  and  of  a  senate;  he  promulgates 
the  laws,  appoints  all  public  functionaries,  commands  the  army,  and  signs  the 
treaties.  He  rejoices  in  a  civil  list  of  £20,000.  His  successor,  in  the  case  of 
there  being  no  male  heir,  is  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  Skupahtina, 
or  national  parliament,  traces  back  its  origin  to  the  earliest  times  of  a  Servian 
monarchy.  It  numbers  134  members,  of  whom  one-fourth  are  nominated  by  the 
Prince,  and  the  remainder  elected  by  all  male  taxpayers.  This  parliament 
exercises  legislative  functions  conjointly  with  the  Prince.  In  addition  to  it  there 
exist  rural  parliaments  in  each  of  the  1,063  ohthUnat,  or  parishes,  and  these  enjoy 
extended  rights  of  local  self-government  The  constitution  provides  for  the 
election  of  a  Skupahtina  of  536  members  by  universal  suffirage,  should  extra- 
ordinary events  make  such  a  meeting  desirable.  The  affairs  of  the  country  have 
hitherto  been  managed  satisfactorily.  A  revenue  of  £554,000  sufficed  for  the 
requirements  of  the  State,  and  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  there  existed  no 
public  debt. 

Religious  liberty  exists,  but  the  Greek  Church  is  declared  to  be  that  of  the 
State.    It  has  been  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Oonstuitinople  since  1376,  and 


«  There  are  a  univenity,  a  military  academy,  a  Mminary,  an  agricultural  Mhool,  11  raperior  sohooli, 
and  377  elementarj-  Khoola,  with  M7  leachera,  and  about  10,000  pupils.  . 


.iia-LiiyAij 


g,W:Wg^. 


-;,.i4yitty»:iyiua  iiinmniiin.'HiiMiBiiH.'  miii.Ui. 


■•"•mmmnwim^ 


IIONTENKORO. 


tft 


irrian  deipIiM 
le  looks  down 
eiut  education 
e,  which  hoi 
,  ia  thus  being 
1  universitiee, 
The  progrets 
In  1830  the 
B  present  time, 
elleotual  centre 

their  country 
Iman,  and  they 
been  converted 
es  in  European 
cent  boulevards 
lere  the  Turki> 
mverted  into  a 
Semendria 
n  in  1806,  has 

as  Pflssarovita 
isB  is  slower  in 
comers  of  the 

inoe,  or  Knian, 
he  promulgates 
,  and  signs  the 
',  in  the  case  of 
The  SkupsAtina, 
les  of  a  Servian 
)minated  by  the 
rhis  parliament 
lition  to  it  there 
and  these  enjoy 
rovides  for  the 
>,  should  extra- 
he  country  have 
suflSced  for  the 
here  existed  no 

be  that  of  the 
I  since  1376,  and 

,  11  raperior  Mhodb, 


is  governed  by  a  synod  consisting  of  the  Archbishop  of  Delgrad  und  tho  I)ii*hnps 
of  Uahit;(u,  Negotin,  and  Hhabats.  The  former  ii  appointed  by  tho  Prince.  The 
high  dignitaries  of  tho  Church  are  in  receipt  of  salaries,  but  ordinary  pricnta  are 
dependent  upon  fees  and  gifts.  The  monasteries  havo  been  4upprcsAod  by  a  recent 
decision  of  the  Skujuhtina,  and  their  revenues  are  to  bo  dovoto<l  to  educational 
purposes. 

t  The  military  forces  of  the  country  consist  of  a  standing  army  of  about  4,000 
men,  and  of  a  militia  including  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  up  to  fifty  years 
of  age.  The  first  ban  of  this  militia  is  called  out  annually  for  training,  the  second 
ban  only  in  case  of  war.  Servia  is  thus  able  to  place  an  army  of  160,000  men  in 
the  field,  but  the  efficiency  of  these  badly  trained  troops  leaves  much  to  be  desired, 
a«  has  been  shown  by  recent  events. 

The  country  is  divided  into  seventeen  okruthiat,  or  districts,  vis.  Alexinntz, 
Delgrad,  Ohachak,  Ohupriya,  Enyashevatz,  Eraguyevats,  Kraina  (capital,  Negotin), 
Krushevatz,  Podrinye  (Loznitsa),  Posharevata,  Rudnik  (Milanovitz),  Shabutz, 
Smederevo,  Tserna-Reka  (Zaichar),  Ushitza,  Yulyevo,  and  Yagodina.  The  only 
towns  of  importance  are  Belgrad  (27,000  inhabitanto),  Posharevati  (7,000  inha- 
bitants), Shabatz  (6,700  inhabitants),  and  Eraguyevatz  (0,000  inhabitants). 


MONTENRORO. 

Thb  name  Montenegro  is  a  translation  of  the  Servian  Tsrnagora,  or  "black 
mountains."  It  is  a  curious  designation  for  a  country  of  white  or  greyish 
calcareous  mountains,  whose  colour  even  strikes  the  voyager  on  the  Adriatic. 
The  name,  according  to  some,  is  to  be  taken  figuratively  and  is  to  be  understood 
as  designating  a  country  of  "  bad  "  or  "  black  "  men ;  uthers  are  of  opinion  that 
it  refers  to  ancient  pine  forests  which  have  now  disappeared. 

The  Turks  have  never  succeeded  in  subjugating  the  Montenegrins,  who  found 
safety  in  their  mountain  fastnesses.  Occasionally  the  Montenegrins  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  a  foreign  power,  such  as  that  of  Yenice,  but 
they  never  acknowledged  the  Sultan  as  their  sovereign.  The  mountains,  how- 
ever, to  which  they  owe  their  independence,  are  at  the  same  time  their  weakness, 
tor  they  isolate  them  from,  the  rest  of  the  world.  A  high  range  of  mountains, 
as  well  as  a  strip  of  Turkish  territory,  separates  them  from  their  Servian  kinsmen ; 
another  range,  held  by  the  Austrians,  cuts  them  off  from  the  Gulf  of  Oattaro  and 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  small  Lake  of  Scutari  (Skodra)  is  their  sea ;  the  Zeta  and 
Moracha,  which  feed  it,  are  their  national  rivers.  If  the  Montenegrins  were 
permitted  to  des:end  into  the  plains  without  sacrificing  their  independence,  the 
and  plateaux  now  inhabited  by  them  would  aoon  be  deserted  by  all  but 
shepherds. 

The  eastern  portion  of  Montenegro,  which  is  known  as  the  Berda,  and  drained 
by  the  Moracha  and  its  tributaries,  is  comparatively  of  easy  access.  The  mighty 
dolomitic  pyramids  of  the  Dormitor  (8,550  feet)  command  its  valleys  in  the 


SS3S 


^fiSSM»>fet!^i&;i-yii.^ift^ 


v.;^--*.^(«»i 


180 


TURKEY  IN  BUBOPB. 


north,  whilst  the  rounded  heights  of  Eom  (9,000  feet)  bound  it  on  the  east. 
The  Berda  differs  in  no  respect  from  most  other  mountain  countries.  It  is  only 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  country,  in  Montenegro  proper,  that  we  meet  with 
features  altogether  distinct.  We  there  find  ourselves  in  a  labyrinth  of  cavities, 
valleys,  and  depressions,  separated  by  craggy  calcareous  ridges,  abounding  in 
narrow  fissures,  the  hiding-places  of  adders.  Only  the  mountaineers  are  able  to 
find  their  way  in  this  inextricable  labyrinth.  "  When  Qod  created  the  world," 
they  tell  you  laughing,  "  he  held  in  his  hand  a  sack  full  of  mountains.    Right 


Fig.  49. — MOMTBKBORO  AND  THI  LaKI  OF  SkODBA. 

SoOe  1 :  l,mo,000. 


•tbltOm. 


above  Montenegro  the  sack  burst,  and  hence  tLe  fearful  chaos  of  rooks  which  you 
see  before  you." 

Seen  from  an  immense  height,  Montenegro  resembles  a  vast  honeycomb  with 
thousands  of  cells,  and  this  appearance  is  duo  to  aqueous  agencies.  The  water  at 
one  spot  has  scooped  out  wide  valleys,  whilst  elsewhere  its  long-continued  action 
has.  merely  succeeded  in  producing  narrow  rtMft'n<w,  or  sink-holes.  After  heavy  rains 
th:  waters  accumulate  into  lakes,  covering  fields  and  pastures,  but  ordinarily  they 
run  off  rapidly  through  sink-holes  concealed  by  brambles,  only  to  reappear  again 
near  the  seashore  as  abundant  springs  of  bluish  water.  The  Zeta,  the  principal 
river  of  Montenegro,  is  fed  by  rivulets  which  are  swallowed  up  in  the  valley  <^ 


«aPqWSPp!"W!Sff 


mmmmmmm 


tWL^^iMwtmsss^ 


MONTENEOBO. 


181 


rooks  which  you 


Niksioh  to  the  north,  and  find  their  way  to  it  through  subterranean  channels. 
Similar  phenomena  have  already  been  noticed  in  connection  with  Bosnia  (p.  127). 
The  capital  of  Montenegro,  Tsetinye  (Cetinje),  lies  in  the  very  midst  of  the 
mountains,  in  the  centre  of  an  ancient  lake  basin.  Formerly  it  was  accessible 
only  by  a  most  difficult  mountain  path,  for  the  Montenegrins  took  care  not  to 
construct  roads,  which  would  open  their  country  to  the  g^ns  of  their  enemies. 
The  requirements  of  commerce,  however,  have  recently  induced  them  to  connect 
it  with  Cattaro  by  means  of  a  carriage  road. 

The  Montenegrins  are  the  kinsmen  of  the  Servians  of  the  Danube,  but  their 
life  of  almost  incessant  warfare,  the  elevation  and  sterility  of  their  country,  as 
well  as  the  vicinity  of  the  Albanians,  have  developed  special  features  amongst 
them.  The  quiet  life  of  the  plains  is  unknown  to  the  Montenegrin ;  he  is  violent, 
and  ready  at  all  times  to  take  up  arms ;  in  hit  belt  he  carries  a  whole  arsenal 
of  pistols  and  knives,  and  even  when  working  in  the  fields  he  has  a  carbine  by 
his  side.  Until  recently  the  price  of  blood  was  still  enacted,  and  a  scratch  even 
had  to  be  paid  for.  This  blood  vengeance  was  transmitted  from  generation  to 
generation,  until  the  number  of  victims  was  equal  on  both  sides,  or  a  monetary 
compensation,  usually  fixed  at  ten  sequins,  had  been  accepted.  Cases  of  hereditary 
veng^eance  are  rare  now,  but  the  ancient  "  custom  "  could  be  suppressed  only  by 
a  law  of  terrible  severity,  which  pimishes  murderers,  traitors,  rebels,  thieves  twice 
convicted,  incendiaries,  and  scofiisrs  at  religion  alike  with  death.  Oomparod  with 
the  Servian  of  the  Danube,  the  Montenegrin  is  a  barbarian.  Nor  is  his  personal 
appearance  equally  prepossessing.  The  women,  however,  have  regular  features, 
and,  though  less  dignified  in  their  carriage  than  their  kinswomen  of  Servia,  they 
possess,  as  a  rule,  more  grace  and  elasticity  of  movement.  They  are  very 
prolific,  and  if  a  family  increases  too  rapidly  it  is  customary  for  a  friend  to 
adopt  one  or  more  of  the  children. 

Up  to  the  invasion  of  the  Osmanli  the  upper  valleys  of  Montenegro  were  the 
home  merely  of  herdsmen  and  brigands.  But  the  inhabitants  of  the  \oyret  valleys 
were  forced  to  retire  to  these  austera  heights  ia  order  to  escape  slavery.  They 
cultivated  the  soil,  bred  cattle  and  sheep,  and  sometunes  robbed  their  neighbours. 
But  the  sterile  soil  yielded  only  a  scanty  harvest,  and  famines  were  by  no  means 
nnfrequent.  Bosnian  Uskoches,  who  fled  to  the  mountains  in  order  to  escape 
Mussulman  (oppression,  only  added  to  the  misery  by  reduoiag  to  a  minimum  the 
share  of  cultivable  soil  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  each  family.  The  pastures  are 
still  hdd  in  common,  in  accordance  with  the  andent  customs  of  the  Servians. 
According  to  a  recent  census,  Montenegro  is  said  to  have  a  population  of  nearly 
200,000  souls.  This  may  be  an'  exaggeration,  but  the  country  is  not  even  able 
to  support  120,000  inhabitants  without  drawing  supplies  from  beyond,  and  the 
armed  incursions  into  neighbouring  districts  might  thus  be  excused  as  an  "  econo- 
mical necessity."  Death  from  hunger  or  on  the  field  of  battle  was  often  the  only 
alternative.  The  Montenegrin  always  prefers  the  latter,  for  he  does  not  fear 
death,  and  "  May  you  never  die  in  bed !  "  is  a  wish  universally  expressed  at  the 
cradle  of  a  new-born  infiint.     If  a  man  is  unfortunate  enough  to  die  of  disease, 


160 


TURKEY  m  BUBOPE. 


north,  whilst  the  rounded  heights  of  Eom  (9,000  feet)  bound  it  on  the  eait. 
The  Berda  differs  in  no  respect  from  most  other  mountain  countries.  It  is  only 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  country,  in  Montenegro  proper,  that  we  meet  with 
features  altogether  distinct.  We  there  find  ourselves  in  a  labyrinth  of  cavities, 
valleys,  and  depressions,  separated  by  craggy  calcareous  ridges,  abounding  in 
narrow  fissures,  the  hiding-places  of  adders.  Only  the  mountaineers  are  able  to 
find  their  way  in  this  inextricable  labyrinth.  "  When  God  created  the  world," 
they  tell  you  laughing,  "  he  held  in  his  hand  a  sack  full  of  mountains.    Bight 


Fig.  49. — MoifTBKBORO  AND  TKB  liAKB  OP  SxODBA. 
Beale  1 : 1,860,000. 


•aftXilM. 


above  Montenegro  the  sack  burst,  and  hence  tLe  fearful  chaos  of  rooki  which  you 
see  before  you." 

Seen  from  an  immense  height,  Montenegro  resembles  a  vast  honeycomb  with 
thousands  of  cells,  and  this  appearance  is  duo  to  aqueous  agencies.  The  water  at 
one  spot  has  scooped  out  wide  valleys,  whilst  elsewhere  its  long-continued  action 
has,  merely  succeeded  in  producing  narrow  rudinaa,  or  sink-holes.  After  heavy  rains 
th^'.  waters  accumulate  into  lakes,  covering  fields  and  pastures,  but  ordinarily  they 
run  off  rapidly  through  sink-holes  concealed  by  brambles,  only  to  reappear  again 
near  the  seashore  as  abundant  springs  of  bluish  water.  The  Zeta,  the  principal 
riv^  oi  Montenegro,  is  fed  by  rivulets  which  are  swallowed  up  in  the  valley  <^ 


!iw>mis.M.4.»iwtjMa..i.ii4,,i..j»i' 


.-jrrc*  *  v^vw.&^^*«.^ 


MONTENEOBO. 


181 


on  the  eaai 
8.  It  is  only 
we  meet  with 
th  of  cayities, 
abounding  in 
ta  are  able  to 
d  the  world," 
itains.    Right 


iW 


HN^- 


,^M 


E^'  ,-^ 


wka  which  you 

loneycomb  with 
The  water  at 
mtinued  action 
fiber  heavy  rains 
ordinarily  they 
reappear  again 
i,  the  principal 
n  the  valley  oi 


Niksich  to  the  north,  and  find  their  way  to  it  through  subterranean  channels. 
Similar  phenomena  have  already  been  noticed  in  connection  with  Bosnia  (p.  127). 
The  capital  of  Montenegro,  Tsetinye  (Cetinje),  lies  in  the  very  midst  of  the 
mountains,  in  the  centre  of  an  ancient  lake  basin.  Formerly  it  was  accessible 
only  by  a  most  difficult  mountain  path,  for  the  Montenegrins  took  care  not  to 
construct  roads,  which  would  open  their  country  to  the  guns  of  their  enemies. 
The  requirements  of  commerce,  however,  have  recently  induced  them  to  connect 
it  with  Gattaro  by  means  of  a  carriage  road. 

The  Montenegrins  are  the  kinsmen  of  the  Servians  of  the  Danube,  but  their 
life  of  almost  incessant  warfare,  the  elevation  and  sterility  of  their  country,  as 
well  as  the  vicinity  of  the  Albanians,  have  developed  special  features  amongst 
them.  The  quiet  life  of  the  plains  is  unknown  to  the  Montenegrin ;  he  is  violent, 
and  ready  at  all  times  to  take  up  arms ;  in  hii  belt  he  carries  a  whole  arsenal 
of  pistols  and  knives,  and  even  when  working  in  the  fields  ho  has  a  carbine  by 
his  side.  Until  recently  the  price  of  blood  was  still  enacted,  and  a  scratch  even 
had  to  be  paid  for.  This  blood  vengeance  was  transmitted  from  generation  to 
generation,  until  the  number  of  victims  was  equal  on  both  sides,  or  a  monetary 
compensation,  usually  fixed  at  ten  sequins,  had  been  accepted.  Cases  of  hereditary 
veng^nce  are  rare  now,  but  the  ancient  "  custom  "  could  be  suppressed  only  by 
a  law  of  terrible  severity,  which  punishes  murderent,  traitors,  rebels,  thieves  twice 
convicted,  incendiaries,  and  scoffers  at  religion  alike  with  death.  Compared  with 
the  Servian  of  the  Danube,  the  Montenegrin  is  a  barbarian.  Nor  is  his  personal 
appearance  equally  prepossessing.  The  women,  however,  have  regular  features, 
and,  though  less  dignified  in  thdr  carriage  than  their  kinswomen  of  Servia,  they 
possess,  as  a  rule,  more  grace  and  elasticity  of  movement.  They  are  very 
prolific,  and  if  a  family  increases  too  rapidly  it  is  customary  for  a  friend  to 
adopt  one  or  more  of  the  children. 

Up  to  the  invasion  of  the  Osmanli  the  upper  valleys  of  Montenegro  were  the 
home  merely  of  herdsmen  and  brigands.  But  the  iohabitants  of  the  ^ower  valleys 
were  forced  to  retire  to  these  austerd  heights  in  order  to  escape  shivery.  They 
cultivated  the  soil,  bred  cattle  and  sheep,  and  sometunes  robbed  their  neighbours. 
But  the  sterile  soil  jridded  only  a  scanty  harvest,  and  &mines  were  by  no  means 
nnfrequent.  Bosnian  Uskoohes,  who  fled  to  the  mountains  in  order  to  escape 
Mussulman  oppression,  only  added  to  the  misery  by  reducing  to  a  minimum  the 
share  of  cultivable  soil  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  each  fanuly.  The  pastures  are 
still  held  in  common,  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  customs  of  the  Servians. 
According  to  a  recent  census,  Montenegro  is  said  to  have  a  population  of  nearly 
200,000  souls.  This  may  be  an'  exaggeration,  but  the  country  is  not  even  able 
to  support  120,000  inhabitants  without  drawing  supplies  from  beyond,  and  the 
armed  incursions  into  neighbouring  districts  might  thus  be  excused  as  an  "  econo- 
mical necessity."  Death  from  hunger  or  on  the  field  of  battle  was  often  the  only 
alternative.  The  Montenegrin  always  prefers  the  latter,  for  he  does  not  fear 
death,  and  "  May  you  never  die  in  bed !  "  is  a  wish  universally  expressed  at  the 
cradle  of  a  new-born  infant.     If  a  man  is  unfortunate  enough  to  die  of  disease, 


182 


TUBKEY  IN  EUEOPB. 


or  from  old  age,  his  friends  excuse  him  euphemistically  by  charging  the  "  Old 
Murderer  "  with  his  death. 

The  warlike  incursions  of  former  days  have  ceased  now,  for  the  boundaries 
of  Montenegro  have  been  defined  by  an  international  commission,  and  the 
mountaineers  have  established  friendly  relations  with  their  neighbours,  from 
whom  they  are  able  now  to  purchase  what  they  require.  In  summer  they  permit 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  to  take  their  cattle  into  the  hills,  whilst  in  winter 
they  themselves  descend  to  the  seaboard,  where  they  are  sure  now  of  a  friendly 
reception. 

The  Montenegrins  have  always  been  anxious  to  possess  a  port  on  the  Adriatic, 
which  would  enable  them  to  import  freely,  and  without  the  intervention  of  the 
merchants  of  Cattaro,  the  powder,  salt,  and  other  articles  they  require,  and  to 
export  their  own  produce.  Their  commerce,  even  now,  is  of  some  importance. 
They  export  smoked  mutton,  sheep  and  goats,  skins,  tallow,  salt  fish,  cheese, 
honey,  sumach,  insect  powder,  &c.,  of  an  estimated  value  of  £40,000  annually. 

The  Montenegrins,  like  their  neighbours  the  Albanians,  frequently  leave  their 
country  for  a  time  in  order  to  seek  work  in  the  great  cities  of  the  East.  Thou- 
sands of  them  are  to  be  met  in  Constantinople,  where  they  manage  to  live 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  Turks,  their  "  hereditary  enemies."  They  are  even  to 
be  found  in  Egypt 

The  Tsigani  are  the  only  strangers  met  with  in  the  country.  They  resemble 
the  Servians  in  language,  dress,  religion,  and  customs,  and  only  differ  from  them 
by  working  at  a  useful  trade,  that  of  smiths.  Their  industry,  however,  causes 
them  to  be  objects  of  disdain,  and  they  are  not  permitted  to  intermarry  with 
Servians. 

The  government  of  Montenegro  is  a  curious  mixture  of  democratic,  feudal,  and 
despotic  institutions.  The  citizens  fancy  that  they  are  equals,  but  they  are  not, 
for  certain  families  exercise  a  powerful  influence.  The  sovereign,  who  appro- 
priates, about,  half  the  revenue  of  the  country,  and  receives  8,000  ducats  annually 
from  Russia  in  addition,  appoints  the  members  of  the  Senate,  or  Sotyet.  The 
Skupshtina  includes  the  glamrs,  or  chiefs,  of  the  thirty-nine  tribes  (pkmena),  but 
has  hitherto  limited  itself  to  applauding  the  "  speech  from  the  throne."  There 
is  a  body- guard  of  a  hundred  men,  and  the  whole  of  the  male  population  is 
bound  to  take  the  field  under  the  leadership  of  Serdars.  The  country  is  divided 
into  eight  tuiM^a,  or  districts,  of  which  four  (Bielopavliehka,  Uskoohka,  Morachka, 
and  Yaaoyevichka,  with  the  country  of  the  Euchi),  constitute  the  Berda,  and 
four  (Katunska,  Liesanska,  Riechka,  and  Tsermniohka)  belong  to  Montenegro 
proper.  Each  of  these  districts  is  placed  under  a  knim.  The  families  and 
associations  of  families  (hraatvos)  are  governed  by  hotpodara  and  atarahituu, 
dependent  upon  the  tribal  chiefs,  or  glavara. 


„,  .,.^^,.„„..^.r^  -^■M^^'i^^^^-.A.^mmmmmmmi,  i^.a..,..M>^.....^^^^,,,wfe!H%ajaa^^ 


ng  the  •*  Old 

le  boundaries 
on,  and  the 
hbours,  from 
r  they  permit 
ilst  in  winter 
of  a  friendly 

the  Adriatic, 
rention  of  the 
quire,  and  to 
,e  importance. 
b  fish,  cheese, 
annually, 
tly  leave  their 
East.  Thou- 
lanage  to  live 
ey  are  even  to 

They  resemble 
ler  from  them 
owever,  causes 
itermarry  with 

bic,  feudal,  and 
;  they  are  not, 
fn,  who  appro- 
Lucats  annually 
>r  Socyet.    The 
I  {pktnena),  but 
irone."     There 
)  population  is 
intry  is  divided 
ilka,  Moraohka, 
she  Berda,  and 
to  Montenegro 
B  families  and 
and  itarshituu, 


m^vr^irff^^mmff^^r  ' 


',i^i^;;^triiW:m«mmthyii*ii^^ 


ITALY/ 


I. GSNERAL  AsPBCm. 

I  HE  limits  of  the  Italian  peninsula  have  been  most  distinctly  traced 
by  nature.  The  Alps,  which  bound  it  in  the  north,  from  the 
promontories  of  Liguria  to  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Istiia, 
present  themselves  like  a  huge  wall,  the  only  breaches  in  which 
are  formed  by  passes  situated  high  up  in  the  zones  of  pines, 
pastures,  or  eternal  snows.  Italy,  like  its  two  sister  peninsulas  of  Southen 
Europe,  thus  constitutes  a  world  of  its  own,  destined  by  nature  to  become  the 
theatre  of  a  special  evolution  of  humanity  Its  delightful  climate,  beauteous 
skies,  and  fertile  fields  distinguish  it  in  a  marked  manner  from  the  countries 
lying  beyond  the  Alps ;  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  latter  who  descends  the  sunny 
southern  slope  of  this  dividing  range  cannot  fail  to  perceive  that  everything 
around  him  has  changed,  and  that  he  has  entered  a  "  new'world." 

The  protecting  barrier  of  tbe  Alps  and  the  sea  which  bounds  it  have 
imparted  to  Italy  a  distinct  individuality.  All  its  countries,  from  the  pkins  of 
Lombardy  to  the  shores  of  Sicily,  resemble  each  other  in  certain  respects.  There 
1%  a  sort  of  family  Ukeness  about  them ;  but  still  what  deli<thtful  contrasts,  what 

•  AvthoritiM:— ZacMwgni  Orludini,  "Oongnfia  flaiM,  itoiiM  e  rtstktiw  ddl'  IteUa  e  dello  ma 
lioto;"  liamoechi,  "DMoririoned'lUlk;"  Anrnto  Amati,  "LlUlkiotto  I'Mpettofinoo,  ^torico,  wUrtioo 
e  itatitlico;"  Taine,  -  Voyi«een Italia;"  Ongoroviiu.  "  Wandwjahrein  Italien,"  " QeMhiohto  der  Stadt 
Bom;"  AmuiU  SiauaK),  "Le  Alpi  ohe  dBgonol'Itelis;"  0»ttiu>«o  •  Lombaidini,  " Noticia  natunU  • 
c5wll«il»L<mibi«di»;"  LombMdiiii,"HMMii»  wibepeninM,"  «CondWoi»idi»ulHi»dislPo;"  MartiBi, 
Qaauadi,  "Temiaa  aopwAolato  da  la  vaU«a  da  P« ; "  Da  Mo  tlUat,  "  Anciam  gkoiam  du  Tenant  in«ri- 
dkoal  daa  Alpea,"  "Mtooiraa  diran;"  Bertolotti, ** Lignria  maritima;"  Tkigioai  To««|iti,  "  Voyaga 
aa  Toacana;"  SalTagnoU  Mardwttt,  "Maremma  Toaoine;"  Ho«l  dei  Vargara,  "L'Etmrie  at  laa 
itraaanca ; "  BauM,  "  Fonillca  at  d«ooavertoa ; "  Oioidano, "  Roma  e  ano  tenitorio ; "  Ponai,  "  Hiatoita 
natoraDa  du  Latimn ; "  Da  P»ony, «  Mania  PonUna ; "  Worka  of  D' Amptea  and  Btandlul,  te. ;  Darfaa, 
••  POgrioMga  of  tha  Tftar ; "  Fnada  Way,  "  Borne ;  '  SpaUanaani,  •'  Voyaga  dana  lai  Deux-Bidiea ; " 
Smyth. "  Sicily  and  ita  lalaada ; "  Dolomiau,  "  Voyaga  mx  lie.  da  Lipari ; "  Do  Qoatrefiigaa,  "  Soura- 
Bin  d'aa  natumMata; "  La  Marmora,  "Voyage  en  Sardaigna,  Deacriptton  atatiitiqsc,  phyriqna  <* 
politioae  de  Mle;"  Mantogaan,  "Proffli  a  pae««gi  ddla  Saidagna ; "  Von  Maltaan,  "Balaa  auf  dw 
In«al  Sardiaifln ; "  Spano.  '•  Itinerario  dalia  Sardegna ; "  Oorrenti  a  Maeatri. "  Statiatioa  deU'  Italia." 


jifjiijiiDiit 


184 


ITALY. 


picturesque  variety,  do  we  not  meet  with  !  Most  of  these  contrasts  are  due  to 
the  Apennines,  which  branch  off  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  French  Alps. 
At  first  they  run  close  to  the  seashore,  like  a  huge  wall  supported  at  intervals 
by  powerful  buttresses ;  subsequently  they  traverse  the  whole  of  the  peninsula. 
At  times  they  are  reduced  to  a  narrow  ridge,  at  others  they  spread  out  into  vast 
masses,  rising  in  plateaux  or  ramifying  into  chains  and  promontories.  Biver 
valleys  and  plains  intersect  them  in  all  directions  ;  lakes  and  filled-up  lake  basins 
are  spread  out  at  the  foot  of  their  cliffs ;  and  numerous  volcanoes,  rising  above  the 
general  level,  contrast,  by  their  regular  form,  with  the  rugged  declivities  of 
the  Apennines.  The  sea,  following  these  sinuositiee  in  the  relief  of  the  ground, 
forms  a  series  of  bays,  arranged  with  a  certain  degree  of  symmetry.  In  the 
north  these  bays  do  not  much  encroach  upon  the  land,  but  in  the  south  they 
penetrate  deeply,  and  almost  form  veritable  gulfs.  There  once  existed  an  Italy 
of  granitic  rocks,  but  it  exists  no  longer,  for  the  rocks  of  the  Apennines  and  of 
the  plains  teach  us  that  the  Italy  of  the  present  is  of  recent  origin,  and  that  the 
many  islands  of  which  it  consisted  formerly  were  imited  into  a  single  peninsula 
88  recently  as  the  Eocene  epoch. 

Italy,  compared  with  G^reece,  exhib.ts  much  sobriety  in  its  configuration. 
Its  mountains  are  arranged  in  more  regular  ridges,  its  coasts  are  less  indented,  its 
small  archipelagos  bear  no  comparison  with  the  Oyclades,  and  its  three  great 
dependent  islands,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  are  regular  in  their  contours. 
Indeed,  its  contours  mark  its  intermediate  position  between  joyous  Greece  and 
severe  Iberia.  Thus  there  exists  a  correspondence  between  geographical  position 
and  contours. 

Italy,  as  a  whole,  contrasts  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. The  former  &ces  the  iBgean,  and  looks  towards  the  east,  whilst  in  the 
truly  peninsular  portion  of  Italy,  to  the  south  of  the  plains  of  Lombordy,  the 
westerly  slopes  offer  most  life.  Secure  harbours  are  most  numerous  on  the  shores 
of  the  Tyrrhenian,  and  the  largest  and  most  fertile  plains  slope  down  towards 
that  sea.  It  results  from  this  that  the  western  slopes  of  the  Apennines  have 
given  birth  to  the  most  enterprising  and  intelligent  populations,  who  have  taken 
the  lead  in  the  political  history  of  their  country.  The  west  represents  the  light, 
whilst  the  east,  bounded  as  it  is  by  the  Adriatic,  an  inland  sea  almost,  a  simple 
gulf,  represents  the  night.  True,  the  plains  of  Apulia,  though  on  the  east,  are 
wealthier  and  more  populous  than  the  mountain  regions  of  Calabria,  but  the 
vicinity  of  Sicily,  nevertheless,  even  there  insures  the  preponderance  of  the 
western  littoral.  Whilst  Greece  was  in  the  height  of  her  glory,  whilst  every 
initiative  went  forth  from  Athens,  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  islands  of  the 
^gean,  those  republics  which  looked  towards  the  east,  such  as  Tarentnm,  Loori, 
Sybaris,  Syracuse,  and  Catania,  enjoyed  a  pre-eminence  over  the  cities  on  the 
western  littoral.  The  physical  corifiguration  of  Italy  thus  facilitated  the  march 
of  civilisation  from  the  south-east  to  the  north-west,  from  Ionia  to  GauL  The 
Gulf  of  Taranto  and  the  eastern  coasts  of  Greater  Greece  and  Sicily  were  fireely 
exposed  to  HeUenio  influences,  whilst  further  north  the  peninsula  fiuses  about  to 


OENBBAL  ASPECTS. 


I  are  due  to 
French  Alps. 

at  intervala 
le  peninsula. 
[>ut  into  vast 
>ries.  Biver 
p  lake  basins 
ag  above  tbe 
leolivities  of 

the  ground, 
try.  In  tbe 
e  south  they 
ted  an  Italy 
mines  and  of 
and  that  the 
(le  peninsula 

tonfiguration. 
indented,  its 
I  three  great 
eir  contours. 
I  Greece  and 
lical  position 

alkan  penin- 
rhilst  in  the 
ombardy,  the 
on  the  shores 
lown  towards 
ennines  have 
0  haye  taken 
nts  the  Hght, 
nost,  a  simple 

the  east,  are 
bria,  but  the 
trance  of  the 

whilst  every 
islands  of  the 
'entum,  Locri» 

cities  on  the 
Bd  the  march 
o  GauL  The 
ywere  fireely 
faces  about  to 


the  west  as  it  were.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  features  greatly  facilitated 
the  expansion  of  ideas  in  the  direction  of  Western  Europe,  and  that  if  it  had  been 
otherwise  civilisation  would  have  taken  another  direction. 

For  nearly  two  thousand  years,  from  the  fall  of  Carthage  to  the  discovery 
of  America,  Italy  remained  the  centre  of  the  civilised  world.  It  maintained  its 
hegemony  either  by  conquest  and  organisation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "  Eternal 
Oity,"  or  by  the  power  of  its  genius,  the  relative  liberty  of  its  institutions,  its 
sciences,  arts,  and  commerce,  as  in  the  times  of  Florence,  Genoa,  and  Venice. 
Two  of  the  greatest  events  in  history,  the  political  imification  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean world  under  the  laws  of  Rome,  and  at  a  later  epoch  the  regeneration 
of  the  human  mind,  so  appropriately  termed  "  Renaissance,"  originated  in 
Italy.  It  behoves  us,  therefore,  to  inquire  into  the  geographical  conditions 
which  may  account  for  this  preponderance  during  these  two  ages  in  the  life  of 
mankind. 

Mommsen  and  others  have  pointed  out  the  favourable  position  of  Rome  as  an 
emporium.  From  the  very  first  that  city  became  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
neighbouring  populations.  Built  in  the  centre  of  a  circus  of  hills,  and  on  the 
banks  of  a  navigable  river,  not  far  from  the  sea,  it  likewise  possessed  the  advan- 
tage of  lying  on  the  frontiers  of  three  nations — Latins,  Sabines,  and  Etruscans. 
When  Rome  had  conquered  the  neighbouring  territories  it  undoubtedly  rose  into 
importance  as  a  place  of  commerce.  This  local  tra£Bc,  however,  would  never  have 
converted  Rome  into  a  great  city.  Its  position  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that 
of  places  like  Alexandria,  Constantinople,  or  Bombay,  upon  which  the  world's 
commerce  converges  as  a  matter  of  course.  On  the  contrary,  its  situation  hardly 
favours  commerce.  The  Apennines,  which  environ  the  territory  of  Rome  in  a 
huge  semicircle,  constituted  a  formidable  obstacle  until  quite  recently,  and  were 
avoided  by  merchants ;  the  sea  near  Rome  is  treacherous,  and  even  the  small  galleys 
of  the  ancients  could  not  enter  the  inefficient  harbour  at  Ostia  without  risk. 

The  power  of  Rome,  therefore,  depended  but  in  a  small  measure  upon  com- 
mercial advantages  resulting  firom  geographical  position.  It  is  its  central 
position  to  which  that  city  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  greatness,  and « which 
enabled  it  to  weld  the  whole  of  the  ancient  world  into  a  political  whole.  Three 
concentric  circles  drawn  around  the  oity  correspond  with  as  many  phases  in  its 
development.  During  their  first  struggles  for  existence  the  Romans  enjoyed 
the  advantage  of  occupying  a  basin  of  limited  extent,  shielded  on  all  sides  by 
mountains.  When  Rome  had  exterminated  the  inhabitants  of  these  mountains 
the  remainder  of  Italy  naturally  gravitated  towards  her.  The  plains  of  Cis-  and 
Transpadana  in  the  north  presented  no  obstacles,  whilst  the  resistance  of  the 
uncivilised  tribes  of  the  mountun  regions  of  the  south  was  soon  broken,  for  they 
found  no  support  amongst  the  Greek  colonies  scattered  along  an' extensive  coast. 
Nor  were  the  populations  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica  sufficiently  imited  to 
offisr  an  effective  resistance  to  the  organised  farces  of  the  Romans,  who  were  thus, 
able  to  extend  their  power  over  all  the  countries  o<nnpreh^ded  within  the  seoond 
oonoentric  circle  referred  to.  « 


It6 


ITALY. 


It  happened  that  the  plains  of  Northern  Italy  and  Sicily  were  hoth  rieh 
granaries,  which  enabled  the  Romans  to  push  forward  their  conquests.  The  whole 
world  of  tho  Mediterrnnean  gravitated  towards  Rome  and  Italy :  Illyria,  Greece, 
and  Egypt  in  the  «iast,  Libya  and  Mauritania  in  the  south,  Iberia  in  the  west, 
Gaul  'a  the  north-west,  and  the  transalpine  countries  in  the  north. 

Rome  mainta*'  od  her  power  and  influence  as  locg  as  the  Mediterranean 
constituted  the  world ;  but,  in  proportion  as  the  borders  of  the  known  world  were 
enlarged,  so  did  Rome  lose  the  advantages  which  a  central  position  had  conferred 
upon  her.  Even  during  the  latter  days  of  the  Roman  empire  Milan  and 
Ravenna  usurped  the  position  once  held  by  Rome,  and  the  latter  became  the  seat 


Fig.  M — Rom  A!«D  n»  Roman  EMruob 


% 


i 


A     If 


E   A  N 


■SI  amHn    if  Rmm     tm  Cit 


n^ 


paogMfrtMArffa 


■v^^HKot  ^^m^v^v 


of  the  Byaantine  exarch,  and  subsequently  the  capital  of  the  empire  of  the  Qotha. 
Rome,  the  city  of  the  Caesars,  had  fallen  for  evermore  I  True  the  emperors  were 
succeeded  by  the  p^  pes,  but  the  real  masters  of  the  "  Holy  Roman  Em^re " 
resided  beyond  the  Alps,  and  only  came  to  Italy  to  have  their  power  consecrated. 
Even  in  Italy  itself  Rome  ceased  to  be  tb<»  leading  town,  its  place  being  taken  by 
Pavia,  Florence,  Genoa,  Milan,  Venice,  Bologna,  and  even  Turin. 

The  unity  of  Italy  has  been  realised  in  the  course  of  this  century,  and, 
excepting  a  few  Alfane  valleys^  its  politioai  boundaries  coincide  with  its  natural 
ones.  It  may  surprise  us  that  this  unity  should  not  have  been  established  long 
ago,  but  the  geographical  configuration  of  Italy  readily  lends  itself  to  the 


w^^^^mmw^mm^mi^sm 


OENEBAL  ASPECTS. 


ur 


'ere  both  rich 
ts.  The  whole 
llyria,  Oreeoe, 
a  ia  the  weet, 

Mediterranean 
urn  world  were 
had  conferred 
re  Milan  and 
eoame  the  aeat 


W 


re  of  tile  Gotiu. 
I  emperors  were 
»man  Em^re" 
rer  oonaeorated. 
being  taken  by 

B  coitary,  and, 
rith  its  natural 
»tablished  long 
I  itself  to  the 


establishment  of  small  itates.  Its  islauds,  its  mountain*bound  plain*,  and  coast 
districts,  shut  off  from  the  interior  of  the  country  by  abrupt  mountains,  formed  as 
many  centres  where  populations  of  diverse  origin  were  able  to  lead  a  life  inde- 
pendently of  their  neighbours.  Now  and  then  the  whole  of  Italy  acknowledged 
a  single  master,  but  it  only  did  so  on  compulsion.  That  spirit  of  nationality 
which  has  given  birth  to  a  united  Italy  only  animated  very  few  oitisens  of  the 
medinval  republics.  They  might  unite  to  resist  a  common  danger,  but  no  sooner 
was  it  past  than  they  went  their  separate  ways,  or,  still  worse,  fought  amongst 
themselves  about  some  trifle. 

Cola  di  Rienii,  the  tribune  of  Rome,  appealed  to  the  cities  of  Italy  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century ;  he  adjured  them  to  "  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
tyrant,  and  to  form  a  holy  national  brotherhood,  whose  object  should  be  the 
liberation  of  Rome  and  the  whole  of  Italy."  His  messengers,  carrying  a  silver 
wand,  went  to  every  city  with  greetings  of  amity,  and  asked  that  deputies  should 
be  sent  to  the  Aiture  parliament  of  the  Eternal  Gty.  Riensi,  AiU  of  the 
memories  of  the  past,  decUured  that  Rome  had  not  ceased  to  be  the  "  mistress  of 
the  world,"  and  had  a  natural  right  to  govern  all  nations.  It  was  his  aim  to 
resuscitate  the  past,  not  to  evoke  a  new  life,  and  his  work  disappeared  like  a 
dream.  Florence  and  Venice,  the  most  active  cities  of  that  period,  looked  upon 
him  as  a  visionary.  "  Siamo  Yeneziani,  poi  Orisiiani,"  said  the  proud  citisens 
of  Venice  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They,  whose  sons  fought  so  valiantly  for 
Italian  independence,  never  thought  of  calling  themselves  Italians.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  impulse  which  has  made  Italy  one  did  not 
originate  with  the  masses,  for  there  are  still  millions  of  Sicilians,  Sardinians, 
Oakbrians,  and  even  Lombards  who  do  not  appreciate  the  vast  changes  which 
have  taken  place. 

If  Italy  no  longer  remains  a  "  geographical  expression,"  it  is  owing  in  a 
large  measure  to  frequent  foreign  invasions.  Spaniards,  French,  and  Germans 
in  turn  have  seised  the  fertile  plains  of  Italy,  and  their  hard  oppression  has 
taught  the  Italians  to  look  uptm  each  other  as  brothers.  The  Alps  might  be 
supposed  to  offer  an  effective  protection  against  such  invasions,  but  they  do  not. 
They  are  steepest  on  the  Italian  side,  whilst  their  exterior  slopes,  towards  France, 
Switzerland,  and  German  Austria,  are  comparatively  gentle.  Invaders,  tempted 
by  the  delightful  climate  and  the  wealth  of  Italy,  were  able  to  reach  easily 
the  Alpine  passes,  whence  they  rushed  down  upon  the  phuns;  and  thus  the 
"barrier  of  the  Alps"  is  a  barrier  only  to  the  Italians,  and  has  always  bem 
respected  by  them,  excepting  during  tho  Roman  empire.  Nor  is  there  any  reason 
why  they  should  cross  it,  for  there  ia  no  country  beyond  equal  to  their  own. 
French,  Swiss,  and  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  have  always  looked  upon  Italy 
as  a  sort  of  paradise.  It  was  the  country  of  their  dreams ;  they  yielded  frequently 
to  their  desire  to  possess  it,  and  dyed  its  coveted  plains  with  blood. 

Italy,  exposed  as  it  is  to  attacks  from  beyond,  and  no  longer  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  known  world,  has  definitively  lost  its  pnmato,  or  foremost  place 
amongst  nations,  which  some  of  its  sons,  carried  away  by  an  exclusive  patriotism, 


lee 


ITALY. 


would  rMion  to  it.  Bat  tboagh  no  longer  the  most  powmrfttl  nation,  and 
eolipMd  in  industry,  oommeroe,  and  even  literature  and  loienoe,  it  itill  remains 
unrivalled  in  its  treasure*  of  art.  There  is  no  other  country  in  the  world 
which  can  boast  of  an  equal  number  of  cities  remarkable  on  account  of  their 
buildings,  statues,  paintings,  and  decorations  of  ererj  kind.  There  are  prorinces 
where  every  village,  every  group  of  houses  even,  delights  the  ^e  either  by  a 
fresco  painting  or  a  work  of  the  sculptor's  chisel,  a  bold  staircase  or  picturesque 
balcony.  The  instinct  for  art  has  passed  int4>  the  blood  of  the  people,  and  we 
need  not  wonder  if  an  Italian  peasant  builds  his  house  and  plants  his  treea  so  as 
to  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the  surrounding  landscape.  This  constitutes  the 
greatest  charm  of  Italy ;  everywhere  art  goes  hand  in  hand  with  nature.  How 
many  artists  are  there  not  in  Lombardy,  Venetia,  or  Tuscany  who  would  have 
become  £imous  in  any  other  country,  but  whose  names  will  never  be  remem- 
bt>r<^,  in  consequence  of  their  overwhelming  numbers,  or  because  their  lot  was 
cast  in  some  remote  Tillage  I 

Italy  owes  the  rank  it  has  held  for  more  than  two  thousand  years  not 
merely  to  its  monuments  and  works  of  art,  which  attract  students  from  th« 
extremities  of  the  earth,  but  also  to  its  historical  associations.  In  a  country  which 
has  been  inhabited  for  centuries  by  a  civilised  people  there  cannot  be  a  town 
the  origin  of  which  is  not  lost  in  the  darkness  of  tradition.  The  modem  cities 
have  r^laoed  the  Roman  towns,  and  these  latter  rose  upon  the  ruins  of  tome 
Greek,  Etruscan,  or  OalUc  settlement.  Every  fortress,  every  country  house, 
marks  the  site  of  some  ancient  citadel,  or  of  the  yilla  of  a  Roman  patrician ; 
churches  have  replaced  the  ancient  temples,  and  though  the  religious  rites  have 
changed,  the  altars  of  gods  and  saints  arise  anew  in  the  spots  consecrated  of  old. 
An  examination  of  these  relics  of  all  ages  is  full  of  interest,  and  only  the  most 
obtuse  can  resist  the  influence  of  the  historical  reminiscences  which  supround  him. 

Italy,  after  a  long,  period  of  decay  and  foreign  domination,  has  again  taken  its 
place  amongst  the  foremost  modem  nations.  The  aspect  of  the  peninsula  has 
undergone  many  changes  since  it  reoeiTed  the  nasku  of  Titalia,  or  Italia,  firom  the 
herds  of  cattle  which  roamed  over  it.  Its  weU-oultivated  plains,  careftilly  tended 
gardens,  and  busy  cities  entitle  it  now  to  some  other  appellation.  The  passes  of 
the  Alps,  and  its  central  position  give  Italy  the  command  of  all  the  routes  which 
converge  firom  France,  Germany,  and  Austria  upon  the  Gulfs  of  Genoa  and! 
Venice.  Its  quarries,  sulphur  and  iron  mines,  its  wines  and  agricultural  produce 
of  every  description,  and  its  industry  afford  ever-growing  resources.  Its  men  of 
leaming  and  inventors  may  fairly  claim  to  be  on  a  level  with  those  of  other 
countries.  The  population  increases  rapidly.  It  is  not  only  more  dense  than  in 
France,  but  also  sends  a  considerable  contingent  of  emigrants  to  the  solitudes  oi 
Southern  America.* 

«  Am  of  the  kingdom  of  lUfy,  114,418  iqaaN  mOw ;  popaktk»  in  187',  87,483,174. 


will  »'»"<■  I  ■gg*! 


swi^^^»l^sas>^-«t*ss?^ifgs»mTt^ 


T 


THB  BABIN  OF  THE  PO. 


ftil  nation,  and 
it  itill  remain! 
f  in  the  world 
coount  of  their 
e  are  prorinoet 
^e  either  by  a 
)  or  piotureaque 
people,  and  we 
•  hia  treea  lo  aa 
I  oonatitutea  the 
I  nature.  How 
rho  would  hate 
}Ter  be  remem- 
■e  their  lot  waa 

■and  yeara  not 
lenta  from  tha 
A  country  whioh 
nnot  he  a  town 
e  modem  oitiea 
e  ruin*  of  tome 
country  honte, 
>man  patrician; 
^oua  ritea  hare 
iMorated  of  old. 
1  only  the  moat 
li  Bunound  him. 
I  again  taken  ita 
B  peninaula  haa 
Italia,  firom  the 
oareftilly  tended 
The  paeaeaof 
^he  routea  which 
of  Oenoa  att^ 
jultnral  produce 
lea.  Ita  men  of 
I  thoae  of  other 
■e  dense  than  in 
the  Bolitudea  ci 


37,489,174. 


II. — Thi  Bamn  or  THi  Po. 

PiBMONT,*   LOMHARDY.    VrNKTIA,   AND  EmILIA. 

Tm  raUey  of  the  Po  it  frequently  ipoken  of  aa  Upper  Italy,  beoauae  it  oooupiea 
the  northern  portion  of  the  peninaula,  but  might  more  appropriately  be  termed 
the  Italian  Nekherhmda,  for  ita  elevation  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  group  of 
prorincea.     It  ia  a  river  valley  now,  but  during  the  Pliuoene  epoch  it  still  formed 

Fif.  Al.— MoMTC  Vno  AM  IT  ArriAW  raoa  Oaurnuoo. 


a  gulf  of  the  sea.  Thia  gulf  waa  gradually  Med  up  by  the  alluvium  brought 
down  by  the  rivers,  and  upheaved  by  ftubterranean  f orcea  above  the  aurfaoe  of  the 
waters,  the  erosive  action  of  the  mountain  torrenta  continuing  all  the  while ; 
and  thus,  in  the  course  of  ages,  the  baain  of  the  Po  aasumed  its  gentle  and 
regular  alope  towarda  the  sea.  As  long  aa  the  wata«  of  the  Adriatic  penetrated 
the  valleya  between  Monte  Bosa  and  Monte  Yiso,  Italy  was  attached  to  the  Alpa 

•  Fi6  di  lloBte,  Fieckmont,  or  Pianumta,  i.«.  mmmtaia-fook. 
14 


190 


ITALY. 


of  continental  Europe  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land  formed  by  the  Ligurian 
Apennines. 

No  other  region  of  Europe  can  rival  the  valley  of  the  Po  as  regards  the 
magnificence  of  its  distant  prospects.  The  Apennines  in  the  south  raise  their 
heads  above  the  region  of  forests,  their  rocks,  woods,  and  pasturages  contrasting 
with  the  uniform  plain  spread  out  along  their  foot ;  whilst  the  snow-olad  Alps 
rise  in  all  their  sublimity  from  the  Ool  di  Tenda  in  the  west  to  the  passes  of  tstria 
in  the  east.  The  isolated  pyramid  of  Monte  Yiso  (thus  called  from  the  beautiful 
prospect  which  may  be  obtained  firom  its  summit,  looks  down  upon  the  fields  of 
Saluzzo,  and  the  small  lakes  in  its  pasturing  region  feed  a  roaring  rivulet  which 
subsequently  assumes  the  name  of  Po.  Enormous  buttresses  to  the  north-west  of 
Turin  support  the  ice-clad  Grand  Paradis,  near  which  peeps  out  the  Ghivola, 
perhaps  the  most  charming,  the  most  graoefVilly  chiselled  of  all  Alpine  peaks. 
Bight  in  the  bend  of  the  Alpine  chain  rises  the  dome  of  Mont  Blanc,  like  an 
island  above  a  sea  of  mountains.  Monte  Bosa,  crowned  with  a  seven-pointed 
diadem,  pushes  its  spurs  far  into  Italy.  Then  come  lihe  Splugen,  the  Ortler,  the 
Adamello,  the  Marmolade,  and  many  another  summit  distinguished  for  some 
special  beauty.  When  from  the  top  of  the  dome  of  Milan  we  behold  spread 
out  around  us  this  magnificent  amphitheatre  of  mountains  rising  above  the 
verctant  plain,  we  may  well  rejoice  that  we  should  have  lived  to  contemplate  so 
grand  a  scene. 

Geographically  the  Alps  belong  to  the  countries  which  surround  Italy.  From 
the  south  we  seize  at  a  glance  the  entire  slope  of  the  mountains,  from  the  vine- 
yards and  plantations  of  mulberry-trees  to  the  forests  of  beech  and  laxoh,  the 
pastures,  the  naked  rooks,  and  the  dazzling  fields  of  ice.  But  the  cultivator  only 
ventured  into  this  difficult  region  when  forced  by  poverty.  The  features  of  the 
northern  slope  are  quite  different.  There  tiie  land  rises  gradually,  and  tibe  valleys 
are  less  fertile,  but  the  inhabitants  can  easily  reach  the  heads  of  the  possos, 
whence  they  look  down  upon  the  inviting  plains  of  Italy.  It  is  this  simotiire  of 
the  Alps  which  explains  the  preponderance  of  the  GerrLdnio  and  Gallic  elements 
throughout  their  extent,  and  whilst  Italian  is  spoken  only  in  a  few  isolated 
localities  beyond  this  mountain  barrier,  the  Frendi  and  German  elements  are 
largely  represented  on  thdr  inner  slopes. 

Italy  can  only  daim  a  few  Alpine  mountain  masses  within  the  basin  vi  the 
Fo,  the  Adige,  and  the  rivers  of  Yenetia.  The  most  important  of  these,  alike  on 
account  of  its  height,  its  glaciers,  and  springs,  is  the  Gband  Paradis,  which  rears 
its  head  to  the  south  of  the  Dora  Baltea,  between  the  masses  of  Mont  Blanc  and 
the  plains  of  Piemont.  An  Englishman,  Mr.  Mathews,  may  daim  to  be  the  first 
discoverei;  of  this  mountain  giant,  which  even  on  the  Sardinian  staff  map, 
published  only  recently,  is  confounded  with  Mont  Iseran,  a  &r  less  noble  summit 
twenty-five  miles  to  the  west  of  it. 

None  of  the  other  Alpine  tanunits  on  Italian  territory  can  compare  in  height 
with  the  Grand  Paradis,  for  though  the  Italian  language  extends  in  numerous 
instances  to  the  central  chain  of  the  Alps,  the  political  boundaries  of  Italy  do  not. 


mm: 


imfmammrgim,:. 


■f*~ 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


191 


f  the  Ligurian 

as  regards  the 
uth  raise  their 
ges  contrasting 
moW'Olad  Alps 
passes  of  tstria 
a  the  beautiM 
on  the  fields  of 
g  rivulet  which 
i  north-west  of 
nt  the  Q^ivola, 

Alpine  peaks. 

Blanc,  like  an 
i  seven-pointed 

the  Ortler,  the 
ished  for  some 
I  behold  spread 
aing  above  the 

contemplate  so 

id  Italy.  Fnnn 
,  from  the  vine- 
i  and  laroh,  the 
9  cultivator  only 

features  of  the 
,  and  the  valleys 
I  of  the  passes, 
this  structure  of 
Oallic  elements 

a  few  isolated 
ID  elements  are 

the  basin  of  the 
f  these,  alike  on 
hdis,  which  rears 
Mont  Blanc  and 
n  to  be  the  furst 
nian  staff  map, 
Bss  noble  summit 

npare  in  height 
ids  in  numerous 
i  of  Italy  do  not. 


Switzerland  holds  possession  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Ticino,  whilst  Austria  still 
possesses  the  Upper  Adige.  The  only  rivers  rising  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Alps,  and  belonging  in  their  entirety,  or  nearly  so,  to  Italy,  are  the  Tagliamento 
and  the  Piave.  In  consequence  of  this  violation  of  the  natural  frontiers  there 
are  many  snow-dad  Alpine  summits  which,  though  geographically  belonging  to 
Italy,  are  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  the  present  kingdom,  or  even  within 
Swiss  or  Austrian  territory.  Amongst  these  are  the  giant  summits  of  the  Ortler, 
the  Marmolade,  and  the  precipitous  Oimon  della  Pala.    The  Monte  della  Disgrasda, 

Fig.  62.— OuAXD  Pabash. 
DMOitlw  Map  of  the  AwMh  Alpine  Otab.   SmI*  1>IH,«I0. 


howevw,  to  the  south  of  the  Bemina,  is  an  Italian  mountain ;  such  is  also,  for  the 
gre<iter  part,  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Oamonioa,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Pass  of  Tonale,  which  plays  so  prominent  a  part  in  legendary  history,  and  is 
commanded  by  the  Adamo^  or  Adamello,  whose  glacier  streams  creep  down  to 
the  Upper  Adige.  Farther  to  the  east,  in  the  valley  of  the  Piave,  the  obelisk 
surmounting  the  huge  pyramid  of  the  Antelao  pierces  the  line  of  perennial  snow, 
and  there  are  other  peaks  scarcely  inferior  to  it  in  height. 

Most  of  the  Alpine  groups  lying  within  Italy  and  betwe«ni  the  main  chain  and 


jgsaBatflMaaaaBE- 


192 


HALT. 


the  plains  do  not  exceed  the  Apennines  in  height,  and  only  a  few  amongst  them 
are  covered  with  perennial  snow.  But  the  prospects  which  may  be  enjoyed  from 
them  are  all  the  more  charming  for  this  reason,  for  we  find  ourselves  between  two 
zones,  with  cultivated  valleys,  towns,  and  villages  at  our  feet,  and  a  panorama  of 
bare  and  snowy  summits  bounding  the  view  to  the  north.  Several  of  these 
mountains  deservedly  attract  large  numbers  of  tourists.  Favourites  amongst 
them  are  the  hills  rising  above  the  blue  lakes  of  Lombardy,  such  as  the  Motterone 
on  Lago  Maggiore,  the  pyramidal  Oeneroso  rising  in  the  midst  of  verdant  fields 
on  the  Lake  of  Lugano,  the  superb  hills  between  the  two  arms  of  tiie  Lake  of 
Oomo  and  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Brianza,  and  Monte  Baldo,  advancing  its 
buttresses  like  lions'  daws  into  the  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Gbrda.  The  mountains 
of  the  Yal  Telina,  or  the  Orobia  range,  to  the  south  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Ada,  being  remote  from  towns  aud  customary  highways,  are  less  frequently 

Fig.  58.— Thb  Plaik  op  Dissn  Birwinr  thi  Aim  mo  thb  ArammnN. 

▲oMnJiDttoZoUikatK. 


5iC 

•  ; 


S*a    kavd 


'  \;" 


*.  iV«».-  -V 


"T^'WC^^^ 


T^^ 


visited  than  they  deserve.  Standing  at  thdr  foot,  we  may  almost  &xicy  being  in 
the  Pyrenees.  As  to  the  dolomites,  on  the  frontiers  of  Yeuetia  and  the  Tyrol, 
they  are  unique.  Their  fantastically  shaped  rooks,  delioatdy  tinted  with  pink 
and  other  colours,  contrast  marvellously  with  the  grem  of  beeches  and  firs,  or 
the  blue  waters  of  the  lakes.  Bichthofen  and  others  look  upon  these  isolated 
mountain  masses  as  ancient  coral,  islands,  or  atoUa,  upheaved  to  a  height  varying 
between  6,600  and  10,400  feet ;  and,  whatever  liheir  geological  origin  may  be, 
they  certainly  contribute  much  towards  the  beauty  of  the  Alpine  regions. 

If  we  descend  the  Italian  dope  of  the  Alps,  we  pass  gradually  from  the  more 
ancient  to  the  most  recent  geological  formation,  until  we  finally  reach  the  alluvial 
plain.  Metamorphio  rocks,  ternteano,  dolomites,  and  other  rodcs  overlie  the 
granites,  the  gndss,  and  the  schists  of  the  more  elevated  mountain  masses.  These 
are  succeeded  by  beds  of  Triassio  and  Jnrassio  age.     Lower  still  we  meet  with 


i^dJOikiaiiiiilitSiim^ilMiiii 


|«*«>*>"'*I*I!IIP 


THE  BASIN  Of'  THE  PO. 


198 


amongst  them 
)  enjoyed  from 
18  between  two 
a  panorama  of 
veral  of  iheae 
irites  amongst 
the  Motterone 

verdant  fields 
>f  the  Lake  of 

advancing  its 
The  mountains 

of  the  Upper 
frequently 


I 


terraces  and  hills  composed  of  tertiary  marls,  clays,  and  conglomerates.  Monte 
Boloa,  so  £unoas  amongst  geologists  on  account  of  its  fossils,  belongs  to  this 
formation.*  The  whole  of  the  plain  of  Lombardy  and  Piemont,  with  the 
exception  of  the  isolated  hillocks  rising  in  it,  and  a  few  marine  deposits  near  its 
margin,  consists  of  debris  brought  down  by  the  rivers.  The  depth  of  this  accu- 
mulation is  not  yet  known,  for  hitherto  no  borings  have  pierced  it ;  but  if  we 
suppose  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines  to  continue  uniformly,  it  would 
amount  to  no  lees  than  4,130  feet  The  two  diagrams  (Fig.  53)  are  intended  to 
illustrate  this  feature.  In  the  upper  of  these  the  heights  are  exaggerated  ten- 
fold ;  in  the  lower  both  the  horizontal  and  the  vertical  scales  are  the  same.  A 
glance  at  this  diagram  reveals  the  astounding  fact  thai  the  volume  of  this  debris 
almost  equals  that  of  the  existing  mountain  systems. 


Fig.  A4.— Si.ori  of  tkb  Vallbt  or  tbb  Po. 
The  Twtical  Mala  is  ten  timee  largor  tium  the  horiioatd. 


8tMlt!9  flr  .ft 


DOIauern 


fim<7  being  in 
and  the  Tyrol, 
ited  with  pink 
hes  and  firs,  or 
I  these  isolated 
height  varying 
origin  may  be, 
Bgions. 

-  from  the  more 
laoh  the  alluvial 
dcs  overlie  the 
masses.  These 
[  we  meet  with 


The  vast  plain  stretching  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  foot  of  the  Monte  Bosa  and 
the  Yiso  may  boast  of  its  peninsulas,  its  islands,  and  even  its  archipelagos,  as  if 
it  were  a  sea.  The  tertiary  hills  of  Northern  Ifonlerrato,  to  the  east  of  Turin, 
attain  a  height  of  1,600  to  2,000  feet,  and  the  valley  of  the  Tanaro  completely 
separates  them  from  the  Ligurian  Alps  and  the  Apennines.  Even  at  the  very 
foot  of  the  Alps,  as  at  Oavour  and  elsewhere,  isolated  granitic  or  porphyritio 
pyramids  and  domes  rise  in  the  midst  of  the  plain  sloping  down  towards  the  Po.t 
The  hump-baeked  Boaoo  Montello,  to  the  south  of  the  Piave,  is  another  isolated 
hill ;  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Po  may  be  seen  a  hillook  of  pebbles  and  marine 
sands,  abounding  in  foanls,  which  bears  the  village  of  San  Oolombano  and  its 
vineyards.  Several  volcanic  peaks,  surrounded  by  cretaceous  formations,  rise  in 
the  midst  of  the  plains  to  the  east  of  the  Lake  of  Garda.  The  craters  of  the 
Berioi,  near  Yicenaa,  and  of  the  Euganean  Hills,  Aear  Padua,  have  not  vomited 

•  Priaeipd  Alpine nuniiti  of  Italy :— Monte  Yiao,  l%iU  feet;  Oiand Pendia,  13,271  fiiet;  Moine 
della  Diagnaia,  11,840  feet;  Adamdlo,  11,877  fcet;  Antelao,  10,«80  feet;  Bninotie  (Otobia.iange), 
10,S70  feet ;  OeneiMO,  6,S70  feet ;  Monte  Baldo,  7,810  feet ;  Mtmte  Botaa,  8,148  feet 

t  Aliitudeai-Souieeof  the  Po, 6,400  feet;  Saliuao,  1,800  feet;  Twin,  7««  feet;  Pavia  (nonih  of 
Tidno),  880 feet;  Piaoenn,  217  tjet;  Onniona,  160 feet;  Maatna,  89  feet;  Peirtan,  20  feat 


mjaumnimiiM 


......^.aJsiiliii'riirMiWMifcJjftiWi^ 


IM 


ITALY. 


flamet  within  the  hittorioal  epoch,  but  the  hot  and  the  gas  springa  which  israe 
from  clefts  in  the  traohytio  and  basaltic  rocks  prove  sufficiently  that  volcanic 
forces  .are  not  yet  quite  extinct  in  that  part  of  Italy.  Earthquakes  occur  fre- 
quently in  the  neighbouring  Alps,  and  particularly  near  Belluno  and  Bassano. 

A  ■jiwilar  yolcanic  zone  extends  along  the  northern  slope  of  the  Apennines, 
which  bound  the  valley  of  the  Po  on  the  south.  Hydrogen  gas  escapes  from 
fissures  in  the  rocks  to  the  south  of  Modena  and  Bologna,  and  is  utilised  in 
several  instances  in  the  manufacture  of  lime,  and  for  other  purposes.  These  gas 
springs  of  Pietra  Mala,  Porretta,  and  Barigazzo  were  known  by  the  ancients  and 
during  the  Middle  Ages  as  "  fiery  springs,"  and  they  illuminated  the  path  of  the 
traveller  overtaken  by  the  night.    Lower  down  the  slope,  almost  on  the  verge  of 


Fig.  M.— Hud  Yoloaitois  akd  Hot  Hpaiiros  of  tkb  Nobtbibk  Afwhimh. 

Sank  1  :  l,iaO,000. 


HydtogHi  Spriasi.   Had  VotenoM.    SotSprlnfi. 


10 


the  plains^  we  meet  with  a  line  of  mud  volcanoes,  or  bombi,  the  most  famous  of 
which  are  those  of  Sassuolo,  near  Modena.  The  largest  of  these,  that  of  Mirano, 
has  no  less  than  forty  craters.  The  ancient  gulf  of  the  sea,  now  converted  into 
a  plain,  is  thus  skirted  by  volcanic  cones,  mud  volcanoes,  hot  springs,  and  dqmsits 
of  sulphur.  As  high  up  as  Piemont,  and  notably  at  Acqui,  we  meet  wiih  hot 
springs,  attesting  that  volcanic  activity  is  not  yet  altogether  extinct. 

The  vaUeytf  of  the  Alps  and  the  plains  extending  along  their  foot  weite  filled, 
in  a  former  geological  epoch,  with  huge  glaciers,  descending  from  n^t  was 
anciently  the  immense  glacial  region  of  Central  Europe.  Thwe  is  not  a  valley 
between  that  of  the  Tanaro  in  the  west,  and  that  of  the  Isonzo  descending  from  tiie 
mountains  of  Oarinthia,  but  contains  accumnlationB  of  debris  carried  down  by  the 


Sf^lUl^mjJMIIMiUtifei 


3fa««Bri£^«a<ffl«E* 


ags  which  isaue 
ly  that  Yoloanic 
lakes  occur  fre- 
id  Bassano. 
the  Apennines, 
as  escapes  from 
id  is  utilised  in 
ises.  These  gas 
;he  ancients  and 
the  path  of  the 
on  the  yerge  of 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


IM 


glaciers,  and  now  covered  with  yegetation.  Most  of  these  ancient  glaciers 
exceeded  those  of  the  Monte  Rosa  and  the  Finsteraarhom  in  extent,  and  several 
of  them  rivalled  the  existing  glaciers  of  the  Himalaya.  If  we  would  gain  a 
notion  of  what  the  Alps  were  like  during  this  glacial  epoch,  we  must  go  to  Oreen- 
land  or  to  the  Antarctic  regions. 

One  of  the  smallest  of  these  ice  streams,  that  which  descended  from  the 
mountains  of  Tenda  in  the  direction  of  Ouneo,  had  a  length  of  thirty  miles. 
That  which  brought  down  the  ice  of  Mont  Oendvre,  Mont  Tabor,  and  Mont  Cenis 
had  twice  that  length,  and  its  moraines  formed  a  veritable  amphitheatre  of 
hUls,  locally  known  ac  regime  alia  pietre,  or  stony  region.  Farther  north  the 
streams  of  ice  descending  from  the  Pennine  Alps  between  the  Grand  Pajsdis  and 

Fig.  M. — ^Tbb  AiromfT  (}laoibm  or  tbb  Au*. 


I 


8 


lOOl 


I 


Mont  Blanc  united  in  a  single  stream  eighty  miles  in  lengtii,  and  spread  over  the 
idain  &r  beyond  Ivrea.  The  alluvial  accumulation  of  this  ancient  glacier  rises 
1,100  and  even  2,130  feet  above  the  ralley  through  which  the  Dora  Baltea  now 
flows.  One  of  its  lateral  moraines,  known  as  the  Serra  d'lvrea,  forms  a  regular 
ran^Nurt  to  the  east  of  the  river,  eighteen  miles  in  extent.  Its  slopes  are  now 
oovanad  with  ohestnnts.  The  western  ravine  (Odle  di  Brossa)  is  less  prominent, 
because  it  is  inferior  in  height ;  but  the  frontal  ravine,  forming  a  complete  demi- 
cirde^  can  still  be  traced  readily.  In  the  debris  accumulated  at  the  foot  of  this 
andent  glacier,  rooks  derived  from  Mont  Blanc  are  mixed  with  others  brought 
down  from  Mont  Gervin.  And  yet  it  w  but  a  dwarf  when  compared  with 
the  ancient  twin  glacier  of  the  Ticino  au  che  Adda,  which  extended  from  the 
Simplon  to  the  Stelrio,  filled  up  the  oavitiee  now  occupied  by  the  Lago  Maggiow 


v. 


X. 


N. 


'ife 


196 


ITALY. 


and  the  Lake  of  Oomo,  sent  a  lateral  branch  to  the  tortnons  bed  of  the  lAke  of 
Lugano,  and  finaUy,  after  a  eonne  of  from  100  to  120  mUes,  debouched  upon  the 
pUin  of  Lombardy.  The  ghwier  of  the  Oglio  was  small  in  comparison  with  it, 
but  it  was  exceeded  by  that  of  the  Adige,  the  most  considerable  of  all  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Alps.  This  river  of  ice,  from  the  mountains  of  the 
Oetsthal,  where  it  originated,  to  ito  terminal  moraine  to  the  north  of  Mantua, 
had  a  length  of  176  miles.    One  of  its  branches  descended  towards  the  east,  down 


V 


Fig.  47.— Thb  Smba  or  ImiA  ahb  thb  Amoiimt  Olaohb  Lakm  of  tbb  Doa*. 
VkDmtteBMdiaiMtBteClUp.   SMdtttMMWk 


]»M' 


i*«,«r  6. 


-:-   V'^. 


^  "*>-."■ 


Sir* 


jthes^d 


/"^ 


k 


«•«* 


SMUm. 


the  yalley  of  the  Drau,  as  far  as  where  the  town  of  Elagenfiirt  now  stands.  Its 
main  stream  filled  up  the  cavity  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  pushing  along  a  formidable 
rampart  of  elevated  moraines. 

The  hand  of  man  is  scarcely  able  to  make  an  impression  upon  the  vast  aconmu- 
lations  heaped  up  by  the  action  of  the  glaciers.  The  hills  of  Solferino,  of  Cavriana, 
and  Somma  Campagna,  so  often  named  In  connection  with  battles,  are  nothing  but 
debris  brought  down  from  the  flanks  of  the  Alps,  and  they  were  much  higher 
formerly  than  thqr  are  now. 


W^f* 


THF  B.\8IN  or  1'*^  PO. 


197 


the  lioke  of 
3d  upon  the 
iion  with  it, 

all  on  the 
ains  of  the 

of  Mantua, 
e  eaat,  down 

[)OKA. 


r  stands.    Its 
a  fonnidaUe 

Tastaoonmu- 
),  of  Cavriana, 
e  nothing  but 
mudh  higher 


Some  of  the  erratic  blocks  were  as  large  as  houses,  but,  being  used  as  quarries, 
they  are  fast  disappearing.  One  of  them  at  Pianeaaa,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Snsa  Talley,  is  80/eet  long,  40  feet  broad,  and  46  feet  high,  and  a  chapel  has 
been  built  upon  it.  The  huge  erratic  blooko  in  the  hills  between  the  two  arms  of 
the  Lake  of  Oomo  have  supplied  materials  for  the  monolithic  columns  of  the 
churches  and  palaces  in  the  environs.  The  slopes  of  the  hills  of  Turin  facing  the 
Alps  are  likewise  covered  with  erratic  blocks. 

When  the  ghwiers  retired  into  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Alps,  the  soil  which 
they  covered  was  left  bare,  and  the  depressions  now  occupied  by  the  beautifiil 

Fig.  58.— AKOinn  Laxm  or  Vbbbako. 


hikes  of  Lombardy  were  revealed.  These  depressions,  whose  bottom  even  now 
rinks  down  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  were  formerly  arms  of  the  sea,  in 
character  very  much  like  the  fiords  of  Norway.  That  such  was  the  case  is  proved 
by  the  presence,  in  every  one  of  the  Lombard  kkes.  of  a  sardine  (the  agime), 
which  naturalists  consider  to  be  a  sea  fish.  In  Garda  Lake,  moreover,  there  stiU 
dwell  two  marine  fishes  which  have  adapted  themedves  to  their  new  condition  of 
life,  as  well  as  a  small  marine  shell-fish. 

The  number  of  these  Alpine  kkes  was  much  burger  formerly,  and  those 
which  stai  exist  shrink  from  year  to  year.  In  Upper  Piemom  alluvial  deposita 
have  long  ago  filled  up  the  hikes,  and  there  now  only  remain  a  few  pools  of 


rPALT. 

water  tu  indicate  their  nte.  The  fint  sheeta  of  water  to  which  the  term  "  lake  " 
may  fairly  be  applied  are  met  with  on  both  banks  of  the  Dora  Baltea  (see 
Fig.  57).  The  little  basin  of  Candia  and  the  shallow  Lake  of  ^leglio,  to  the  west 
and  east  of  the  river,  are  the  only  remains  of  Laeut  Clwua,  which  covered  an  area 
of  several  hundred  square  miles  until  its  waters  broke  through  the  semioiroular 
terminal  moraine  which  bounded  it  on  the  south.  The  Dora  Baltea  formerly 
escaped  from  this  lake  in  the  south-erst,  its  present  course  only  dating  from  the 
fourteenth  century. 

Fig.  69.— Thb  Ufnb  Extbimitt  or  thi  Imlp  or  Como. 
1 1  : 1«B/X)0. 


The  dotted  tnust  has  become  dry  knd  dnoe  IBM. 

Since  this  reservoir  has  been  drained,  tbe  first  lake  of  importance  in  the  west 
is  that  of  Yerbano,  very  inappropriately  called  Lago  Maggiore,  or  the  "  principal 
lake,"  as  that  of  Oarda  exceeds  it  in  extent.  Ancient  beaobes,  at  an  elevation  of 
1,800  feet  above  the  sea,  prove  that  the  waters  of  the  lake  have  considerably 
subsided,  and  that  its  area  was  muob  larger  formerly ;  and  it  curiously  ramified 
with  neighbouring  lake  basins,  now  merely  copneoted  with  it  by  rivers.  The 
ancient  moraine  at  the  foot  of  this  lake,  and  through  which  the  Tioino  haa  iiMk 
vated  itself  a  passage,  still  rises  to  a  height  of  980  feet 


THE  BASIN  OF  THB  PO. 


term  "lake" 
Baltea  (aee 
o,  to  the  weat 
vered  a&  area 
e  lemioiroular 
tltea  formerly 
ing  from  the 


Oenturiea  elapsed  before  the  ohangea  which  we  now  peroeivo  were  aocom* 
plished.  Still  they  proceeded  at  a  miffioiently  rapid  rate.  Even  now  the  allu- 
tium  carried  down  by  the  Tioino  and  the  Maggia  continually  encroachea  upon 
the  Lago  Maggiore.  Seven  hundred  yean  ago  the  village  of  Qordola  stood  on 
the  shore  of  the  lake :  it  is  now  nearly  a  mile  away  from  it.  The  landing-plaoee 
of  Magadino,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ticiuo,  hare  to  be  continually  shifted,  for  the 
lake  retires  steadily.  Only  sixty  years  ago  barges  were  able  to  receive  their 
cargoee  at  a  wharf  nearly  half  a  mile  higher  up  than  the  present  one.     The  Ghilf 

fig.  00. — Smtioh  or  m  NoBTHnw  PoKnoN  or  Lam  Oomo. 

1: 


Fig.  61.— SacTioH  or  nu  Laxi  or  Lmoo,  kbav.  nu  BirvBOAnoM. 


1: 


i  J 


Fig.  da.— LowairrDniAL  BienoN  or  losa  Gomo. 


t 


r 


i 


i 


ice  in  the  west 
the  "  principal 
an  elevation  of 
e  considetaUy 
iously  ramified 
y  rivers.  The 
ioino  haaii^Mac 


of  Locarno  is  gradually  being  separated  from  the  main  sheet  of  water  by  alluvial 
deposits  brought  down  by  the  Maggia. 

The  Lario,  or  Ijake  of  Oomo,  which  rivals  the  Maggiore  by  its  beauty,  is 
likewise  being  gradually  silted  up.  In  the  time  of  the  Bomans  the  navigation 
extended  as  fiur  as  Summolaoua  (lake-head),  the  modem  Samolaco.  But  the 
tomnt  of  Mera  gradually  converted  most  of  the  upper  extremity  of  the  lake  into 
an  alluvial  plain,  whilst  the  alluvial  deposits  carried  down  by  the  Adda  out  off 
the  xemainder  from  the  main  body  of  water.     There  now  remains  only  the  Laeut 


mm^' 


mtm 


9SStm 


im..MimuiiUimiJ»ii 


mmmmti 


900 


ITALY. 


Dimuliatut,  or  Lake  of  MesBola,  which  ii  ihrinking  from  yew  to  yeur.  and  will 
finally  disappear  altogether.  The  miasmata  rising  from  the  swamps  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Adda  have  frequently  depopulated  the  environs,  and  the  ruined  fort  of 
Fuentes,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  built  to  defend  the  Val  Tellina,  was  hardly 
ever  more  than  a  hospital  for  its  fever-strioken  garrison. 

The  south-eastern  arm  of  the  lake,  that  of  Leooo,  through  which  the  Adda 
makes  its  escape  to  the  south,  has  likewise  been  divided  into  a  series  of  separate 
basins.  Nature,  which  would  convert  these  lakes  into  bottom-lands  at  no  distant 
date,  is  being  aided  here  by  the  works  of  man.  The  barrier  which  obstructed  the 
free  egress  of  the  Adda  has  been  cleared  away,  the  structures  of  fishermen  have 
been  removed,  and,  in  consequence  of  these  and  other  engineering  measures,  the 
once-dreaded  rises  of  the  lake  have  been  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  southern- 
most of  the  lake  basins,  that  of  Brivio,  has  been  converted  into  dry  land.  The 
large  Lake  of  Brianxa,  which  extended  formerly  fta  to  the  south-west,  has  like- 
wise been  partially  drained,  and  there  now  remain  only  a  few  lakeleta  of  small 
extent. 

We  know  sufficient  of  the  bottom  of  the  Lake  of  Oomo  to  enable  us  to  judge 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  becoming  gradually  filled  up  with  alluvium.  The 
mud  deposited  in  its  northern  portion  has  filled  up  all  .the  original  inequalities  of 
the  soil,  and  even  in  the  centre  of  the  lake,  and  in  its  south-eastern  arm,  the 
bottom  is  almost  a  perfect  level.  In  the  Oomo  arm,  hov  ever,  which  reoeivea  no 
tributary  river  of  any  importance,  the  bottom  is  still  full  of  inequalities.  These 
differences  amply  prove  to  us  the  geological  agency  of  the  rivers,  which  must 
terminate  in  the  lake  being  converted  into  a  bottom-land,  with  a  river  flowing 
through  its  centre.  The  third  of  our  diagrams  (Fig.  62)  shows  that  the  greateat 
depth  now  hardly  exceeds  1,300  feet,  whilst,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  slopes  <^ 
the  hills  which  bound  it,  the  depth  in  former  times  cannot  have  been  less  than 
2,300  feet. 

The  Sebino,  or  Lake  of  Iseo,  and  the  lakelet  /i  Idro,  which  are  fed  by  the 
glacier  streams  of  the  Adamello,  exhibit  the  same  features  as  the  lakes  fiurtker  to 
the  west.  The  Benaco,  or  Lake  of  Garda,  however,  the  moBt  extensive  of  these 
Alpine  lakes,  is  very  stable  a«  regards  its  outline  and  the  configuration  of  its 
bottom,  a  fact  sufficiently  explained  by  the  snull  size  of  its  tributary  streams  as 
compared  with  its  vast  area.  The  old  Alpine  lakes  of  the  Venetian  Alps  have 
disappeared  long  ago,  and  there  remain  only  a  few  ponds,  filling  cavities  in  the 
dolomitio  rooka  and  peat  bogs,  to  indicate  their  ancient  sites.* 

*  Italian  Alpim  lakes  having  an  ana  of  mora  than  At*  K|nBn  nilaa : — 


▲WM*  Ana.  Aranfi  AMItade.         Ut/Ot,  Met 

Oapatttr. 

Kmm. 

8q.]UlM. 

VMt. 

Mas. 

Avani*. 

mntsaeocadta. 

LakeofOrta 

6-4 

1,132 

830  (P) 

490  (P) 

463,000 

Verbano,  or  Ltgo  Ifaggiora 

81H 

646 

1,380 

690 

9,680,000 

«-3 

771 

es 

88 

86,300 

Ceresio,  or  Lake  of  Lugano 

19>S 

88S 

960 

490 

1,M4,000 

Lario,  or  liike  of  Como 

.    -     608 

668 

1,803 

810 

7,700,000 

Sebino,  or  Lake  of  Iieo 

390 

646 

080 

490 

1.980.000 

Lake  of  Idro              .       . 

«•« 

1,240 

400  (P) 

(?) 

ff) 

Benaco,  Or  Lake  of  Oaida  . 

llA-8 

236 

•60(f) 

490 

9,900,000 

:,i,'-|Si;iiSs#S4iWi'»'w»i*;->"«k»a!:i'a' 


~~f 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


801 


year,  and  will 
■  at  the  mouth 

ruined  fort  of 
BM,  WM  hardly 

hioh  the  Adda 
rieaof  aeparate 
la  at  no  distant 
obatruoted  the 
fishermen  have 
f  measures,  the 
d  the  southern- 
iry  land.  The 
•west,  has  like- 
kelets  of  small 

ble  us  to  judge 
alluyium.  The 
i  inequalities  of 
istem  arm,  the 
ioh  reoeiyes  no 
oalities.  These 
in,  which  most 
a  riyer  flowing 
lat  the  greatest 
im  the  slopes  of 
been  less  than 


These  lacustrine  basins,  like  all  other  reseryoirs  of  the  same  kind,  regulate  the 
outflow  of  the  torrents  which  empty  into  them.  During  the  f^hets  they  itore 
up  the  superabundant  waters,  and  only  part  with  them  in  the  dry  season,  and 
upon  their  difi'erenoe  of  leyel  in  difl'erent  seasons  depend  the  osoiMations  of  the 
emissary  riyers  which  issue  from  them.  In  the  case  of  the  Lake  of  Oarda,  which 
drains  but  a  small  area  in  proportion  to  its  sise,  ibis  difference  is  small,  and 
throughout  the  year  the  pellucid  waters  of  the  Mincio  flow  tranquilly  beneath  the 

Flu.  «8.— VitiA  HiMnuoKi,  aw  tmi  Pimimivla  or  Billaoio,  Laki  or  Oomo. 


"ttiiillJ, 


ri^mm^'' 


W^tUdbb 


.-.  A  Asm.  KT.M 


are  fed  by  the 
lakes  fiurther  to 
tensiye  of  ihese 
iguration  of  its 
itary  streams  as 
liian  Alps  haye 

cayitiea  in  the 


^?=>»r. 


;y-^. 


OqpMttf. 
HflUgMoCChAk 
463,000 
9,680,000 

u,no 

1,M4,000 
7,700,000 
1.980.000 

d) 

9,900,000 


blackened  ramparts  of  PesoWoTa.  Such  is  not  the  case  as  regards  either  the  Lago 
Maggiore  or  the  Lake  of  Oomo,  for  the  yolume  of  water  discharged  into  them 
is  BO  considerable  that  their  leyel  in  summer  and  winter  yariee  to  the  extent 
of  seyeral  yart^a,  and  corresponding  differences  may  be  obseryed  in  the  nyers 
issuing  from  them.  Lake  Oomo  rises  no  less  than  12  feet,  and  mcreases 
70  square  miles  in  area,  whilst  the  Lago  Maggiore  sometimes  rises  22  feet,  and 


f.iiwaiiKiW^iii''-"'*'**''''^"* 


igj" 


%i 


J. 


aoB 


ITALY. 


increases  to  the  extent  of  one-fifth.  The  volume  of  the  Tioino,  when  at  its  highest, 
ahnost  equals  the  average  volume  of  the  Nile,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  regulating 
influence  of  the  lake  from  which  it  issues,  it  would  altemateij  convert  the  plains 
of  Lombardy  into  a  sheet  of  water  and  leave  them  an  arid  tract  of  land.'* 

The  Alpine  lakes  of  Italy  thus  play  an  important  part  in  the  economy  of 
the  country  They  render  the  climate  more  equable,  serve  as  high-roads  of 
commerce,  and,  being  the  centres  of  animal  life,  attract  a  dense  population.  But 
it  is  not  this  which  has  rendered  these  lakes  famous,  which  has  attracted  thou- 
sands of  wanderers  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  caused  villas  and 
palaces  to  rise  on  their  shores :  it  is  their  incomparable  beauty.  And,  indeed, 
there  are  few  spots  in  Europe  which  bear  comparison  with  the  delightful  Gulf  of 
Pallanza,  over  which  are  scattered  the  Borromean  Islands,  or  with  the  peninsula 
of  Bellagio,  which  may  be  likened  to  a  hang^g  garden  suspended  within  sight 
of  the  snow-clad  Alp«,  and  affording  a  prospect  of  the  rook-bound  shores  of  the 
Oomo  Lake,  cultivated  fields,  and  numerous  villM. '  Perhaps  even  more  delightful 
is  the  peninsula  of  Sermione,  jutting  out  into  the  azure  waters  of  the  Qarda  Lake, 
like  the  tender  stalk  of  a  flower  developing  into  a  many-coloured  petal. 

Most  of  the  lakes  in  the  plain  have  beon  drained  into  the  neighbouring  rivers. 
The  Lake  of  Gerondo,  mentioned  in  mediseval  records,  has  dwindled  down  into  a 
smaU  swamp,  or  mosi,  now,  and  its  populous  island  of  Fulcheria  has  become  merged 
in  the  plain  of  Lombardy.  The  lakes  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Po,  above 
Guastalla,  have  likewise  been  drained;  and  if  the  two  shallow  lakes  of  Mantua 
still  exist,  this  is  entirei^y  due  to  the  embankments  raised  in  the  twelfth  century. 
It  would  have  been  much  better,  and  would  have  saved  the  city  the  horrors  of 
many  a  siege,  if  these  lakes  had  been  allowed  to  disappear  likewise. 


t!  ■■' 


3  ^■' 


The  lagoons  along  the  Adriatic  have  decreased  in  extent  in  the  course  of 
centuries,  and  whilst  new  lagoons  are  being  formed,  the  old  ones  are  gradually 
being  converted  into  dry  land.  The  old  maps  of  the  Venetian  littoral  difier 
essentially  from  our  modem  ones,  and  yet  all  the  vast  changes  they  indicate  have 
been  wrought  in  the  con^  of  a  few  centuries.  The  swamps  of  Oaorle,  between 
the  Piave  and  the  Gulf  of  Trieste,  have  changed  to  an  extent  which  prev^its  ns 
from  restoring  the  ancient  topography  of  the  country ;  and  i^  Hhe  lagoons  of  Yenioe 
and  Ohioggia  exhibit  a  certain  permuuenoe  of  contour,  this  is  only  on  aocoont  ttf 
the  incessant  interference  of  man.  The  ancient  lagoon  of  Brondolo  has  bean  dry 
land  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  large  lagoon  of  Oomaeohio^ 
to  the  south  of  the  Po,  has  been  cut  up  into  separate  portions  by  alluvial  embank- 
ments formed  by  the  agency  of  rivers  and  torrents.  For  the  most  part  it  oonrists 
now  of  valli,  or  alluvial  deposits,  tat  there  still  remain  a  few  profound  cavities*  or 
ehiari,  which  the  rivers  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  filling  up.    Formerly  these 


*  Volume  of  AdcU  and  l^dno  it  thair  point  of  agreat  flrom  the  Alpfaie  lakes,  aoooiding  to  Lon- 
budini: — 

Adda. — Average  6,600,  minimnin  Ml,  maximum  29,000  cubio  feet  per  Moond.    2\Mm.— ATmga 
11,400,  minimum  1,770,  maximam  77,400  cbUo  fset  per  minnte. 


;,^u.. 


:<^tS2^r."SS 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


208 


m  at  its  lughest, 
ir  the  regrdating 
ivert  the  plains 
land.'* 

the  economy  of 
m  high-roads  of 
)opiilation.  But 
I  attracted  thou- 
siised  villas  and 
And,  indeed, 
.Ughtful  GuU  of 
l;h  the  peninsula 
led  -within  sight 
nd  shores  of  the 
1  more  delightful 
the  Garda  Lake, 
petal. 

iphbouring  rivers, 
[led  down  into  a 
a  become  merged 
[>f  the  Po,  above 
lakes  of  Mantua 
twelfth  century. 
by  the  horrors  of 
le. 

in  the  ootirse  of 
les  are  gradually 
an  littoral  di£EiBr 
iiey  indicate  have 
f  Oaorle,  between 
rhioh  prevoits  vs 
lagoons  of  Yenioe 
mly  on  account  of 
idolo  has  been  dry 
ion  of  Oomasehio^ 
'  alluvial  embank- 
Mt  part  it  consists 
of  ound  cavities*  or 
.    Formerly  these 

kcs,  accordbg  to  lioa- 
ond.    SMm.— Avmge 


12*|>b'E'*<> 


lagoons  extended  far  to  the  south  in  the  direction  of  Ravenna,  and,  according  to 

Strabo  and  other  ancient  writers, 

.    i  ....  _  ^— ,„;«J   .  Fkf.  64.— BmoM  ahd  Pim  Woods  o»  RATiwif  a. 

that   ancient  city  once  occupied  a         "«  b<«16  1:m»o*ooo. 

site  very  much  like  that  of  Venice 
or  Ohiogg^a  in  our  own  days. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these 
lagoons   were    anciently  separated 
from  the  Adriatic  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  over  120  miles  in  length, 
and  similar  to  what  we  still  meet 
with  on  the  coasts  of  Carolina  and 
of  the  Brazils.    This  ancient  barrier 
still  exists  in  the  lidi  of  Venice  and 
Gomacchio,   which   aro  pieroed  at 
intervals,  admitting  the  vivifying 
floods  of  the  open  sea.    Elsewhero 
the   traces  of    this  ancient  beach 
must  be  looked  for  on  the  mainland. 
The  low  delta  of  the  Fo  is  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  a  range  of 
dimes  constituting  the  continuation 
of  the  lidi  of  Venice,  and  extend- 
ing into  the  swamps  of  Comaochio, 
whdro  they  form  a  natural  embank- 
ment  running   parallel   with   the 
coast.    These  dunes,  between  the 
Adige  and  Cervia,  aro  covered  with 
sombre  pine  woods,  replaced  hero 
and  there  by  oaks.    The  underwood 
mainly  consists  of  hawthorns  and 
juniper-trees,  and  wild  boars  still 
haunt  it. 

No  sooner  have  the  lagoons  pro- 
tected by  these  barriers  been  con- 
verted into  dry  land  than  the  sea 
seizes  upon  the  sand,  and  forms  it 
into  new  curvilinear  barriers  similar 
to  the  former  ones.  The  principal 
range  of  dunes  to  the  east  of 
Bavenna,  which  is  about  20  miles 
in  length,  and  varies  in  width 
between  60  and  3,300  yards,  has 
thus  two    othor  ranges  of   dunes 


B«ii&' 


pgB       gjggi      flSS      ^^ 

BiMKfldd*.    ItaaWoodi.  Bminp*.   Baeeh. 
______      SMflM 


running  parallel  with  it,  one  of  them  being  stiU  in  course  of  formation .     Signer 


KM 


ITALT. 


Pareto  has  estimated  the  annual  advance  of  the  land  at  7|  feet,  and  at  mnoh  more 
near  the  mouths  of  riyers. 

The  sea  thus  marks  by  a  series  of  barriers  its  successive  recoils.     Sometimes, 
however,  the  sea  gains  upon  the  land  in  consequence  of  a  gradual  subsidence  of  the 
Venetian  shore,  the  cause  of  which  has  not  yet  been  elucidated.     Thus  the  gravel 
bank  of  Oortellazax),  opposite  the  swamps  of  Oaorle,  appears  to  have  anciently 
been  a  Mo  which  has  sunk  nearly  70  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.     The  islands 
which  fringed  the  littoral  of  Aquileja  during  the  Middle  Ages  have  almost  wholly 
disappeared.    In  the  time  of  the  Romans  these  islands  were  populous;   there 
were  forests  and  fields  upon  them,  and  the  inhabitants  built  ships.  The  chronicles 
of  the  Middle  Ages  tell  us  that  the  Doge  of  Yenice  and  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileja 
hunted  stags  and  wild  boars  upon  them,  much  to  the  scandal  of  the  inhabitants. 
At  the  present  day  the  dunes  which  of  yore  protected  these  islands  have  almost 
wholly  disappeared,  the  forests  have  been  supplanted  by  reeds,  and  Qrado  is 
the  only  place  on  the  littoral  which  may  still  boast  of  a  certain  number  of  inha> 
bitants.     Piers,  walls,  mosaic  pavements,  and  even  stones  bearing  inscriptions, 
which  are  found  occasionally  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  or  of  swamps,  prove  that 
the  mainland  was  formerly  more  extensive  there.     Farther  to  the  west  the 
littoral  of  Venice  bears  evidence  of  a  similar  subsidence.     Artesian  wells  sunk  in 
the  city  of  the  lagoons  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  four  beds  of  turf,  the  deepest 
no  less  than  420  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.     The  subterranean  church  of 
St.  Mark  has  within  historical  times  been  converted  into  a  submarine  church,  and 
streets  and  buildings  are  gradually  sinking  beneath  the  waters  of  the  lagoons. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  rivers,  the  sea  would  con- 
tinually encroach  upon  the  land.    Bavenna,  too,  participates  in  this  subsidence, 
which  Signer  Pareto  estimates  to  amount  to  0*60  inches  in  the  course  of  a  oentnry. 


Amongst  the  geological  agents  constantly  at  work  to  modify  ihe  surface  of  the 
earth,  the  rivers  and  torrents  irrigating  the  plain  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  are 
the  most  active,  and  no  other  country  of  Europe,  Hdland  alone  excepted,  can 
compare  in  this  respect  with  Northern  Italy. 

The  torrent  of  Isonzo  offers  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  these  geo- 
logical revolutions.  It  is  said  to  have  formerly  communicated  through  subter- 
ranean channels  with  the  Istrian  Timavo,  and  that  its  existence  as  a  separate  river 
does  not  date  very  &r  back.  Ancient  writers  do  not  enumerate  the  Isonao  amuongst 
the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Adri  tic.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  a  document  of  the 
sixth  centur^r  as  a  river  irrigating  fnomB  inland  valley.  On  Pentinger's  Table  we 
meet  with  a  station,  Ponte  Sonf  i,  tax  oo  the  east  of  Aquibja,  and  near  tiie  sources 
of  the  Timavo.  The  chronicles  are  siloit  with  respect  to  the  peripatetics  of  this 
river,  but  a  careful  examination  of  the  surrounding  Mils  justifies  the  assumption 
that  the  valley  of  Tolmdn,  on  the  Upper  Isonao,  was  formerly  a  lake  which  over* 
flowed  towards  the  north-west  through  the  narrows  of  Oaporetto,  and  that  its 
pent-up  waters  found  their  way  through  the  Natisone  into  the  Adriatic.  Subse- 
quenUy  ^ey  opened  themselves  a  passage  to  the  south,  and  another  lake  was 


!T'»g,"^JT'»"-)m,  »'X»fl|l'M'i^rfUy..'."l 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


iof 


at  muoli  more 

I.  Sometimes, 
ibsidenoe  of  the 
rhus  the  gravel 

have  anoiently 
The  islands 

almost  wholly 
opulous ;   there 

The  chronicles 
irch  of  Aquileja 
the  inhabitants, 
ids  have  almost 
,  and  Qrado  is 
umber  of  inha- 
ng  inscriptions, 
nps,  prove  that 
>  the  west  the 
n  wells  sunk  in 
urf,  the  deepest 
mean  church  of 
ine  diurch,  and 
of  the  lagoons, 
sea  would  con- 
this  subsidence, 
rse  of  a  oentnry. 

le  surface  of  the 
t  of  the  Alps  are 
le  ejEoepted,  can 

as  of  these  geo- 
throngh  subter- 

a  separate  river 
I  Isonao  amongst 
looument  of  the 
Lttger's  TaUe  we 
near  tito  souroee 
ipatetios  of  thia 

the  assumption 
ake  which  over* 
to,  and  that  its 
driatic  Sobse- 
nother  lake  was 


formed  at  the  confluence  of  Isonao  and  Wippaoh.  This  lake  communicated  by 
subterranean  channels  with  the  Timavo,  but  it  has  now  disappeared,  and  the  Isouzo 
flows  directly  into  the  sea,  iti  bed  wandering  continuously  towards  the  east.  The 
alluvium  carried  down  by  this  river  has  formed  the  peninsula  of  Sdobba,  and 
joined  several  old  islands  to  the  mainland. 

The  Tagliamento  is  even  a  more  active  geological  Agent  than  its  neighbour  just 
beyond  tV'^  firontier.  The  debris  deposited  at  the  mouth  of  the  narrow  gorge  in 
which  i;  r;.j  covers  many  square  miles  of  a  once  fertile  plain.  In  summer  its 
waters  trickle  through  these  accumulations  of  shingle,  but  after  heavy  rain  the 
river  is  converted  into  a  powerful  torrent  several  milea  in  width,  and  all  the  more 
formidable  as  its  bed  lies  higher  than  many  parts  of  the  surrounding  ooimtry. 
The  Meduna  and  ZoUine,  to  the  west  of  the  Tagliamento,  are  equally  destructive^ 


Fig.  M.— SBiireui  Bum  or  ns  Taoluuhto,  thb 

tfroUITA,  AND  ZlLLINB. 

AiMtlwA* 

■WMkBtaCMiV   8«d»l:mMN». 

" 

■WEJri,ff _*• 

.     '         4l|-                                jU    1                             *■                  1 

i           lif     -' 

V     "^- 

f      Jtir'^''     t 

i 

mm 

4m^-^  ^ 

x.\^:m      wan'  "#ii 

t^^ 

^(BB^-IJMg^^KJV        M^^HB^M^  w 

rVjjMI^^^  «^TZ^HKl 

^^kk^                ^^       ^Xj 

k   ^^^fyT-^  M.  '^'^ffl^H^^B 

^^Mik    ^ »  _        1      '^^^^MH^rtWfcMfc^a 

2       ^^^^^^^  ^K^^'rv'^'-v^a '       T  ^BK- j^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

■Mf  /Vtom.    Jkf  1( 

9      jjr                   tif' 

i^-                          Ifi                           V 

Shingle  Beds,    Meedona.    FUtans. 


and  an  estourve  traot  at  tiieir  confluence  is  covered  with  shingles.  Lower  down, 
in  the  lagoana,  these  torrents  have  tihrown  up  huge  embankments  of  sand  on  eitbeir 
side  of  their  ancient  beds.  The  alluvium  Immght  down  by  these  torrents  to  the 
Bea  is  in  every  instsiaoe  deposited  to  the  west,  a  droomstanoe  aooounted  for  by  the 
direction  of  the  coast  current. 

The  Piave,  the  most  oonsiderable  river  to  the  east  of  the  Adige^  is  likewise  a 
most  active  geological  agent,  o(niverting  fertile  fields  into  sterile  shingle  traota^ 
filling  njp  swamps,  and  carrying  large  quantities  of  matter  into  the  tea.    At  iki 

16 


'^S^SS^tl^ 


vM\m\\  •  liiii-iiftiiiiiiii!iiiimiiii'  'm\m 


wmmmm 


*invip> 


ITALY. 


mouth  the  land  gains  rapidly  upon  the  aea,  and  Heraolea  of  the  Yeneti,  now 
known  as  Cittanova,  which  was  a  seaport  once,  at  the  present  time  lies  far  inland. 
The  Piave  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  changed  its  bed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Isonzo.  Below  the  Oapo  di  Ponte,  a  wild  defile  in  the  Dolomite  Alps,  the 
Piave  flows  towards  the  south-west,  past  Belluno,  and  lower  down  is  joined  by  the 
Cordevole.  It  was,  however,  supposed  that  the  river  originally  flowed  through  the 
valley  of  Rai,  immediately  to  the  south  of  the  Oapo  di  Ponte,  and  that  the  Meschio 
and  Livenzo  constituted  its  lower  course.  Earthquakes  or  landslips  were  supposed 
to  have  created  a  barrier  across  that  valley,  and  the  small  lakes  still  seen  there  were 
looked  upon  as  remains  of  the  ancient  river  bed.    But  M.  de  Mortillet  has  shown 

Fig.  66. — ^Thb  mrppMBD  Old  Bid  op  thb  Puti. 
VMrntteAnataiui  Staff  Map.   S«d«  1 :  HO^OOOi 


that  this  hypothesis  is  tmtenable,  for  the  barrier  referred  to  is  merely  the  moraine  of 
an  ancient  glacier,  and  there  exist  no  traoes  whatever  of  landslips. 

At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  extensive  changes  have  taken  place 
|in  the  basin  of  the  Piave.  Thus  in  1771  the  course  of  the  Oordevole,  its  most 
important  tributary,  was  obstructed  f  r  a  time  by  a  landslip  which  carried  the 
verdant  terraces  of  Pezza  down  into  the  valley.  Two  villages  were  destroyed,  and 
two  others  overwhelmed  by  the  rising  floods  of  the  river. 

The  Brenta,  which  rises  in  the  beautiful  Sugana  valley  of  the  Tyrol,  has  at  aU 
times  been  a  source  of  anxiety  to  the  Venetians  on  account  of  its  irregularities. 
Formerly  it  entered  the  lagoons  at  Fiudna,  and  its  alluvium  filled  up  tiie  canals 


le  Yeneti,  now 
ies  far  inland, 
e  same  manner 
omite  Alps,  the 
s  joined  by  the 
'ed  through  the 
lat  the  Mesohio 
B  were  suppoeed 
seen  there  were 
illet  has  shown 


THE  BASIK  OF  THE  PO.  907 

and  infected  the  air.  The  Faduana  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  lowlands  were 
anxious  to  divert  it  by  the  most  direct  course  into  the  lagoons,  so  a^  to 
avoid  inundations,  whilst  the  Venetians  were  solicitous  to  get  rid  of  a  river  which 
threatened  to  fill  up  their  lagoons  and  render  them  insalubrious.  These  conflict- 
ing interests  gave  rise  to  numerous  wars.  The  possession  of  the  coast  became  a 
question  of  existence  to  the  Venetians,  and  no  sooner  had  they  obtained  it  than 


thqr  Bet  about  *'reg?ilating"  the  Lower  BrmJtai.  By  means  of  two  canals,  the 
Brttita  Nuova,  or  Brentone,  anid  the  Brenta  Nuovissima,  the  river  was  conducted 
right  rouind  the  lagoons  to  the  port  of  Brondolo,  a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  the 
Adige.  But  tiie  river,  whose  course  had  thus  been  considerably  lengthened* 
gradually  filled  up  the  bed  in  its  u^per  course,  and  it  w«a  found  impossible  to 


808 


rPALT. 


confine  it  within  its  lateral  embankments.  They  were  broken  through  by  the 
floods  no  less  than  twenty  times  between  1811  and  1850,  and,  as  the  channel  of 
the  river  became  more  and  more  choked,  a  more  frequent  recurrence  of  such 
disasters  was  naturally  expected.  It  was  then  resolved  to  shorten  the  course  of  the 
river  to  the  extent  of  ten  miles,  by  diverting  it  into  a  portion  of  the  lagoon  of 
Chioggia.  The  danger  of  irruptions  has  thus  been  averted  for  a  time,  but  the 
fisheries  of  Chioggia  have  been  completely  destroyed,  and  fever  is  a  frequent  visitor 
in  the  towns  of  the  littoral. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  but  for  the  efforts  of  the  Venetian  engineers  the 
lagoons  of  the  Lido,  Molamocco,  and  Ohioggia  would  long  ago  have  been  con- 
verted into  dry  land.  Venice  has  at  all  times  been  alive  to  the  necessity  of 
preserving  its  precious  inland  sea.  The  Venetian  engineers  were  not  content  with 
turning  aside  the  torrents  which  formerly  poured  their  waters  into  the  lagoons ; 
they  have  also,  by  means  of  canals,  moved  the  mouths  of  the  Sile  and  Piave  to  the 
east,  thus  securing  the  ports  of  the  Lido  from  the  dreaded  alluvium  of  the  rivers. 
They  even  conceived  the  gigantic  project  of  a  huge  encircling  canal  for  the 
interception  of  all  the  Alpine  torrents  between  Brenta  and  Lwnzo.  This  project, 
however,  has  never  been  carried  out.  The  debris  carried  southward  by  the  coast 
current  has  silted  up  the  port  of  the  Lido,  which  was  abandoned  towards  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new  military  port  was  constructed  eight  miles 
fiurther  south,  at  the  canal  of  Malamocco,  and  it  is  now  protected  by  a  pier 
extending  7,200  feet  into  the  sea. 

The  torrents  which  descend  from  the  slopes  of  the  Apennines  to  the  south 
of  the  delta  of  the  Adige  and  Po  are  as  erratic  in  their  course  as  those  of 
Venetia.  The  Trebbia,  the  Taro,  and  other  rivers  irrigating  the  districts  of 
Piaoenza  and  Parma  only  cross  a  narrow  plain  between  the  mountains  and  the  Po, 
and  do  not  much  modify  the  topography  of  the  country.  But  this  cannot  be  said 
of  the  rivers  flowing  through  the  vast  plains  of  Modena,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and 
Lnola.  They  are  constantly  changing  their  beds,  and  the  remains  of  embank- 
ments met  with  all  over  the  country  prove  that  all  effi>rts  to  confine  them  perma- 
nently have  proved  abortive.  Modena  itself  was  once  destroyed  by  the  floods  of  the 
Seochia.  The  Tanaro,  the  Beno,  and  other  rivers  flowing  towards  the  north-west, 
either  into  the  canal  encircling  the  lagoons  of  Gomaochio  or  direct  into  the 
sea,  all  have  a  history  attached  to  them ;  they  are  blessed  for  their  lartilisihg 
alluvium,  cursed  on  account  of  their  destructive  floods.  On»  of  them,  probably 
the  Fiumioino,  is  the  famous  Rubicon  which  bounded  the  Italy  of  the  Bcwians, 
and  which  was  crossed  by  Os6sar  when  he  pronounced  the  &tal  words,  "Alea 
jaota  est." 

The  Beno  is  the  most  erratic,  tiie  most  dangerous  of  all  these  Apennine  rivers. 
The  .bed  of  debris  deposited  by  it  in  the  plain  measures  20  miles  across  ftom  east 
io  yest.  Its  volume  varies  between  30  and  49,500  cubic  feet  a  second,  aooording 
to  the  season,  and  its  bed  is  in  places  no  less  than  30  fbet  above  the  adjoining 
oountiy.  The  destruction  of  the  forests  has  augmented  the  danger  of  its  inunda- 
tions.   The  engineers,  puzzled  by  its  jlrregular  floods,  have  proposed  the  most 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


900 


< 


rough  by  the 
he  channel  of 
renoe  of  raoh 
e  coune  of  the 
the  lagoon  of 
time,  bat  the 
requent  visitor 

engineers  the 
tave  been  oon- 
le  necessity  of 
lot  content  with 
to  the  lagoons ; 
nd  Piaye  to  the 
m  of  the  rivers. 

canal  for  the 
This  project, 
vti  by  the  coast 
awards  the  dose 
ted  eight  miles 
Mted  by  a  pier 

les  to  the  south 
irse  as  those  of 
the  districts  of 
ains  and  the  Po, 
Is  cannot  be  said 
^na,  Ferrara,  and 
lains  of  embank* 
ne  them  perma- 
^  the  floods  of  the 
s  the  north-west, 
direct  into  the 
iheir  fertilisihg 
t  them,  probably 
rof  the  Romans, 
tal  words,  "Alea 

Apennine  rivers, 
s  across  firom  east 
second,  according 
ove  the  adjoining 
HBt  of  its  inunda- 
foposed  tiio  most 


opposite  plans  for  subduing  this  terrible  scourge.  The  river  has  been  turned 
into  the  Po ;  then  eastward,  direct  into  the  sea.  Recently  it  has  been  proposed  to 
divert  it  to  the  lagoons  of  Oomacohio.  But  all  these  diversions  are  attended 
with  disadvantages,  and  whilst  the  inhabitants  of  one  district  congratulate  them- 
selves upon  having  got  rid  of  sc  troublesome  a  neighbour,  those  of  another  complain 
of  its  inundations,  see  their  fii^heries  destroyed,  and  their  navigation  interfered 
with. 

Lombardini,  the  fkmous  hydraulic  engineer,  has  shown  how  we  may  discover 
the  places  to  which  the  soil  of  the  lowlands  of  Emilia  has  been  conveyed  by  the 
torronts,  and  trace  the  ancient  shoros  of  the  lagoon  of  Padua,  now  converted  into 
dry  land.     A  traveller  following  the  Emilian  causeway  f^rom  Cesena  to  Bologna 

Fiff.  68.--CoLOinis  or  nn  Romak  YmwrnAjn. 


•mill. 


can  hardly  help  noticing  the  quadrangular  fields  on  his  right,  all  of  them  of  the 
same  site.  Looked  at  from  the  spurs  of  the  Apennines,  the  plain  resembles  a  huge 
dranght-boazd,  the  squares  of  which  aro  covered  alternately  with  verduro  and 
ripening  crops.  We  learn  from  the  topographical  maps  that  these  fields  an 
exactly  of  the  same  sise^  and  thero  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  have  hero  beforo  us  the 
fields  which,  according  to  Livy,  wero  taken  firom  the  Ghuils  and  distributed  amongst 
Roman  military  settlers.  A  sinuous  line  marks,  in  the  direction  of  the  Bo,  the 
shoro  of  an  ancient  lake.  The  rectangular  fields,  laid  out  by  the  cadastral  sur- 
veyors of  ancient  Rome,  cease  thero,  and  we  find  ourselves  again  amidst  the  uqual 
labyrinth  of  ditches  and  tortuous  roads.  This  lake  has  been  filled  up  long  ago  by 
the  debris  brought  down  by  the  torrents. 


ttO 


HALT. 


The  Po,  proportionately  to  the  area  it  drains  and  it*  length,  haa  undergone 
fewer  '.hangea  than  either  the  Piave  or  the  Reno,  but  looking  to  the  populoui 
cities  which  line  its  banks,  and  to  the  fertility  of  its  fields,  the  least  of  these  is  of 
some  importance. 

The  torrent  fed  by  the  snows  of  Monte  Yiso  is  usually  looked  upon  as  the  head 
stream  of  Father  Po,  as  the  ancient  Romans  called  the  rirer ;  but  the  Mastra, 
Varaita,  and  Olusone  are  quite  equal  to  it  in  Tolume,  and  feed  as  many  canals  of 
irrigation.  Indeed,  these  canals  would  quickly  drain  the  Po  if  it  were  not  for  a 
bountiful  supply  of  snow-water  brought  down  by  the  Dora  Riparia,  the  Stura,  the 
Oroa,  and  the  Dora  Baltea  from  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps.  Lower  down,  the  Po 
receives  the  Sesia  from  the  north,  and  the  Tanaro,  which  is  fed  by  streams  rising 
in  the  Apennines  and  the  Alps.  Then  comes  the  Ticino,  by  far  the  most.impor- 
tant  tributary  of  the  Po,  "  without  which,"  as  the  river  fishermen  say,  "  il  Po  non 
•arebbe  Po." 

The  Po,  after  its  junction  with  the  Ticino,  exhibits  no  longer  the  features  of  a 
mountain  torrent ;  the  pebbles  have  hem  triturated  into  the  finest  dust,  and  no 
piled*  up  masses  of  debris  are  met  with  along  its  banks.  If  it  were  not  for  its 
dykes,  or  argini,  it  might  spread  itself  freely  over  the  plain.  These  artificial 
embankments  rival  those  of  the  Netherlands,  and  date  back  to  the  most  remote 
ages.  Lucian  refers  to  them  as  if  they  had  existed  ttwa.  time  immemorial 
During  the  great  migration  of  peoples  they  were  allowed  to  decay,  and  only  in  the 
course  of  the  ninth  century  were  measures  taken  to  restore  them.  In  1480  the 
great  work  had  been  achieved.  Its  importance  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
these  embankments  protect  3,000,000  acres  of  the  most  fertile  land,  jrielding 
annually  more  than  £8,000,000  sterling's  worth  of  agricultural  produce.  Most 
of  the  towns  have  been  built  upon  artificial  platfomu  or  terraces,  and  up  to  the 
beginning  of  this  century  they  have  never  been  known  to  suffer  from  floods ;  but 
whether  owing  to  the  devastation  of  the  forests  or  to  the  closing  up  of  all  breaches 
in  the  dykes,  the  floods  rise  higher  now  than  ihey  did  of  yore,  and  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  throw  up  embankments  around  Revere,  Sermide,  Ostiglia, 
Oovemolo,  Borgoforte,  and  other  places. 

Oontinuous  embankments  begin  at  Oremona,  and  ihey  extend  not  only  along 
both  banks  of  the  Po,  but  also  along  the  lower  course  of  its  tributaries.  1  he  main 
dykes  have  a  length  of  nearly  650  miles.  In  addition  to  these  thoe  are  nmaller 
dykes  traversing  the  space  between  these  Jivldi,  or  main  dykes,  in  all  dirMtions, 
and  enclosing  willow  plantations,  fields,  and  even  vineyards.  In  &ot,  the  river 
extends  to  the  foot  of  the  main  dykes  only  in  a  few  localities.  It  is  ordinarily 
only  650  to  1,600  feet  wide,  whilst  the  dykos  are  several  miles  apart,  to  allow  the 
river  to' spread  during  the  inundations.  The  land  thus  lying  within  the  dykes  has 
been  cKvided  by  the  villagers  into  g^lene,  and  is  protected  by  smaller  dykes  against 
ordinary  floods.  The  rules  laid  down  for  the  construction  of  embankments  have 
been  drawn  up  in  the  general  interest,  and  are  sufficiently  precise,  but  they  are  not 
always  observed.  The  old  syrtem,  embodied  in  the  dreadfbl  proverb,  *'  Yita  mia, 
morte  tua,"  is  not  yet  quite  extinct.    Formerly  the  peasants  were  in  the  habit  of 


teit*!'! 


i-ntiii 


M  undergone 
the  populoua 
of  theae  ii  of 

m  ae  the  head 
:  the  Maetra, 
lany  canalaof 
ere  not  for  a 
the  Stura,  the 
down,  the  Po 
Btreami  rising 
)  moit.impor- 
y,  "  il  Po  non 

B  features  of  a 
I  duat,  and  no 
>re  not  for  its 
lieie  artificial 
)  moat  remote 
)  immemorial, 
md  only  in  the 
In  1480  the 
K  the  fact  that 
land,  yielding 
irodttoe.  Moat 
and  up  to  the 
Dm  floods;  hut 
of  all  breaohea 
id  it  haa  been 
mide,  Oatiglia, 

not  only  along 
tea.  1  he  main 
lere  are  smaller 
L  all  direotifms, 
fkot,  the  riyer 
!t  ia  ordinarily 
irt,  to  allow  the 
1  the  dykes  haa 
r  dykea  againat 
lankmenta  have 
i)ut  they  are  not 
erb,  "Yitamia, 
)  in  the  habit  of 


-  ■ii^^O"Si^iiMlJTM^*»iUWt^u^'^ 


■I 


NEW  YORK,  D 


W.ETON  fcC?. 


/ 


'^1 


miWftmi^m^ 


ipipiiMqPiPippPiP!#ii^^ 


T 


THE  BASm  OF  THE  PO. 


211 


crosBing  over  to  the  other  bank,  and  deliberately  cutting  through  the  embankments 
there,  thus  saving  their  own  crops  by  ruining  their  neighbours'. 

The  width  of  the  bed  of  inundation  enclosed  between  thesr  eknbankments 
grows  less  in  proportion  as  we  descend  the  river,  and  in  the  case '  of  the  arms  of 
the  delta  does  not  exceed  900  to  1,600  feet.  This  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  the 
waters  to  escape  during  extraordinary  floods,  when  they  sometimes  rise  25  and 
even  30  feet.  Besides,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  villagers  fail  to  keep  the 
embankments  in  thorough  repair,  and  sometimes  entire  districts  are  ruined  because 
the  mole-tracks  were  not  stopped  up.  •  A  breach  in  the  embankment,  unless 


Fig.  69.— Trb  Po  rarwmr  Piacbiisa  akd  Gbbkona. 
n«mtlwAiutriaaSUfflCap.    Seale  1 :  8Mt,aOO. 


»» 


CI3'    gS3     S?3    §=5! 


ICMdom.  Swunpi.  Wood*.  IUs»4alda.  CuMlaad 

DykM. 


SIfilM. 


quickly  filled  up,  produces  unttdd  misery.  The  ocop$  are  destroyed,  the  villages 
levelled  with  the  ground,  the  soil  is  torn  up  and  carried  off,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  sw^t  away  by  famine  and  its  fearful  attendant,  typhus  fever.  These  great 
floods  ol  the  Po  and  the  eartiiquakes  of  Oalabria  are  the  two  plagues  of  Italy.  In 
1872  1,200  square  miles  between  the  Seoohia  and  the  sea  were  converted  into  a 
lake.    Two  years  afterwa?^  there  still  remained  pools  of  water. 

In  these  great  disasters  the  inhabitants  are  afforded  an  opportunity  of  exhibiting 
their  valour,  and  it  is  always  the  most  energetic  whp  succeed  in  protecting  their 
prq^Mrigr  from  beii^  washed  amy  by  the  floods.    During  the  flood  just  referred 


• ', 


imifiViiil^lirKlniiii"**!!! 


iiwiMii.ii.iiiiwwriiiiMniii^iinwi'tr'iif'i'' rrr-^^-'n 


I  ihii- fallWI 


.  iw'!1*3t^4-.-=-^S»«i!8**.*P». 


NUM|> 


rfmm 


sia 


ITALY. 


to,  the  inhabitantfl  of  the  little  town  of  Oitiglia  fought  suooesafully  with  the 
rising  waters,  whilst  many  of  their  neighbours  succumbed.  The  town  stands  dose 
to  the  froldo,  and  there  is  no  second  line  of  dykes  to  protect  it.  The  dyke 
threatened  to  give  way.  The  inhabitants  at  (moe  set  about  throwing  up  a  second 
barrier.  All  the  able-bodied  men  of  the  place,  4,000  in  number,  turned  out  to 
work^  headed  by  their  mayor.  They  worked  day  and  night,  and,  as  the  floods 
carried  away  the  old  dyke,  the  new  one  rose  in  its  rear.  The  victory  was  won ;  the 
floods  retired,  and  their  houses  were  safe. 

Some  of  these  breaches  in  the  dykes  have  led  to  permanent  changes  in  the 
course  of  the  river,  and  these  divagations  have  been  most  considerable  in  the  delta. 
During  the  time  of  the  Romans,  ond  up  to  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Po  di  Yolano 
was  the  principal  branch  of  the  river,  whilst  now  it  has  dwindled  down  to  an 
insignificant  ditch  which  can  hardly  be  traced  through  the  swamps  of  Comacchio. 
Two  other  branches,  farther  to  the  south,  are  used  now  as  carriage  roads.  In  the 
eighth  century  the  Po  di  Primaro,  which  enters  the  sea  to  the  north  of  Baveima, 
took  the  place  of  these  old  channels.  Another  bifurcation  ensued  in  1152, 
when  the  embankment  at  Ficcarolo  was  destroyed,  it  is  said,  by  the  people  living 
above  that  town,  and  the  main  channel  of  the  river,  the  Maestra,  deserted  the 
walls  of  Ferrara  in  the  midst  of  its  swamps,  and  united,  itself  with  the  channels  of 
the  Adige.  Breaches  in  the  embankments  usually  take  place  in  October  or 
November,  and  generally  at  the  same  places.  The  danger  is  always  greatest  at 
Oorbola,  where  the  Po  di  Maestra  bifurcates. 

The  Adige  is  quite  as  great  a  wwderer  as  the  Po.  Scarcely  has  that  river  left 
its  defile,  or  ehiusa,  of  calcareous  mountains  and  the  fortifications  of  Venice  than  it 
begins  its  erratic  course  over  the  plain.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  Adige 
flowed  much  farther  to  the  north,  along  the  foot  of  the  Euganean  Hills,  and  entered 
the  sea  at  Brondolo.  In  587  the  river  brcke  tiirough  its  embankments,  and  its  main 
branch  took  the  direction  which  it  maintains  up  to  the  present  day,  entering  the 
sea  at  Frssone.  But  new  channeb  opened  repeatedly  towards  the  south,  until  the 
Adige  and  Po  conjointly  formed  but  one  delta.  The  Polesina  of  Rovigo,  between 
the  two  rivers,  and  that  (^  Ferrara,  are  low  tracts  of  alluvial  land.  The  courtyard 
of  the  Oastle  of  Ferrara,  which  occupies  one  of  the  most  elevated  sites  in  these  pkdns, 
is  nine  feet  lower  than  the  highest  level  of  the  Po  when  flooded. 

The  frequent  inundations  caused  by  the  Po  and  the  numerous  changes  of  its  bed, 
by  spreading  the  alluvium  all  over  the  country,  have  nimd  the  whole  of  the  plains 
to  about  the  same  level.  But  non ,  v.  hen  all  the  arms  of  the  Po  are  confined  within 
embankments,  most  of  the  alluviom  brought  down  by  the  floods  is  deposited  on  the 
coast  of  the  Adriatic.  The  land,  therefore,  gains  mnoh  ir.ore  rapidly  npon  the 
sea  than  it  did  formerly.  The  series  of  dunes  marking  the  ancient  shore  now  lies 
fifteen  miles  inland,  and  the  new  land  formed  annually  is  estimated  at  280  acres. 
In  exceptional  years  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  carried  by  the  river  into  the  sea 
amounts  to  3,631,000,000  cubic  feet;  o;.  an  average  it  is  1,623,000,000  oubio  feet, 
sufficient  to  form  an  island  ten  square  miles  in  area  in  ten  feet  of  water.  The  Po, 
next  to  the  xianube,  is  the  most  active  geological  agent  amongst  all  the  rivws 


'SKt^ssfc**-,:!!.,: 


■<P!iV>lWM 


i 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


218 


follj  with  the 
wn  stands  dose 
t.  The  dyke 
ng  up  a  second 
turned  out  to 
d,  as  the  floods 
y  was  won;  the 

changes  in  the 
)le  in  the  delta. 
;he  Po  di  Y oUmo 
led  down  to  an 
M  of  Comacchio. 
roads.  In  the 
rth  of  Bayenna, 
insued  in  lld^i, 
le  people  living 
bra,  deserted  the 
1  the  channels  of 
)  in  October  or 
ways  greatest  at 

las  that  river  left 
}f  Venice  than  it 
Amans  the  Adige 
Hills,  and  entered 
ents,  and  its  main 
day,  entering  the 
e  south,  until  the 
Rovigo,  between 
L  The  courtyard 
OS  in  these  plains, 

hanges  of  its  bed, 
hole  of  the  plains 
re  confined  within 
i  deposited  on  the 
rapidly  upon  the 
But  shore  now  lies 
ited  at  280  acres, 
river  into  the  sea 
00,000  cubic  feet, 
r  water.  ThePo, 
gsi  all  the  rivers 


entering  the  Mediterranean.*  The  Rhone  is  inferior  to  it,  and  so  is  the  Nile.  At 
^0  present  rate  of  progress,  the  Po,  in  the  course  of  a  thousand  years,  will  throw  a 
tongue  of  land  six  miles  wide  across  the  Adriatic,  converting  the  Oulf  of  Trieste 
into  an  inland  sea. 

Northern  Italy,  in  addition  to  these  numerous  rivers,  possesses  one  of  the  most 
extensive  systems  of  canals  in  the  world,  which  has  served  as  a  pattern  to  all  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Lombardy,  portions  of  Piemont,  the  Campagna  of  Turin,  the 
Lomellina  on  the  Tidno,  and  the  Polesinas  of  Ferrara  and  Bovigo  possess  a 
wonderful  ramification  of  irrigation,  which  carries  fertile  alluvium  to  the  exhausted 
fields.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the  remainder  of  Europe  was  still  shrouded  in 
darkness,  the  Lombard  republics  already  practised  the  art  of  irrigation  on  the 
vastest  scale,  and  drained  their  low-lying  plain's.  MilfUQ,  alter  she  had  thrown  off 
the  yoke  of  her  Gh^rman  oppressors,  towards  the  dose  of  the  twdfth  century,  con- 
structed the  NavigKo  Orande,  a  ship  canal  derived  from  the  Tidno,  thirty  miles 
distant — ^probably  the  first  great  engineering  work  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy  the  superabimdant  watcirs  of  the  Adda  were 
utilised  in  filling  the  Muzza  Canal.  The  same  river,  at  a  subsequent  period,  was 
made  to  feed  another  canal,  the  Martesana,  which  was  constructed  by  the  great 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  art  of  surmounting  elevations  of  the  ground  by  means  of 
locks  had  been  discovered  by  Milanese  engineers  about  a  century  before  that  time, 
and  was  applied  to  the  v  onstruction  of  secondary  canals.  Amongst  works  of  more 
recent  date  are  the  navigUo  ftoxa.  Milan  to  Pavia ;  the  Cavour  Canal,  fed  by  the  Po, 
below  Turin ;  and  the  Canal  of  Verona,  derived  from  the  Adige.t 

Not  only  the  rivers  of  Northern  Italy,  but  also  the  springs,  or  fontaneUe,  however 
small,  which  burst  forth  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  are  utilised  for  purposes  of 
irrigation.  Virgil  alludes  to  these  springs  in  his  Bucolics,  where  he  says, 
"Children,  stop  the  water;  the  meadows  have  drunk  enough."  Lombardy 
is  indebted  to  these  springs  for  her  fine  prairies,  or  mareit$,  which  sometimes 
yield  eight  crops  a  year.  The  great  AdtiAtic  plain  !ia«  indeed  undwgone  vast 
changes  through  the  work  of  man.  Originidly  it  was  a  swamp  surrounded  by 
forests  and  beathA  ^ut  is  now  one  of  the  best-cultivated  countries  of  Europe. 
One  of  its  great  features  consists  in  plantations  of  mulberries,  the  uniformity  of 
which  is  relieved  in  many  districts — and  especially  in  the  Brianza  of  Como,  that 

*  Principal  riven  of  Northera  lUlj- :— 


LwcUi. 

AiwofBulii. 

V<AimMiiiCBUeXtot] 
XMrtmnm.   lOnimiiin. 

AvanB* 

launto            ....       80 

1,2S« 

— 

— 

4,240  P 

TagUunimto 

lOfi 

800 

— 

— 

6,300  r 

liveiua  . 

7» 

70« 

28,400 

— 

1,400  P 

Pkve      . 

134 

2,010 

— 

— 

11,300 

SOe.       . 

»7 

840 

1,880 

380 

700  P 

Brantft 

106 

1,810 

80,000 

187 

1,980 

BaochigUone 

.        74 

187 

820 

— 

1,270 

Adiga      . 

248 

8,848 

88.000 

70 

16,960 

Po  . 

416 

25.790 

182,800 

880 

60,700 

Rano 

i;2 

l,fc?0 

83,800 

38 

8,300 

¥ 


t  Avaiage  toIuom  of  the  OMiala  nf  the  Tallajr  of  tha  Po  (oubio  fbet  par  aaoond)  :->Maan,  2,16S ; 
TSta^i^  Otanda,  1,800 ;  Canal  Oaronr,  1,482 ;  Haitenma,  918  cxbic  ftet. 


f. 


^ 


214 


ITALT. 


garden  of  Italy — hy  groups  of  tall  trees,  little  lakes,  and  sinuous  valleys.  There 
still  remain  extensive  heaths  covering  the  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers,  which 
become  more  and  more  sterile  from  year  to  year ;  but  the  engineers  are  consider- 
ing schemes  for  irrigating  them  by  means  of  the  fertilising  waters  of  the  Alpine 
lakes. 

The  irrigated  area  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  nearly  amounts  to  5,000  square 
miles,  and  the  water  it  absorbs  every  second  is  estimated  at  36,000,000  cubic 
feet,  equal  to  about  one-third  of  the  volume  of  the  Po.  If  the  proposed  works 
of  irrigation  are  carried  out,  the  Po,  which  now  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the 
economy  of  the  country  by  its  floods  and  alluvial  deposits,  will  be  reduced  to 
the  dimensions  of  a  small  river. 

The  evaporation  from  the  nimierous  rivers  and  canals  of  the  country  fills  the 
air  with  moisture.  Rains  are  less  frequent  than  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  England 
and  France,  but  the  clouds,  driven  by  southerly  winds  against  the  cool  slopes  of 
the  Alps,  discharge  themselves  in  torrents.  The  quantity  of  rain  that  &Us  in  the 
upper  Alpine  valleys  equals  that  of  the  most  humid  districts  of  Portugal,  the 
Hebrides,  and  Norway,  and  the  rainfall  in  the  plains  of  Lombardy  is  equal  to  that 
of  Ireland.  The  annual  rainfall  in  the  basin  of  the  Piave  is  estimated  at  five  feet, 
exclusive  of  what  may  evaporate  or  be  absorbed  by  plants.  These  rains  are  not 
confined  to  certain  seasons,  though  it  has  been  observed  that  they  are  most 
abundant  in  May  and  October,  and  least  so  in  February  and  July.* 

'As  regards  the  direction  of  the  winds,  the  great  plain  bounded  by  the  Apen- 
nines and  the  Alps  resembles  an  Alpine  valley,  the  winds  either  blowing  up  it 
from  east  to  west,  or  in  an  inverse  direction.  The  winds  descending  from  the 
Alps  rarely  bring  rain,  for  they  have  deposited  their  moisture  on  the  western 
slopes,  but  those  coming  from  the  Adriatic  are  generally  charged  with  moisture. 
Nevertheless,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of  the  plains  and  the  numerous  breaks  in 
the  mountain  chains,  this  rule  is  fireqnently  interfered  with.  In  the  Alpine  valleys 
the  ascending  and  descending  currents  are  f*"^  more  regular,  and  the  navigators  on 
the  lakes  fully  avail  themsdves  of  ...U  circumstance. 

The  forty-fifth  degree  of  north  latitude  intersects  the  valley  of  the  Po,  but  the 
dimate,  nevertheless,  ia  not  as  mild  as  luight  be  expeoted  from  this  circumstance, 
and  the  range  of  temperature  is  great.  In  th<)  Yal  TeUina  the  temperature  some- 
times rises  above  90^,  and  frequently  fitUs  halow  freezing  point.  In  the  plain  the 
climate  is  less  austere,  but  it  is  notwithstanding  continental  in  its  character ;  and 
Turin,  Milan,  and  Bologna  are  for  this  reason  the  least  pleasant  cities  of  Italy  to  live 
in.  A  few  favoured  spots  on  the  Alpine  lakes,  such  as  the  Borromean  Islands,  are 
an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  enjoy  an  equable  climate,  thanks  to  the  moderating 
influences  of  a  vast  expanse  of  water.  In  the  Gulf  of  Pallanza  the  thermometer 
never  falls  below  40"  F.,  and  we  must  go  as  far  as  Naples  if  we  would  meet  witii 
a  cb'mate  equally  &vourable  to  vegetation.  Venice  too,  is  a  privileged  spot, 
thanks  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Adriatic,  and  is  healthy,  too,  in  spite  of  the  lagoons 

•  Humidity  of  the  air  at  Milan,  74*6  per  cent. ;  aaanal  ninfiJl  at  Milan,  88-8  in. ;  at  Tniin,  31-8  in.; 
at  Tolmean,  on  the  Upper  Taglianunto,  82-8  in. 


m^^mmsi^- 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  FO. 


21S 


Ueys.     There 

aoiers,  which 

are  consider- 

of  the  Alpine 

6,000  square 
000,000  cubic 
roposed  works 
a  part  in  the 
be  reduced  to 

>untry  fills  the 
Bts  of  England 

cool  sbpes  of 
lat  M\a  in  the 

Portugal,  the 
is  equal  to  that 
ted  at  five  feet, 
le  rains  are  not 
they  are  most 

L  by  the  Apen- 
blowing  up  it 
iding  from  the 
on  the  western 
.  with  moisture, 
erous  breaks  in 
B  Alpine  yalleys 
le  nayigaton  on 

the  Fo,  but  the 
is  circumstance, 
ap^rature  some- 
En  the  plain  the 
character;  and 
B  of  Italy  to  live 
ean  Islands,  are 
the  moderating 
he  thermometer 
vould  meet  with 
privileged  spot, 
le  of  the  lagoons 

;  a(Taiiii.31-8iii.; 


which  surround  it.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  brackish  lakes  and  swamps  of 
Northern  Italy  do  not  give  rise  to  the  dreaded  malarial  fevers.  Yenice  undoubtedly 
owes  its  healthiness  to  the  tides,  which  are  higher  there  than  in  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea,  and  perhaps,  also,  to  the  cold  winds  descending  from  the  Alps.  Comacchio,  too, 
is  a  healthy  place,  and  young  natives  of  the  Polesina  sufiering  from  consumption 
are  sent  there  to  recover  their  health.  Wherever  the  engineers  have  cut  up  the 
connection  between  the  lagoons  and  the  open  sea,  marsh  fever  has  made  its 
appearance.  The  swamps  of  Ravenna  and  Cervia  breed  malignant  fevers,  especially 
where  avaricious  landowners  have  cut  down  the  protecting  rows  of  pines  and  oaks. 
A  heavy  miasmal  air  hang^  likewise  over  the  environs  of  Ferrara  and  Malalbergo, 
at  the  head  of  the  Paduan  delta. 

The  Alpine  valleys  are  the  most  imhealthy  spots  of  Northern  Italy,  for  they 
are  deprived  of  sunlight.  Gottre  and  idiotoy  are  frequent  there,  and  in  the  valley 
of  Aosta  nearly  all  the  women  are  a£9icted  with  the  former,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the 
water  which  flows  over  magnesian  rocks.  The  inhabitants  of  districts  traversed 
by  numerous  canals  su£fer  from  diseases  traceable  to  miasmal  effluvia.  The  food  of 
the  peasantry  is  not  sufficiently  nourishing  or  varied  to  counteract  these  deleterious 
influences,  and  many  die  of  pellagre,  an  incurable  skin  disease,  only  known  in  coun- 
tries  where  the  flour  of  maize,  in  the  diluted  form  oi polenta,  constitutes  the  principal 
article  of  food.  In  the  province  of  Oremona  one  in  every  twenty-four  inha- 
bitants is  afflicted  with  this  malady.  The  sanitary  condition  of  the  people  is  even 
worse  in  the  rice-fields  of  Milan  and  the  Polesina.  The  women  there  frequendy 
stand  for  hours  in  tepid  putrefying  water,  and  are  obliged  from  time  to  time  to 
pick  off  the  leeches  which  creep  up  their  legs.* 

But  in  spite  of  maladies,  misery,  and  fiunines,  always  following  in  the  train  of 
the  inundations,  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Po  is  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled 
portions  of  Europe.  Every  plot  of  ground  there  has  been  utilised.  The  forests, 
very  much  reduced  in  size,  harbour  no  game,  except,  perhaps,  on  the  Alpine  slopes, 
and  even  small  birds  are  rare.  Not  only  snipes,  quails,  and  thrushes  are  shot  or 
trapped,  but  also  nightingales  and  swallows.  Tschudi  estimates  the  number  of 
singing  birds  annually  killed  on  the  shores  of  the  Lftgo  Maggiore  at  60,000 ;  and 
at  Bergsiuo,  Verona,  Ohiaeenna,  and  Brescia  they  are  slain  by  millions,  the  nets 
being  spread  in  the  hedges  of  eveiy  hiU. 

The  population  of  the  vaUey  of  the  Po  is  composed  of  the  most  diverse 
elements.  Amongst  its  ancestors  were  Ligurians,  probably  the  kinsmen  of  our 
Basks ;  Etruscans,  famous  for  their  works  of  irrigatbn ;  Gallic  tribes,  whose 
peculiar  intonation  is  still  traceable  In  the  rural  Latin  spoken  in  Northern  Italy ; 
and  Celtic  Ombrians,  the  most  remote  of  dll,  and  looked  upon  by  historians  as  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

The  German  invasions  during  the  first  centuries  of  our  era  have  left  a  perma- 

*  Kean  anaual  tempeiature  of  Tario,  6S-10*F.;  hottest  monih  (April),  TS-IS";  cotdMt  month 
(Jasauy),  SS-10*.  Milan :  meiai,  H-Oi* ;  July,  H'W ;  January,  23-26°.  Venice :  mean,  K'iT  F. ;  July, 
2«0«>;  Jannary,3fi-28°. 


il 


816 


ITALT. 


nent  mark  upon  the  population  of  Northern  Italy.  The  many  tall  men  met  with 
in  the  valley  of  the  Po  are  proofs  of  this  Transalpine  influence.  The  Goths  and 
Vandals,  Herulians  and  Longobards,  or  Lombards,  soon  became  merged  in  the 
Latinised  masses,  but  their  position  as  conquerors  and  feudal  lords  gave  them  an 
influence  which  their  mere  numbers  would  not  have  insured  them.  The  ancient 
history  of  Lombardy  is  a  continual  struggle  between  the  towns  and  these  feudal 
lords,  and  as  soon  as  the  latter  had  been  defeated — that  is  to  say,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century — German  was  superseded  everywhere  by  Italian. 

Fig.  70.— Tbi  OimiAir  GoMMtmu  or  Nobtkuin  Italy. 
8<al«l:  680,000. 


.10 


Family  and  ti  lOgra'obrcal  names  of  Lombard  origin  are  very  common  on  &e  left 
bank  of  the  Fa.  and  as  far  as  ^be  foot  of  the  Apeninnes.  Marer^fo,  for  instance,  is 
a  corruption  .-^f  the  German  MeKring. 

This  German  influence  upon  manners  and  language  ha*  been  most  enduring  in 
the  Friul,  or  Furlanei,  a  district  bounded  by  the  Adriatic,  the  Camiolian  Alps,  and 
the  plateau  of  the  Karst,  or  Carso.  The  Friulians  were  even  looked  upon  as  a 
distinct  race,  though  their  ancestors,  like  those  of  most  Italians  of  the  north,  were 
Latinised  Oelts.    Frequent  intermarriages  with  their  Slovenian  neighbours  con- 


.1  "W" 


THE  BASIN  OP  THE  PO. 


217 


men  met  with 
rhe  Goths  and 
merged  in  the 
gave  them  an 
The  ancient 
d  these  feudal 
say,  ahout  the 
lere  hy  Italian. 


k 


BMSANQ 


mmon  on  ttie  left 
[O,  for  instance,  is 

most  enduring  in 
miolion  Alps,  and 
looked  upon  as  a 
>f  the  north,  were 
L  neighbours  con- 


tributed in  some  measure  to  produce  a  type  distinct  from  that  of  Venice  orTreviso. 
The  number  of  these  Friulians  still  speaking  their  own  dialect  does  not  now  exceed 

60,000  souls. 

Amongst  the  numerous  German  colonies  of  which  traces  hare  been  found  in 
the  plains  of  Northern  Italy  and  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps,  the  "  Thirteen 
Communes"  to  the  north  of  Verona,  and  the  "Seven  Communes"  in  the  deep 
valleys  to  the  north-west  of  Bassano,  are  the  most  considerable.     The  homines 

Fig.  71.— HoMTi  BosA,  AS  ■■»  rmoM  Oaicoho. 


Teutonm  of  these  two  districts  are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  Cimbrians 
defeated  by  Marine,  and  blue  eyes  and  fair  hair  still  prevail  amongst  them,  but  in 
all  other  respects  they  resemble  the  Italians  of  the  plains,  and  only  a  few  old 
women  amongst  them  still  talk  the  language  of  their  ancestors,  which  is  said  to 
resemble  the  dialect  spoken  on  the  Tegern  Lake,  in  Bavaiia.  Nor  were  chey 
the  champions  of  German  authority  on  Italian  soa.  On  the  contrary,  they  were 
charged  by  the  Republic  of  Venice  with  the  defence  of  the  northern  frontier,  and 


■,:;«» 


818 


ITALY. 


have  always  valiantly  acquitted  themselveii  of  this  duty.  In  return,  they  were 
granted  self-government  and  exemption  from  military  service.  But  neither  the 
Republic  of  Venice  nor  Austria  was  able  to  protect  these  German  colonies  against  an 
invasion  of  the  "  Welsh  "  or  Italian  element,  and  there  do  not  now  exist  any  non- 
Italian  communities  to  the  east  of  the  great  lakes.  To  the  north  of  Piemont,  however, 
in  the  valleys  descending  from  Monte  Rosa  and  in  the  valley  3f  Pdmmat,  where  the 
Tooe  forms  one  of  the  most  beautiful  waterfalls,  Oerman  colonies  still  maintain' 
their  ground.  They,  too,  would  long  ago  have  lost  their  language  were  it  not  for 
the  support  they  receive  fh>m  the  Germans  occupying  the  Swiss  valleys  on  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Alps.  Alagna,  or  Olen,  one  of  these  German  villages, 
preserved  its  ancient  customs  until  quite  recently.  For  centuries  there  bad  been 
no  lawsuit  there ;  contracts,  testaments,  and  other  legal  documents  were  unknown ; 
and  everything  was  regulated  by  "  custom ; "  that  is,  by  the  absolute  authority  of 
the  heads  of  families. 

The  French  element  is  far  more  numerous  on  the  Italian  slope  of  the  Alps  than 
the  German.  The  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  Aosta,  between  the  Grand  Paradis 
and  the  Monte  Rosa,  of  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Dora  Riparia,  Oluson,  Pelioe, 
and  Yaraita,  speak  French,  and  are  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Savoyards  and 
Dauphinois  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alps.  The  configuration  of  the  ground 
has  facilitated  this  pacific  invasion  of  the  western  Celts,  numbering  about  120,000 
souls.  They  descended  from  the  passes,  and  occupied  the  whole  of  the  forest  and 
pastoral  region  down  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  the  last  mountain  defile,  in  many 
instances,  forming  their  boundary.  But  the  French  language  is  steadily  losing 
ground,  for  the  official  language  is  Italian,  and  every  village  has  already  two 
names,  of  which  the  modem  Italian  one  is  used  by  preference.  The  Yaudois,  or 
Waldenses,  in  the  valleys  of  Pelice  (Fellis)  and  Oluson,  above  Pinerolo  (Pignerol), 
alone  resist  this  Italianisation  with  a  certain  amount  of  success,  for  they  have  a 
literature  and  history,  and  are  held  together  by  strong  religious  ties.  Their  sect 
was  persecuted  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  long  before  the  Reformation,  raid 
ever  since,  until  their  final  emancipation  in  1848,  they  have  struggled  against 
adversity.  Many  times  it  was  thought  they  had  been  exterminated,  but  they 
always  rose  again,  and  in  history  they  occupy  a  rank  iax  out  of  proportion  to  their 
small  numbers. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  which  need  not  be 
wondered  at  if  we  bear  in  mind  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  abundant  supply  of 
water,  and  the  improvements  effected  in  bygone  ages.  The  labour  invested  in 
every  kind  of  agrioultund  improvement,  such  as  canals,  embankments,  terraces,  or 
ronchi,  biiilt  up  like  steps  on  the  slope  of  every  hill,  has  been  immense,  and  defies 
computation.  The  mode  of  cultivation,  moreover,  entails  a  vast  amount  of  labour, 
for  the  peasant  knows  not  the  iron  plough,  but  tills  his  field  with  the  spade :  he  is 
a  gardener  rather  than  an  agriculturist.  The  agricultural  produce  is  inunense ; 
its  annual  value  is  estimated  at  £80,000,000  sterling,  and  it  furnishes  large  quan- 
tities for  exportation.  Cereals,  forage,  mulberry  leaves  and  cocoons,  vegetables 
and  fruit,  and  cheese,  including  the  famous  Paimesan,  are  the  principal  products. 


'T 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


819 


urn,  they  were 

ut  neither  the 

oniee  against  an 

exist  any  non- 

nnont,  however, 

rimat,  where  the 

B  still  maintain' 

were  it  not  for 

valleys  on  the 

erman  villages, 

there  had  heen 

were  unknown ; 

ute  authority  of 

of  the  Alps  than 
>  Grand  Paradis 
,  OluBon,  Felice, 

Savoyards  and 
1  of  the  ground 
g  about  120,000 
if  the  forest  and 

defile,  in  many 
is  steadily  losing 
ha«  already  two 

The  Yaudois,  or 
[orolo  (Pignerol), 
,  for  they  have  a 
ties.  Their  sect 
Reformation,  raid 
struggled  against 
kinated,  hut  they 
roportion  to  their 

liioh  need  not  he 
undant  supply  of 
ibour  invested  in 
lents,  terraces,  or 
mense,  and  defies 
imount  of  labour, 
the  spade :  he  is 
uce  is  immense; 
ishes  large  quan- 
ooons,  vegetables 
incipal  products. 


Lombardy  and  Piemont  occupy  the  first  rank  in  the  world  for  certain  kinds  of 
agricultural  produce,  and  they  are  almost  the  only  countries  in  Europe  in  wfiToh 
rice,  introduced  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  is  extensively  grown. 
The  vineyards,  on  the  othor  hand,  are  not  as  carefully  tended  as  they  might  be, 
and  the  wines,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  Asti,  Monferrato,  San  Colombano, 
and  Udine  (the  picoiito),  are  of  small  repute. 

The  valley  of  the  Po  divides  itself  into  several  well-marked  agricultural 
provinces.  In  the  Alpine  valleys,  between  Col  di  Tenda  and  Monte  Tricomo,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  forests  and  pastures  is  held  in  common,  but  nearly  every 
mountaineer  is  likewise  the  free  proprietor  of  a  bit  of  meadow  or  land,  which  his 
labour  has  converted  into  a  garden.  The  social  condition  of  these  mountaineers 
thus  resembles  that  of  the  French  peasantry ;  for  they,  likewise,  enjoy  the  advan- 
tages of  a  minute  division  of  the  land  amongst  freehold  proprietors.  The  hilly  tracts 
along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  are  divided  into  fanns  of  moderate  size.  The 
peasant  no  longer  owns  the  land,  but,  in  accordance  with  old  feudal  customs,  he 
shares  in  its  produce.  In  the  plain,  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  a  complicated 
system  of  canals,  nearly  all  the  land  belongs  to  rich  capitalists,  who  cut  it  up  into 
numerous  small  farms,  and  for  the  most  part  reside  in  the  towns.  These  small 
farmers  have  no  resources  of  their  own,  and  are  hardly  above  the  rank  of  agricul- 
tural labourers.  Though  they  cultivate  the  most  fertile  region  of  Northern  Italy, 
they  are  miserably  fed,  frequently  decimated  by  disease,  and  least  alive  to  the 
advantages  of  education.  The  contrast  between  these  miserable  peasants  and  the 
mountaineers  of  Yaudois  and  the  Yal  Tellina  is  great  indeed. 

Periodically  many  of  the  mountaineers  migrate  to  the  towns  and  neighbouring 
countries  in  search  of  work,  and  a  proverb  tells  us  that  there  is  no  country  In  the 
world  "  without  sparrows  or  Bergamosks."  But  though  the  natives  of  the  hills  of 
Bergamo  furnish  a  numerous  contingent  of  these  migrants,  they  are  outnumbered 
by  Friulians,  inhabitants  of  the  shores  of  the  Lago  Maggiore',  and  Piemontese. 
The  latter  cross  the  passes  of  the  Western  Alps  in  large  numbers  in  search  of 
work  at  Marseilles  and  other  towns  of  Southern  Franoe,  and,  small  wages  sufficing 
for  their  frugal  wants,  they  are  not  particularly  liked  by  their  French  fellow- 
workmen. 

The  metallic  wealth  of  Northern  Italy  is  but  small.  The  only  mines  of  note 
are  those  which  formerly  supplied  the  famous  armourers  of  Brescia  with  iron,  and 
the  gold  diggings  of  Anzasca,  at  the  foot  of  Monte  Re  a,  where  5,000  slaves  were 
kept  at  work  by  the  Romans,  and  which  are  not  yet  quite  exhausted.  Marble, 
gneiss,  granite,  potters'  clay,  and  kaolin  are,  however,  found  abundantly.  In 
former  times  silks,  velvets,  carpets,  glass,  porcelain,  metal-work,  and  other  art 
productions  of  the  workmen  of  Yenice  and  Lombardy  enjoyed  a  very  high  reputa- 
tion. These  ancient  industries  decayed  with  the  downfall  of  the  old  republics, 
but  there  are  signs  now  of  their  revival.  The  want  of  coal  or  other  fuel  for  setting 
in  motion  the  machinery  of  modem  fiustories  is  compensated  for,  to  some  extent, 
by  an  abundant  water  power,  and  this  explains  why  nearly  all  the  important 
manufactories  are  met  with  at  the  debouchures  of  the  Alpine  valleys. 


;aiewa»>«i«'''''""'- 


,-_J 


ITALY. 


Amongst  the  ancient  induatriea  of  the  country  not  yet  extinct,  the  fiaheriet  of 
the  lagooni  of  Comaochio  occupy  a  foremoat  place.  The  Canal  of  Magnavaoca, 
now  hardly  navigable,  admits  the  wateri  of  the  aea  into  the  Oanal  Palotta,  which 
may  be  described  as  the  great  artery  of  these  lagoons.  It  was  constructed  in 
1631 — 34,  and,  by  an  ingeniously  designed  system  of  ramifying  canals,  carries  the 
vivifying  floods  to  the  most  remote  parts  of  ine  lagoons.  The  various  basins, 
or  valli,  of  the  lagoons  are  thus  filled  with  sea-wator,  and  constitute  as  many 


breeding  beds,  v/here  the  fish  come  from  the  sea  multiply  abundantly.  A  labyrinth 
of  canab  provided  with  flood-gates  cuts  off  their  retreat  to  the  sea,  and  they  are 
caught  in  immense  numbers  when  the  fishing  season  arrives.  Spallanzani  has  seen 
60,000  pounds  of  fish  taken  in  a  single  bed,  or  talk,  within  an  hour ;  but  some- 
times the  dratight  is  even  more  considerable,  and  the  fish  are  actually  used  as  manure. 
The  fishing  population  of  Comaochio  numbers  about  6,000  iudividuals,  mcit  of 
them  distinguishod  by  tall  stature,  great  strength,  and  suppleness.  Coste,  the 
fish-breeder,  mentions  it  as  a  curious  fact  that  this  secluded  colony  of  fishermen 


,  the  fiiherief  of 

of  Magnavaooa, 
PalotU,  which 
oonstruoted  in 

nail,  oarriM  the 
varioui  bMini, 

ititute  M  many 


\V?r  A 


^ 


7 


atly.  Alabyrinih 
>  sea,  and  th^  are 
tallanzani  has  seen. 
1  hour ;  but  Bome- 
Uy  used  as  maaure. 
dividualB,  mc  it  of 
leness.  Ooste,  the 
)lony  of  fiBhermen 


TUB  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 

should  hare  retained  these  characteristic  features  for  centuries,  though  sustained 
exclusively  by  fishing,  and  living  upon  mullets,  eels,  and  acquadtllt.  Unfortunately 
these  fishermen  are  not  the  proprietors  of  the  ponds,  for  they  belong  to  the  State 
or  to  rich  private  individuals.  The  workmen  live  in  large  barracks  away  from  the 
town,  to  which  they  return  only  at  stated  intervals,  and  even  their  wives  and 
relatives  are  not  permitted  to  visit  them  in  their  places  of  exile. 

Hff.  7S>— Thi  Fmmieiu  or  Ookaoohio. 
)itrs«». 


aiuiMb 


The  enormous  population  of  the  valley  of  the  Po,  which  almost  equals  that  of 
the  remainder  of  continental  Italy,  is  very  unequally  distributed  ;  but,  except  in 
the  high  and  cold  Alpine  valleys,  the  inhabitants  live  in  towns,  dozens  of  which 
may  be  seen  peeping  out  amidst  the  verdure  if  we  ascend  a  high  tower.  There 
are  scarcely  any  villages  or  hamlets.  The  farmers  alone  live  in  the  country, 
completely  isolated  from  each  otiier,  whilst  the  numerous  landed  proprietors  throng 
ihe  towns,  and  impart  to  them  an  aq»ect  of  wealth  which  similar  places  in  other 
16 


■A 


96; 
if 


Ml  ITALY. 

{wrta  of  Europe  cannot  booat  of.  No  other  country  in  the  world  is  M  densely 
populated,  and  in  Lombardy  the  number  of  town  is  relatively  larger  than  any- 
where elio.* 

Large  town*,  too,  are  numerous,  and  many  o<  ihem  enjoy  a  desenred  reputation 
amongst  the  cities  of  the  world  on  account  of  their  monuments,  art  treasures,  and 
historical  associations.  Their  number  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  density  of  the 
population,  and  by  the  facility  with  which  the  inhabitants  were  able  to  shift  their 
abodes,  according  to  the  hazards  of  war  or  the  vicissitudes  of  events.  And  this 
accounts,  too,  for  the  large  number  of  towns  which  became  fomous  as  the  capitals 
of  republics,  or  as  royal  and  ducal  residences. 

Several  of  the  towns  at  the  base  of  the  Alps  occupy  sites  marked  out  for  them 
by  nature.  Such  are  the  towns  at  the  mouth  of  the  valleys  or  defiles,  which  were 
places  of  defence  as  well  as  staples  of  tMrnmerce.  Arimiuum,  the  modern  Rimini, 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  great  plain  of  thePo,  was  one  of  these,  for  during 
the  reign  of  the  Roman  it  defended  the  narrow  littoral  passage  between  the 
Adriatic  and  the  Apennines.  The  Flaminian  Road  there  reached  the  sea,  the 
Emilian  Road  thence  departed  for  the  north-west,  as  did  also  the  littoral  rood  of 
Ravenna.  When  Rome  had  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  the  world,  and  Italy  was 
divided  into  small  hostile  states,  the  towns  in  the  southern  part  of  the  plain, 
or  near  the  passes  over  the  Po,  such  as  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  retained  iiiair 
strategical  importance.  Piacenza,  viich  defends  the  passage  of  the  Po  between 
Piemont  and  Emilia,  remains  a  first-iiite  fortress  to  the  present  day  ;  Alessandria, 
net  '  the  confluence  of  Tanaro  and  Bormida,  and  in  a  plain  famuur  for  many  a 
bloL'dy  battle,  was  likewise  destined  to  become  a  formidable  fortress,  though 
derisively  called  a  "  city  of  straw."  Every  valley  debouching  from  France  or 
Austria  was  locker*.  At  ita  mouth  by  a  strong  fort ;  but  most  of  these  places,  such  as 
Yinadio,  Piner  >l  .  Vet't  >vt?lla,  and  Susa,  have  become  untenable,  owing  to  the 
range  of  moder. .  .1  '.ill;'\j'. 

The  def(  >!. '  ;.>f  the  road  over  the  Brenner,  ever  since  the  down&ll  of  the 
Roman  emp^i  3,  had  to  be  looked  to  most  carefully,  for  the  plain  between  the 
Minoi :  and  the  Adige;  to  the  south  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  is  the  least-protected  part 
of  Italy  from  a  military  point  of  view.  History  has  proved  this.  Well  might 
tho  peaceable  inhabitants  of  the  plain  consecrate  tKis  Alpine  road  to  the  gods,  and 
intrust  its  defence  to  the  neighbouring  tribes.  B  it  the  northern  barbarians  were 
not  to  be  stopped  by  altars ;  and  many  a  time  they  swept  down  it  like  au  avalanche, 
pillaging  the  towns  and  massacring  the  inhabitant .  No  spot  on  the  earth's  surfboe 
has  been  so  frequently  saturated  with  human  bloxl.  Most  of  the  battles  for  the 
possession  of  Italy,  down  to  our  own  days,  were  fought  near  the  mouth  of  the 
upper  vjilley  of  the  Adige.    Hardly  a  town  or  a  village  of  this  email  district  bat 


/\ 

AfiB,  Bonan  IQlM. 

Dm.  Slit,  isrs. 

FopnlatiaD. 

IhaMr. 

*  Piemont  . 

11,308 

2,896,218 

266 

Lombudy 

.    ^.                   9,084 

8,603,918 

891 

Venice     . 

0,060 

2,733,406 

802 

Emilia     . 

.        .       .         7,021 

2,168.881 

272 

Total    87,878 

11,486,918 

806 

d  is  M  densely 
arger  thui  any- 

erved  reputation 
rt  treasures,  and 
he  density  of  the 
)le  to  shift  their 
ents.  And  this 
M  as  the  capitab 

ked  out  for  them 
ifiles,  which  were 
modem  Kimini, 
these,  for  daring 
age  between  the 
shed  the  sea,  the 
le  littoral  road  of 
rid,  and  Italy  was 
Mirt  of  the  ]ilain, 
[la,  retained  iheir 
>f  the  Po  between 
day ;  Alessandria, 
liinuar  for  many  a 
[o  fortress,  though 
kg  from  France  or 
bese  places,  such  as 
able,  owing  to  the 

he  downfoll  of  the 
plain  between  the 
least-protected  part 
this.    Well  might 
ysA  to  the  gods,  and 
em  barbarians  were 
it  like  an  avalanche, 
n  the  earth's  sur&oe 
if  the  battles  for  the 
it  the  mouth  of  the 
M  email  district  bat 


S06 


MMM 


mmmmm 


BMBSSeM 


■i 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


liWiaMiMtfiMawiiii* - 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 

■  mm         m 

mi 


Canadian  Instituta  for  Historical  IMicroraproductiont  /  Inttitut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquaa 


THE  BASIN  OP  THE  PO. 


228 


has  gained  a  mournful  notoriety  in  the  dark  pages  of  human  history.  It  is  there 
we  must  seek  for  the  battle-fields  of  Castiglione,  Lonato,  Rivoli,  Solferino,  and 
Oustozza.  When  the  Austrians  held  Lombardy  and  Venice,  they  took  care  to 
protect  this  district  by  the  four  fortresses  known  as  the  Quadilateral  (Verona, 
Peschiera,  Mantua,  and  Legnago)  and  other  works.  These  constituted  the  "  key 
of  the  house,"  of  which  Italy  has  now  repossessed  herself. 

The  configuration  of  the  country  which  rendered  these  defiles  of  the  Alps 
of  importance  strategically,  likewise  insured  their  commercial  importance.  The 
fortresses  were  placed  there  to  defend  the  passes,  the  commercial  entrep6ts  to 

Fig.  74.— MovTH   OF  THB  Adiob  Valley. 
From  the  Anitrian  Staff  lisp.    Soato  t :  807,000. 


intercept  the  trade.  The  rank  of  these  places  of  commerce  depends  essentially 
upon  the  number  and  the  importance  of  the  roads  which  converge  upon  them. 
Turin,  upon  which  converge  all  the  Alpine  roads  from  Mont  Blanc  to  the 
Apennines,  naturally  became  one  of  the  vital  points  of  European  commerce. 
Milan,  to  which  lead  the  seven  great  Alpine  routes  of  the  Simplon,  the  Gotthard, 
the  Bernardino,  the  Spliigen,  the  Julier,  the  Maloya,  and  the  Stelvio,  was  marked 
out  by  nature  as  a  commercial  emporium.  Bologna,  too,  which  was  separated  by 
the  swamps  of  the  Po  from  the  Alpine  passes,  has  risen  into  importance  since 
nulwAyv  have  joined  it  to  Vienna,  Paris,  Marseilles,  and  Naples. 


224 


ITALY. 


The  valley  of  the  Po  would  never  have  attained  its  importance  in  the  history 
of  Europe  unless  roads  had  been  constructed  for  traversing  the  obstructive  moun- 
tains which  surround  it  on  all  sides  except  towards  the  east,  where  it  opens  out 
upon  the  Adriatic-  No  other  district  of  Europe  is  so  completely  hemmed 
in  by  natural  obstacles  as  is  this,  but  the  construction  of  carriage  roads  and  railways 
has  converted  Northern  Italy  into  one  of  the  great  centres  of  European  commerce. 
Venice  gives  it  the  command  of  the  Adriatic,  the  Apennine  railways  connect  it 
with  Genoa,  Savona,  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  and  the  Tyrrhenian,  and  it  thus  commands 
the  two  seas  which  wash  the  shores  of  Italy.  Other  railways  cross  the  Alps,  and 
put  it  into  communication  with  France  and  Germany.  This  central  position, 
joined  to  the  natural  fertility  of  the  country,  has  converted  Northern  Italy  into  one 

Fig.  75. — Tub  Pabbaoeh  ovsr  thx  Alps. 
Soile  1 : 6,000,000. 


,100  Miles. 


of  the  most  flourishing  portions  of  Europe.  Human  hands  have  conquered 
original  geographical  disadvantages,  and  the  true  centre  of  Italy  is  in  the  anoieni 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  not  at  Rome.  Had  the  Italians  been  guided  in  the  choice  of 
their  capital  by  actual  importance,  and  not  by  historical  tradition,  they  would 
have  chosen  one  of  the  great  cities  of  their  northern  plain. 

Turin,  though  an  old  town,  seeing  that  it  was  burnt  by  Hannibal,  is  never- 
theless a  modem  city,  if  we  compare  it  with  other  towns  of  Italy.  Its  straight  and 
broad  streets  almost  g^ve  it  the  appearance  of  a  town  of  the  New  World.  Until 
made  a  ducal  residence,  Turin  was  but  a  small  provincial  town.  During  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  and  even  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  great  high-road  between  Italy 
and  Gaul  led  along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Gtenoa.  The  passage  of  the  Alps 
was  looked  upon  with  dread  by  travellers.    Still  some  traffic  went  on  even  in  these 


THE  BASIN  OP  THE  PO. 


226 


1  the  history 
active  moun- 
I  it  opens  out 
tely  hemmed 
I  and  railways 
lan  commerce. 
ys  connect  it 
ms  conmiands 
the  Alps,  and 
atral  position, 
Italy  into  one 


have  conquered 

is  in  the  anciehi 

in  the  choice  of 

ion,  they  would 

anibal,  is  never- 
Its  straight  and 
World.  Until 
uring  the  time  of 
od  between  Italy 
lage  of  the  Alps 
on  even  in  these 


early  days,  and  small  towns  sprang  into  existence  at  the  foot  of  each  Alpine 
pass.  Amongst  these  were  Mondovi,  the  triple  town  built  on  three  hills ;  Ouneo, 
favourably  placed  upon  a  terrace  between  Stura  and  Qesso,  in  which  rise 
the  hot  sulphur  springs  of  Yaldiera ;  Saluzzo,  on  the  gentle  slope  of  the  foot- 
hills of  Monte  Yiso ;  Finerolo,  with^  its  ancient  castle,  so  often  converted  into  a 
prison  of  state ;  Susa,  the  Italian  key  of  Mont  Cenis ;  Aosta,  still  abounding  in 
Roman  antiquities ;  Ivrea,  built  on  a  site  formerly  occupied  by  a  glacier 
descending  from  Monte  Rosa ;  and  Riella,  with  its  flourishing  woollen  industry. 
The  towns  lower  down  in  the  plain,  upon  which  several  of  these  Alpine  roads 
converged,  likewise  attained  some  local  importance.  In  Upper  Fiemont  there  are 
Fossapo,  on  a  heap  of  shingle  at  the  junction  of  the  roads  of  Mondovi  and  Ouneo ; 
Savigliano,  lower  down,  where  the  roads  of  the  Fo  and  Maira  valleys  join ;  and 
Carmagnola,  which  commands  one  of  the  principal  roads  over  the  Apennines. 
Novara,  the  commercial  outlet  of  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and  in  the  midst  of  one  of 
the  most  productive  agricultural  districts,  is  the  most  populous  town  of  Eastern 
Fiemont.  Yercelli,  on  the  Sesia,  and  below  the  confluence  of  the  rivulets  descend- 
ing from  Monte  Rosa,  enjoys  natural  advantages  similar  to  those  of  Novara. 
Casale,  the  ancient  capital  of  Monferrato,  defends  one  of  the  principal  passages  of 
theFo. 

But  Turin,  owing  to  its  favourable  position,  has  become  the  g^eat  emporium 
of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Fo.  Its  commerce  has  grown  immensely,  since  the 
town  no  longer  enjoys  the  perilous  honour  of  being  the  capital  of  a  kingdom, 
and  the  places  vacated  by  the  court  and  Government  officials  have  been  filled  up 
quickly  by  immigrants  carried  thither  by  the  railways.  Its  libraries,  a  fine 
Diuseum,  and  various  learned  societies  entitle  it  to  rank  as  one  of  the  intellectual 
centres  of  the  peninsula,  whilst  its  manufactures  of  silks  and  woollens,  of  paper 
and  other  articlen,  are  of  great  importance.  The  environs  of  Turin  are  delightful. 
From  the  hill  of  the  Superga,  a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  the  city,  and  crowned  by 
a  sumptuous  church,  may  be  enjoyed  one  of  the  finest  panoramas  of  the  Italian 
Alps.  The  numerous  small  towns  in  its  vicinity,  such  as  Moiicalieri,  Chieri,  and 
Oarignano,  abound  in  villas  and  participate  in  the  prosperity  of  the  capital.  As 
to  the  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Tanaro,  in  the  south,  they  form  a  group  apart, 
and  are  the  natural  intermediaries  between  the  valley  of  the  Fo  and  the  port  of 
Genoa.  Alessandria,  a  strong  fortress  of  hideous  regularity,  which  has  superseded 
the  old  fortresses  of  T  'ortona  and  Novi,  is  the  terminus  of  eight  railways,  and  one 
of  the  busiest  places  of  Italy.  The  neighbouring  cities  of  Asti,  famous  for  its 
sparkling  wines,  and  Acqui,  celebrated  from  the  time  of  the  Romans  for  its  hot 
springs,  are  likewise  important  for  their  commerce.* 

MUan,  the  capital  of  Lombardy,  is  in  every  respect  one  of  the  leading  cities  of 
Italy.    In  population  it  is  inferior  to  Naples,  in  commerce  it  is  outstripped  only 

*  Popnktion  of  the  principal  towns  of  IHemont  (1871) :— Turin.  192,442;  Alesaandria,  29,102; 
NoTMia,  24,1M;  Yercelli,  20,626;    Ouale  Monfermto,  20,436;   Asti,  19,466;    Novi  lagure,  12,162 
Mondovi,  11,968;  Ganeo,  1I,8«9-,  Finerolo,  11,832;  Biello,  11,814;  Saluuo,  9,796;  Savigliano,  9,644 ; 
Bra,  9,196;  Alba,  9,147;  Chieri,  8,086;  Tortona,  8,620;  Acqui,  8,332;   FoMano,  7,272;  Carmagnola, 
3,830. 


916 


ITALY. 


' 


by  Genoa,  but  in  industry  it  is  the  equal  of  both.  Its  scientific  and  literary  life 
entitles  it,  probably,  to  the  first  rank  amongst  the  cities  between  the  Alps  and  Sicily. 
In  the  most  remote  times  Milan  was  an  important  town  of  the  Celts,  and  since 
then  the  advantages  of  its  position  have  given  it  the  preponderance  amongst  all 
other  cities  of  Northern  Italy.  Its  power  during  the  Middle  Ages  gained  it  the 
epithet  of  the  "  Second  Rome."  At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  had 
300,000  inhabitants,  whilst  London  had  not  then  a  sixth  of  that  number.  Milan 
stood  in  want  of  water,  for  it  was  dependent  upon  the  feeble  stream  of  the  Olona, 
und  its  citizens  created  the  Naviglio  Grande  and  the  Martesana,  veritable  rivers, 
which  furnish  a  quantity  of  water  double  that  of  the  Seine  at  Paris  during 
summer.  They  likewise  erected  magnificent  monuments,  but  most  of  these  have 
perished  during  innumerable  wars,  and  the  aspect  of  Milan  is  now  that  of  a 
modem  town  of  Western  Europe.  Its  most  famous  building,  the  "  Duomo,"  with 
its  prodigious  crowd  of  statues,  its  finely  chiselled  marbles  and  gpranites,  must  be 
looked  upon  as  a  marvel  of  architecture,  though  from  an  artistic  point  of  view  it  is 
hardly  more  than  an  elaborately  carved  trinket  out  of  all  proportion.  The  stones 
for  this  edifice  were  quarried  on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Toce. 

The  capital  of  Lombardy,  proud  of  the  past  and  confident  of  the  future,  boasts 
of  never  yielding  servilely  to  impulses  given  from  beyond.  It  has  its  own  opinions, 
manners,  and  fashions,  and  anything  accepted  from  abroad  is  moulded  in  accord- 
ance with  local  traditions.  The  other  tiowns  of  Lombardy  likewise  maintain  their 
local  character,  are  proud  of  their  traditions,  and  glory  in  the  annals  of  the  past. 
Como,  on  the  beautiful  lake  named  after  it,  the  ancient  rival  of  Milan,  gains 
wealth  by  spinning  silk,  and  exporting  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  Brianza. 
Monza,  surrounded  by  parks  and  villas,  is  the  coronation  city.  Pavia,  with  its 
525  towers,  now  in  ruins,  remembers  the  time  when  it  was  the  residence  of 
the  Lombard  king^,  and  proudly  points  to  the  university,  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Europe,  and  to  the  Certosa  (Chartreuse),  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  monasteries 
of  Italy.  Yigevano,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Ticino,  rejoices  in  a  fine  castle.  Lodi, 
in  the  eleventh  century,  was  the  most  powerful  city  of  Italy  next  to  Milan,  and 
carried  on  a  war  of  extermination  with  the  latter;  it  is  still  a  busy  place. 
Cremona,  an  old  republic,  boasts  of  its  torrazzo,  or  tower,  393  feet  in  height,  the 
loftiest  in  Europe  until  Gt>thic  cathedrals  were  built.  Bergamo,  on  a  hill  com- 
manding the  rich  plains  of  Brembo  and  Serio,  pi'oduced  a  larger  number  of  great 
men  than  any  other  town  except  Florence ;  and  Brescia,  the  armourers'  town, 
more  haughty  still,  proclaims  herself  to  be  the  mother  of  heroes. 

Mantua,  on  the  Mincio,  is  one  of  the  fortresses  of  the  Quadrilateral,  and  can 
hardly  be  said  to  belong  to  LoMbardy,  though  included  within  its  political  bound- 
aries. It  is  essentially  a  military  town.  It  has  lost  much  of  its  old  commerce, 
though  Jews  are  more  plentiful  there  than  in  any  other  inland  city  of  Italy.  Its 
swamps,  woods,  rice-fields,  ditches,  and  fortified  canals  are  productive  of  a  degree 
of  humidity  exceptional  eveii  in  Lombardy,  and  the  inhabitants  consequently 
eschew  this  ancient  birthplace  of  YirgiL  Strikingly  different  is  the  character  of 
the  towns  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains,  such  as  Sondrio,  the  capital  of  the 


^^wwEE^S 


THE  BASIN  OP  THE  PO. 


SfiT 


d  literary  life 
Ipg  and  Sicily. 
jltB,  and  since 
e  amongst  all 

gained  it  tlie 
entury  it  had 
imber.     Milan 

of  the  Olona, 
iritable  rivers, 

Paris  during 

of  these  have 
low  that  of  a 
Duomo,"  with 
mites,  must  be 
nt  of  view  it  is 
1.     The  stones 
li  of  the  Toce. 
e  future,  boasts 
s  own  opinions, 
ded  in  accord- 
I  maintain  their 
lals  of  the  past. 
)f  Milan,  gains 
)f  the  Brianza. 
Pavia,  with  its 
he  residence  of 
if  the  oldest  in 
Dus  monasteries 
.6  castle.    Lodi, 
i  to  Milan,  and 
[  a  busy  place. 
t  in  height,  the 
on  a  hill  com- 
lumber  of  g^reat 
rmowtars'  town, 


Val  Tellina,  or  delightful  Sale,  on  the  Lake  of  Garda,  with  its  group  of  villas 
scattered  amongst  groves  of  orange-trees.* 

The  ph .  iognomy  of  the  large  towns  of  Emilia,  beyond  the  Po,  offers  far  fewer 
peculiarities,  for,  as  most  of  them  are  situated  along  the  great  Emilian  highway, 
they  have  been  exposed  for  ages  to  the  levelling  influences  of  travelling  merchants 
and  soldiers.     Piacenza,  a  sorry  place  as  a  fortress,  carries  on  an  important  com- 

Fig.  78.— Thb  Laxms  and  Canau  of  Mantua. 
Vtom  Um  Anitrian  Staff  Map.    Bosla  1  :  198,000. 


V».atOm—m> 


v^uc 


ifii^ 


ti^:^ 


ITtJA 


vinuM««^ 


.GmeiUla 


S.Sa««alM\ 


'/. 


LS-/ 


•  *■ 


•  « 


iff 


f 


■uo 


[lateral,  and  can 
political  bound- 
3  old  commerce, 
y  of  Italy.  Its 
stive  of  a  degree 
its  consequently 
the  character  of 
the  capital  of  ihe 


llMdowa.   Swunpi.   Wooda.    Biw-flaldi. 
>..—.—_  SHOW. 


I  and  Dyke*. 


meroe.      Parma,  an  old  ducal  residence,  has  a   rich   library,  a  museum,  and 
wonderful  frescoes  by  Oorreggio  in  its  churches.      Reggio,  another  important 

•  Population  of  the  towna  of  Lombardy  (1871):— Milan  (Milano),  261,985;  Brescia,  38,906 ;  Bergamo, 
34,656;  Cremona,  30,919;  Pavia,  29,618;  Mantua  (Mantova),  26,687;  Como,  24,360;  Lodi,  19,088; 
Monza,  17,431;  Vigevano,  14,096;  Buato  Ardaio,  12,909;  Vareie,  12,606;  Voghera,  11,903;  Treviglio, 

ll|Oo3a 


228 


ITALY. 


station  on  the  Emilian  highway,  is  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  Ariosto.  Modona 
has  its  museum,  and  the  precious  collection  of  books  and  manuscripts  known  as  the 
Biblioteca  Esteme.  Bologna  the  "  Learned,"  which  has  taken  the  word  "  Libertas  " 
for  its  motto,  still  remains  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  Italian  cities.  There  are 
its  Etruscan  cemetery,  its  palaces  and  medisDval  buildings,  and  its  two  leaning 
towers,  which  will  most  certainly  come  down  in  the  end.  Bologna  is  one  of  the 
great  railway  centres,  carries  on  much  commerce,  and  increases  rapidly  in  popula* 
tion.  It  would  have  made  a  far  better  capital  than  Rome.  Of  late  years  the 
environs  of  .the  city  have  been  frequently  flooded  by  the  Beno,  and  these  disasters 
have  cost  Bologna  its  ancient  epithet  of  "  the  Fat." 

Near  this  bustling  place  there  are  otherd,  now  stagnant,  which  can  point  only 
to  buildings  in  proof  that  they,  too,  were  once  flourishing.  Ferrara,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Estes,  has  fallen  from  its  high  estate  since  the  Po  has  deserted  it, 
but  still  remains  a  place  of  some  importance.  Ravenna  has  not  been  deserted  by 
the  Po,  but  by  the  sea,  with  which  it  communicates  now  by  a  canal  seven  miles 
in  length,  and  navigable  for  ships  drawing  thirteen  feet  of  water.  The  town 
became  the  capital  of  Honorius  and  Theoderio  the  Gbth,  on  account  of  the  protec- 
tion ofiered  by  the  surrounding  marshes.  To  the  exarchs  it  is  indebted  for  its 
curious  Byzantine  edifices,  so  rich  in  mosaics.  As  to  the  ancient  Etruscan  oity  of 
Adria,  on  Venetian  soil,  to  the  north  of  the  Po,  it  could  hardly  have  claimed  at 
any  period  during  the  last  two  thousand  years  to  give  a  name  to  the  neighbouring 
sea.  It  lies  now  at  a  distance  of  fourteen  miles  from  it,  and  even  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans  it  must  have  been  surrounded  by  lagoons  or  swamps,  for  how  else  can 
we  explain  its  epithet  of  "  Town  of  the  Seven  Seas  P  "  Porto,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Euganean  Hills,  may  owe  its  name  to  an  ancient  lake  or  river. 

Towns  famous  on  account  of  their  history,  and  still  populous,  are  most  crowded 
together  in  the  southern  angle  of  the  plain,  usually  known  as  the  Romagna.  The 
towers  and  crenellated  walls  of  Imola  rise  there  on  the  banks  of  the  Santemo. 
Lugo,  the  "  town  of  the  beautiful  Romagnese,"  occupies  the  centre  of  the  district 
of  Ravenna,  and  has  much  trade.  Faenza,  on  the  Emilian  Road,  is  a  large  village 
rather  than  a  town,  though  it  has  g^ven  its  name  to  a  particular  kind  of  porcelain 
(faience).  Forli  is,  next  to  Bologna,  the  most  populous  oity  of  Romagna.  Oesena 
is  known  for  the  excellence  of  the  hemp  grown  in  the  neighbourhood.  Rimiui, 
where  the  Emilian  Road  reaches  the  sea,  still  has  a  few  Roman  roina,  including  a^ 
triumphal  arch.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Romagna  are  (^tinguished  by  great 
energy.  Their  passions  are  violent,  and  as  frequently  lead  them  into  crime  as  to 
deeds  of  heroism.* 

In  Yenetia  there  are  several  provincial  towns  of  importance.  Padua  abounds 
in  monuments  of  art,  possesses  a  university,  and  was  formerly  the  rival  of  Yenioe. 
Yicenza  is  embellished  by  the  palaces  erected  by  Palladio.  Treviso  and  Belluno 
are  towns  of  some  importance,  the  one  on  the  Sile,  the  other  in  the  upper  valley 

*  FopnUtioa  of  the  principal  towns  of  EmilU  (1871) :— Bologna,  89,104 ;  Parma,  44,91fi ;  Kacensa, 
34,908;  Feirara,  83,327;  Modena,  30,8«4;  Faenaa,  23,762;  Ravenna,  21,774;  Beggio,  19,181;  Lnols, 
18,189;  Cewma,  17,694 ;  Forli,  16,324;  Rimini,  9,747;  Lugo,  8,604;  Oomaoohio,  7,007. 


. 


-  '-■""' -rVilMni-ilMiiilisiimLL, 


)to.  Modona 
known  aa  the 
1  ••  Libertas  " 
«.  There  are 
1  two  leaning 
,  is  one  of  the 
ily  in  popula- 
iate  years  the 
these  disasters 

san  point  only 
a,  the  ancient 
as  deserted  it, 
en  deserted  by 
lal  seven  miles 
r.      The  town 
of  the  proteo- 
indebted  for  its 
ItruBcan  oity  of 
ave  claimed  at 
e  neighbouring 
in  the  time  of 
jr  how  else  can 
the  foot  of  the 

e  most  crowded 
lomagna.  The 
f  the  Santemo. 
e  of  the  district 
9  a  large  village 
ind  of  porcelain 
magna.  Ceaena 
•hood.  lUmini, 
lins,  including  a 
dished  by  great 
into  crime  as  to 

Padua  abounds 

rival  of  Venice. 

viso  and  Belluno 

the  upper  valley 

IS,  44,91fi ;  PimoMist, 
ggio,  10,131 ;  ImolSt 
007. 


jisasw 


«L„. 


^ 


THE  DA8IN  OF  THE  PO. 


220 


Fig.  77.— I'almanoya. 
Sosle  1  :  m,4O0. 


of  the  Pittvo.  At  Udiae  ia  [luinted  nut  u  mound  of  ourth  nuid  to  havo  boon 
thrown  up  by  Attilu,  from  which  ho  oontomplutod  tho  conflugration  of  A<|uil«ju. 
Pulmunova,  on  the  AuBtnun  frontier,  ia  a  rugulurly  built  fortreaa.  Vorona,  ut  tho 
other  extremity  of  Venotiu,  haa  played  an  important  part  in  tho  hiatory  of  Italy, 
but  ita  commerce  and  induatry  havo  fallen  into  decay.  It  hardly  tiUa  up  tho  apace 
eucloaed  by  walla  and  baationa,  and  ita  pruaont  |>opulation  ia  quite  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  multitude  of  ita  public  buildinga  dating  from  the  Middle  Agea,  and 
the  dimenaiona  of  ita  Roman  amphitheatre,  capable  of  aoating  oO.UUO  apectatora. 
Amongat  all  tho  oitiea  of  Venetia  it  ia  Venice  itaelf,  tho  "  Queen  of  the  Adriatic," 
which  haa  auffured  leaat  in  the  courae  of  agea. 

Venice  ia  a  very  ancient  city.      The  remaina  of  Roman  buildinga  diacovered 
on  the  ialand  of  San  Giorgia,  far  below  the  preaent  level  of  the  aoa,  and  therefore 
referred  to  in  proof  of  the  alow  subaidence  of  the  Venetian  coast,  prove  to  ua 
that  the  mud  ialanda  of  the  gulf  aupported  a  population  long  before  the  invaaion 
of  the  Barbarians.      Theae   haIf*drowned 
lunda  may  have  attracted  the  ooaat  popu- 
lation at  an  early  age,  for  they  afforded 
security  againat  attack,  and  offered  great 
ttdvantagea    for    carrying    on    commerce. 
Nevertheleaa,  the  Venice  of  our  time  only 
dates  f^om  the  commencement  of  the  ninth 
century,  when  the  government  of  thia  ma- 
ritime republic  was  eatabliahed  upon  the 
islands    separated    from  the   sea    by    the 
lidi,  and  from  the  mainland  by  estUaries 
and  swamps.      This  unique  position  ren- 
dered  Venice   almost    impregnable;    and 
whilst  the  rest  of  Europe  was  being  deso- 
lated by  war,  Venice  sent  forth  its  com- 
mercial and  warlike  expeditions  to  every  "^ 
part  of  the  Mediterranean,  established  factories,  and  built  fortresses.    Not  with- 
out arduous  struggles,   it    became    the   most  powerful   and  wealthiest  of  the 
commercial  republics  of  Italy.      It  was  largely  indebted  for  this  success  to  its 
favourable  geographical  position,  almost'  in  the  centre  of  the  medisoval  world.     Its 
commerce  brought  the  Venetians  into  contact  with  nearly  every  nation,  and  they 
had  no  prejudices  against  foreigners.     The  Armenians  were  admitted  to  their  city, 
and  an  alliance  was  made  even  with  the  Turks.    At  the  time  of  the  Crusades  the 
Venetian  Republic  ocoupied  the  foremost  position  amongst  the  states  of  Europe, 
and  its  ambassadors  enjoyed  a  vast  amount  of  influence.      This  influence  was  sus- 
tained by  enormous  material  forces.     Venice  had  a  navy  of  300  veasels,  manned 
by  36,000  sailors,  and  the  riches  of  the  world,  whether  obtained  by  legitimate 
commerce  or  by  violence,  were  accumulated  in  its  2,000  palaces  and  200  churches. 
Even  one  of  the  islets  upon  which  the  city  is  built  would  have  purchased  a 
kingdom  of  Asia  or  Ainoa.    One  of  the  most  sumptuous  cities  of  the  West  had 

17 


280 


ITALT, 


arisen  upon  banks  of  mud,  inhabited  formerly  only  by  poor  fisliennen.  The  larch 
forests  of  Dalmatia  had  been  cut  down,  and  converted  into  piles  upon  which  to  build 
palaces.  More  than  400  bridges  of  marble  joined  island  to  island,  and  superb 
embankments  of  granite  defended  this  marvellous  city  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  sea.  Great  achievements  in  the  arts  contributed  their  share  in  making 
Venezia  la  Bella  a  city  without  its  equal. 

But  geographical  discoveries,  in  which  Venice  itself  took  a  leading  share, 
undermined  the  power  of  the  Italian  Bepublic.  When  Africa  had  been  circum- 
navigated and  the  New  World  discovered,  the  Mediterranean  ceased  to  be  the 
great  commercial  sea  of  the  world.  Yenioe  was  doomed  to  die.  It  no  longer 
monopolized  the  road  to  India,  and  the  increasing  power  of  the  Turks  crippled  its 
Eastern  trade.  Still,  so  great  were  its  resources,  that  it  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence for  more  than  three  hundred  years  after  it  had  lost  its  factories,  and 
only  fell  when  shamefully  deserted  by  General  Bonaparte,  its  supposed  ally. 

The  decadence  of  Venice  was  most  remarkable  during  the  dominion  of  Austria. 
In  1840  the  city  had  less  than  100,000  inhabitants,  hundreds  of  its  palaces  were 
in  ruins,  the  grass  grew  in  its  squares,  and  seaweeds  encumbered  its  landing- 
places.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  gradually  recovering.  A  bridge  of  222  arches 
and  2,000  feet  in  length  connects  it  with  the  mainland,  and  its  commerce,  though 
not  equal  to  that  of  Trieste,  is  nevertheless  of  considerable  importance.*  The 
manufacture  of  looking-glaasesy  laoe,  and  other  articles  has  imparted  firesh  life  to 
Venice,  and  there,  as  well  as  in  other  towns  of  the  lagoons  (Malamooco,  Burano, 
Murano,  and  Ohioggia),  thousands  of  workmen  are  husy  in  the  production  of 
those  gay-looking  glass  beads  which  find  their  way  into  every  part  of  the  world, 
and  which  in  certain  countries  of  the  East  and  in  Central  Africa  take  the  place 
of  coin.  But  Venice,  though  less  populous  and  active  than  of  yore,  still  rejoices 
in  its  delightful  climate  and  its  bright  skies.  Its  gaiety  and  flutes  are  not  yet 
things  of  the  past,  and  its  palaces,  built  in  a  style  half  Italian,  half  Moorish,  still 
contain  the  priceless  masterpieces  of  Titian,  Tintoretto,  and  Paul  Veronese.f 


III. — LlOURIA  AND  THE   RiVIERA   OF   GeMOA.^ 

LiGUKiA  is  but  a  narrow  slip  of  land  if  we  compare  it  with  the  broad  plain  of 
the  Po,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  clearly  defined  districts  of  Europe,  and  its  inhabit- 
ants have  retained  many  original  traits.  The  contrast  between  the  Podane  plains 
and  the  littoral  region  beyond  the  barren  Apennines  is  striking,  but  if  we 
travel  in  the  direction  of  Provence  or  of  Tuscany  the  landscape  changes  only 
by  degrees.     The  rampart  of  the  Apennines  surrounds  the  whole  of  the  Gtilf  of 

*  Tonnage  of  TMieb  which  entered  and  clewed  (inelud&ig  the  ooaating  trade) :— £88,096  tons  in 
1865 ;  1,070,600  tons  in  187«.    Value  of  imports  by  sea  (1874) :— £6,960,200 ;  of  exports,  £2,848,040. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Venetia  (1871) :— Venice  (Veneria),  128,901 ;  Veroua,  66,876 ; 
Phdua  (PadoTa),  62,011;  Vicensa,  26,^94;  Udine,  22,692;  Chioggia,  19,841;  Tieviso  18,647;  CaTarsere, 
12,336;  Vittoria  (formerly  called  Oeneda),  10,633;  Adria,  9,834;  Rovigo,  7,974;  Feltro,  6,670;  Bellono, 
6,770;  Este,  6,713. 

t  Araa,  2,163  square  miles ;  population  (1871),  843,260 ;  density,  891. 


LIGUBIA  AND  THE  RIVIEBA  OP  GENOA. 


281 


en.  The  larch 
I  which  to  build 
ad,  and  superb 
I  encroachments 
lare  in  making 

leading  share, 
d  been  oircum- 
sased  to  be  the 
It  no  longer 
irks  crippled  its 
tained  its  inde- 
ts  factories,  and 
tosed  ally, 
inion  of.  Austria. 

its  palaces  were 
ired  its  landing- 
ge  of  222  arches 
vmmerce,  though 
portanoe.*    The 
rted  fresh  life  to 
amocco,  Burano, 
le  production  of 
art  of  the  world, 
oa  take  the  place 
ore,  still  rejoices 
fUtes  are  not  yet 
alf  Moorish,  still 
Veronese.t 


bie  broad  plain  of 
e,  and  its  inhabit- 
he  Podane  plains 
Iking,  but  if  we 
ipe  changes  only 
oleof  theChilfof 

kde) :— {(88,096  tona  in 
xports,  £2,848,040. 
1,001 ;  Verona,  66,878 ; 
iso  18,647;  Cavanwre, 
Feltro,  6,670;  Ballano, 


Oenoa,  and  there  is  not  a  single  break  in  it.  These  mountains  are  very  different  in 
character  from  the  Alps,  though  joined  to  them  as  the  branch  of  a  tree  is  united  to 
its  trunk.  It  is  not  possible  to  tell  where  one  chain  ends  and  the  other  begins.  If 
the  main  direction  of  the  mountain  is  to  be  the  criterion,  the  Ligurian  Apennines 
may  be  said  to  begin  at  the  frontier  of  France,  near  the  sources  of  the  Tinea  and 
Yesubio ;  but  if  great  height,  pastures,  and  perennial  snow  aro  considered  sufficient 
CO  constitute  an  Alpine  region,  then  the  Apennines  only  begin  to  the  east  of  the 
Col  di  Tenda,  for  the  fine  sunomits  of  the  Olapier,  FenStre,  and  GK)rdale8que,  to  the 
west  of  that  pass,  attain  a  height  of  10,000  feet.  They  are  quite  Alpine  in  their 
character,  and  may  boast  even  of  small  glaciers,  the  most  southerly  in  the  mountains 
of  Central  Europe.     Geologists  usually  draw  the  line  where  cretaceous  and  tertiary 

Fig.  78.— Thi  JuKorioN  of  Alps  and  AFuamiii. 
SMie  1 : 1,800,000. 


■10 


rocks  take  the  place  of  the  crystalUne  rocks  of  the  Alps.  But  this,  too,  is  only  a 
conventional  division,  for  tiiese  crystalline  rocks,  which  constitute  the  crest  of  the 
Alps  in  the  west,  extend  far  to  the  east,  and  occasionally  they  break  through  the 
sedimentary  formations  which  overlie  them,  and  rise  into  summits  similar  to  those 
of  the  Alps.  Thus  the  granitic  sunmits  of  the  mountains  of  Spezia  remind  us  of 
the  mountain  mass  near  the  Gol  di  Tenda. 

The  chain  of  the  Liguiian  Apennines  is  by  no  means  of  unifoi'm  height,  but,  like 
that  of  the  Alps,  it  consists  of  mountain  masses  separated  by  passes.  The  lowest  of 
these  passes  is  that  to  the  west  of  Savona,  named  indifferently  after  one  of  the 
neighbouring  villages,  Altare,  Caicara,  or  Cadibona.  This  pass  is  hardly  more 
than  1,600  feet  in  height,  and  is  popularly  looked  upon  as  constituting  the  boundary 
between  the  Alps  and  Apennines.    The  possession  of  this  pass  during  war  has 


*<4S!afiiM 


Jfel'ife!ltfit'g»'ligjJt*!'i'*4a'? "*" 


282 


ITALY. 


always  been  considered  of  great  importance,  for  it  commands  the  approaches  to 
Gbnoa  and  the  upper  valleys  of  Piemont,  and  the  Tanaro  and  Bormido,  which  rise 
near  it,  have  often  run  with  blood. 

The  Apennines  to  the  east  of  this  pass  have  an  average  height  of  3,30C  feet,  and 
beyond  the  Pass  of  Qiovi  (1,538  feet),  through  which  the  road  leads  from  Genoa  to 
the  northern  plains,  many  summits  attain  a  height  of  4,500  feet.  Several  spurs, 
abounding  in  ravines,  extend  here  to  the  north.  The  main  chain,  at  the  same  time, 
retires  from  the  coast,  and  the  Pass  of  Pontremoli,  which  separates  the  Lig^rian 
from  tho  Tuscan  Apennines,  and  through  which  leads  the  road  from  Parma  to 
Spezia,  is  no  less  than  thirty  miles  from  the  sea.  In  this  eastern  portion  of  the 
Qenoese  Apennines  a  spur  detaches  itself  from  the  main  chain,  and  terminates  in  the 
fine  promontory  of  Porto  Yenere,  a  magnificent  rock  of  black  marble,  surmounted 
formerly  by  a  temple  of  Venus.  This  spur,  which  protects  the  Ci-ulf  of  Spezia 
against  westerly  winds,  has  at  all  times  constituted  an  obstacle  to  the  intercourse 
between  neighbouring  peoples,  not  so  much  on  account  of  its  height,  but  because 
of  its  steepness.  In  some  places  the  crest  of  the  Apennines  is  hardly  moi  <)  than 
four  miles  from  the  sea.  The  slope,  in  such  places,  is  exceedingly  steep,  and  roads 
can  ascend  it  only  in  numerous  windings.* 

The  small  width  of  the  maritime  slope  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines  accounts  for 
the  absence  of  perennial  rivers.  The  most  considerable  streams  to  the  east  of  the 
Roya,  which  runs  for  the  greater  part  through  French  territory,  such  as  the  Taggia 
or  the  Centa,  only  assume  the  r.ppearance  of  rivers  when  the  snows  melt,  or .  after 
heavy  rains.  Ordinarily  they  are  but  small  streams,  closed  at  the  mouth  by  bars 
of  pebbles.  Between  Albenga  and  Spezia,  for  a  distance  of  160  miles,  there  are 
only  torrents,  and  in  order  to  meet  again  with  a  real  river  we  must  go  beyond  the 
Gulf  of  Spezia.  This  river  is  the  Magra,  which  separates  Lig^uria  firom  Etruria, 
and  which,  up  to  the  epoch  of  Augustus,  formed  the  boundary  of  Italy.  Its 
alluvium  has  converted  an  ancient  bay  of  the  sea  into  a  lake,  and  formed  a  beach, 
1,300  yards  in  width,  in  front  of  the  ancient  Tyrrhenian  city  of  Luni,  which 
formerly  stood  on  the  seashore. 

The  want  of  great  rivers  in  Liguria  is  compensated  for  to  some  extent  by  sub- 
terranean water-courses.  Several  springs  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  at  some 
distance  from  the  shore.  The  springs  of  La  Polla,  in  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  are  amongst 
the  most  bountiful  amongst  them.  They  have  been  isolated  by  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment from  the  surrounding  salt  water,  and  their  water  is  supplied  to  ships. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  rivers,  the  sterility  of  the  soil,  and  the  steep  escarpments, 
this  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  region  contrasts  strikingly  with  other  parts 
of  temperate  Europe.  Having  reached  the  summit  of  the  mountains  beyond  the 
magnificent  chestnut  forests  at  the  head-streams  of  the  Ellero,  the  Tanaro,  and  the 
Bormida,  we  look  down  upon  a  scene  almost  African  in  its  character.  Scarcely  a 
blade  of  grass  is  to  be  seen  betweoi  Nice  and  Spezia,  and  only  the  grass-plots,  kept 
up  at  great  expense  in  some  pleasure-gardens,  remind  us  that  Piemont  and  Lom- 

•  Principal  altitadet  in  Ligaria :— Okpier  do  Pa^puin,  10,07S  feet;  Col  di  Tends,  6,146  feet;  Ifoote 
Oarsino,  8,7M  feet ;  Ool  d'Altare,  1,600  feet ;  Col  di  Qiovi,  1,(88  feet ;  Monte  Penna,  6,700  feat. 


L 


ww^^tiiwiiiiiiaiinriii^iiinfag 


t.iH'<mil»  A*iMi  H I  Bti>n 


approaches  to 
lido,  which  rise 

'  3,30C  feet,  and 
from  Genoa  to 
Several  spurs, 
the  same  time, 
s  the  Ligurian 
from  Parma  to 
I  portion  of  the 
srminates  in  the 
}le,  surmounted 
Gulf  of  Spezia 
the  intercourse 
ht,  but  because 
rdly  moi  •)  than 
iteep,  and  roads 

aes  accounts  for 
the  east  of  the 
thastheXaggia 
rs  melt,  or .  after 
I  mouth  by  bars 
miles,  there  are 
t  go  beyond  the 
El  from  Etruna, 
J  of  Italy.  Its 
Eormed  a  beach, 
sf  Luni,  which 

)  extent  by  sub- 
the  sea,  at  some 
)zia,  are  amongprt 
Italian  Govern- 
to  ships, 
jep  escarpments, 
with  other  parts 
tains  beyond  lihe 
Tanaro,  and  the 
3ter.  Scarcdy  a 
grass-plots,  kept 
smont  and  Lorn- 

[a,6,U6feet;  Honte 
t,  i,1W  Mi. 


LI0T7BIA  AND  THE  BIVIERA  OP  GENOA.  288 

bardy  are  near  at  hand.  Pines  and  brambles  would  have  remained  the  only 
verdure  in  these  Ligurian  valleys  and  ravines  if  it  were  not  for  the  transformation 
wrought  by  gardeners  and  agriculturists.  Strange  to  say,  trees  do  not  ascend  to 
the  same  height  on  the  slopes  of  the  Apennines  as  in  the  Alps,  though  the  mean 
temperature  is  far  higher,  and  at  an  altitude  at  which  the  beech  still  attains  noble 
proportions  in  Switzerland  We  find  it  here  stunted  in  growth.  Larches  are  hardly 
ever  seen. 

The  sea  is  as  sterile  as  the  land.  There  are  neither  shallows,  islands,  nor  sea- 
weeds affording  shelter  to  fish.  The  cliffs  descend  precipitously  into  the  sea,  and 
the  narrow  strips  of  beach,  extending  from  promontory  to  promontory,  consist  only 
of  sand  without  the  admixture  of  a  single  shell.  The  Genoese  fishermen,  therefore, 
resort  to  distant  coasts,  those  of  the  "  Ponente,"  or  west,  going  to  Sicily,  whilst 
those  of  Camogli,  on  the  Riviera  di  Levanto,  visit  the  coasts  of  Tuscany.  This 
sterility  of  land  and  sea  accounts  for  the  large  number  of  Genoese  met  with  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

But  though  an  unfruitful  country,  Liguria  is  exceedingly  picturesque.     A 
traveller  availing  himself  of  the  railway  between  Nice  and  (}enoa,  which  follows 
the  sinuosities  of  the  coast  and  pierces  the  promontories  in  numerous  tunnels,  is 
brought  within  reach  of  the  most  varied  scenery.     At  one  time  the  line  runs  close 
to  the  beach,  with  the  foam  of  the  sea  almost  touching  the  track  on  the  one  side, 
while  tamarisks  bearing  pink  blossoms  overshadow  it  ^m  the  other.    Elsewhere 
we  creep  up  the  steep  slope,  and  obtain  a  view  of  the  cultivated  terraces  raised  at 
immense  labour  by  the  peasantry,  whilst  the  bluish  sea  is  seen  afar  to  the  right, 
almost  hidden  by  a  grove  of  olive-trees,  and  stretching  away  until  lost  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Oorsica.     Towns,  villages,  old  towers,  villas,  ship-yards,  and  other  industrial 
establishments  impart  an  almost  infinite  variety  to  the  scenery.    One  town  occupies 
the  top  of  a  hill,  and,  seen  from  below,  its  old  walls  and  towers  stand  out  boldly 
against  the  sky  ;  another  is  built  amphitheatrically,  close  to  the  strand  upon  which 
the  fishermen  have  drawn  their  boats ;  a  third  is  hidden  in  a  hollow,  and  sur- 
rounded by  vines,  olive,  orang«,  and  lemon  trees.    A  date-tree  here  and  there 
imparts  an  oriental  aspect  to  the  landscape.     Bordighera,  a  small  place  close 
to  the  French  frontier,  is  quite  surrounded  by  palm-trees,  whose  fruit,  however, 
but  rarely  ripens. 

The  climate  of  Albenga,  Loana,  and  some  other  plaoes  on  the  Genoese  coast  is 
&r  from  salubrious,  on  account  of  the  miasmata  exhaled  by  sheets  of  stagnant 
water  leAi  behind  by  freshets.  Even  Genoa  cannot  boast  of  an  agreeable  dimate, 
not  because  there  are  marshes  near  it,  but  because  the  southerly  winds  charged 
with  moisture  are  caught  there  by  the  semicircle  of  mountains,  and  are  mad*  to 
discharge  their  superabundant  humidity.  The  nimiber  of  rainy  days  at  Genoa 
averages  121  a  year.  There  are,  however,  several  towns  along  this  coast  protected 
by  the  mountains  against  the  north,  and  yet  out  of  the  usual  track  of  the  moisture- 
laden  southerly  winds,  whose  climate  is  exceptionally  delightful.*     Bordighera 

*  Avonge  tampentora  of  Ctonoa,  60-8*  F. ;   days  wifh  rafai,  121 ;  ndnM,  46  inches.     ATsrags 
temperatara  of  San  B«do,  62*6 ;  days  with  lain,  M ;  tainMI,  S'16  in. 


284 


ITALY. 


and  San  Remo,  near  the  French  frontier,  are  the  rivals  of  Mentone  as  regards 
climate ;  and  Nervi,  to  the  east  of  Genoa,  is  likewise  a  favourite  place  of  resort,  on 
account  of  its  clear  sky  and  pure  atmosphere.  Villas  and  castles  rise  on  every 
promontory  and  in  every  valley  of  these  favoured  districts.  For  a  dozen  miles 
on  either  side  of  Genoa  the  coast  is  lined  by  villas.  The  population  of  the  city 
has  overflowed  the  walls  which  once  confined  it,  and  is  establishing  itself  in  popu- 
lous suburbs,  ^e  long  street  which  winds  between  factories  and  gardens,  scales 
promontories,  and  descends  into  valleys,  will  continue  to  grow  in  length  imtil  it 
extends  along  the  whole  coast  of  Liguria,  for  the  charms  of  the  country  attract 
men  of  leisure  from  every  quarter  of  Europe. 

Fig.    79.— OlNOA  AND  ITS  SUBURBS. 

horn  the  Saidiaiaa  Staff  lap.   8e«le  1 :  100/100. 


^>;«Vfti: 


M     E    D     1     X     g^ 


*     il 


••^Si 


lA 


is: 


joe: 


,  SMilM. 


The  historical  development  of  the  ancient  Ligurians,  who  were  probably  of 
Iberian  race,  was  largely  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  country  they 
inhabited.  The  cultivable  land  being  only  of  nnall  extent,  the  superabundant 
population  was  forced  to  look  to  the  sea  for  a  livelihood,  and  engaged  in  navigation 
and  commerce.  Antium,  the  modem  Genoa,  was  an  "  emporium  "  of  the  Ligu- 
rians ever  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  its  vessels  frequented  every  comer  of 
the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Genoese  flag  was  carried  into  every 
part  of  the  known  world,  and  it  was  Genoa  that  gave  birth  to  Christopher  Oolumbus, 
whose  name  is  inscribed  upon  the  first  page  of  modem  history  as  the  discoverer  of 
America.  It  was  a  Genoese,  too,  Giovanni  Gabotto,  or  Oabot,  who  afresh  discovered 
the  coast  of  North  America  five  centuries  after  its  original  discovery  by  the 


LIGUBIA  AND  THE  BIVIERA  OP  GENOA. 


285 


>ne  as  regards 

oe  of  resort,  on 

rise  on  every 

a  dozen  mileR 

ion  of  the  city 

itself  in  popa- 

g^rdens,  scales 

length  until  it 

country  attract 


Normans.    The  hardy  mariners  of  Genoa  hare  thus  navigated  the  seas  from  the 
lost  remote  times.    Even  now  they  almost  monopolize  the  navigation  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  Argentine  Repuhlio.    The  Genoese  likewise  enjoy  a  high  reputation 
as  gardeners,  and  are  met  with  in  every  large  town  of  the  Mediterranean. 

As  long  as  the  Apennines  were  not  crossed  hy  practicable  carriage  roads, 
Genoa  possessed  no  advantages  whatr-'er  over  the  other  ports  of  Liguria,  but  ever 
since  it  has  been  placed  in  easy  communication  with  the  fertile  plains  of 
Lombardy  and  Fiemont,  the  great  advantages  of  its  geographical  position  have 

Fig.  80.— Vuw  OF  Qbmoa. 


4- 


^^^»srasi 


,  S   ■  i  'y 


were  probably  of 
e  country  they 
le  superabundant 
a;ed  in  navigation 
a  "  of  the  Ligu- 
d  every  comer  of 
oarried  into  every 
itopher  Oolumbus, 
I  the  discoverer  of 
afresh  discovered 
discovery  by  the 


told  upon  its  development.  Pisa  was  the  only  republic  on  the  western  coast  of 
Italy  which  contested  this  superiority  of  Genoa,  but  was  defeated  after  a  sanguinary 
struggle.  The  Genoese  possessed  themselves  of  Corsica,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
were  treated  most  cruelly ;  they  took  Minorca  from  the  Moors,  and  even  captured 
several  towns  in  Spain,  which  they  restored  only  after  important  commercial 
privileges  had^  been  granted  them.  In  the  ^gean  Sea  the  nobles  of  Genoa 
became  the  proprietors  of  Ohios,  Lesbos,  Lemnos,  and  other  islands.  At  Oonstanti- 
nople  the  Genoese  merchants  were  as  powerful  almost  as  the  Emperor.    Eaffiij  in 


^m 


286 


ITALY. 


the  Crimea,  was  one  of  their  wealthy  colonies.  Their  factories  and  towers  were 
met  along  every  commercial  high-road  in  Asia  Minor,  and  even  in  the  recesses  of  tho 
Caucasus.  The  possession  of  the  Black  Sea  gave  them  the  command  of  the  trade 
with  Central  Asia.  These  distant  colonies  explain  the  use  of  a  few  Arab, 
Turkish,  and  Greek  terms  by  the  Genoese,  and  though  the  dialect  spoken  by 
them  is  decidedly  Italian,  the  intonation  is  French. 

Nevertheless  G«noa,  though  more  powerful  than  Pisa,  failed  in  wresting  the 
command  of  the  sea  from  the  Venetians,  who  enjoyed  immense  advantages 
through  their  connection  with  Germany.  Her  political  influence  has  never 
equalled  that  of  Venice,  nor  has  bhe  produced  as  many  men  eminent  in  literature 
and  art  as  has  her  Adriatic  rival.  The  Genoese  had  the  reputation  in  former 
times  of  being  violent  and  false,  fond  of  luxury  and  power,  and  indifferent  to 
everything  which  did  not  enrich  them.  "  A  sea  without  fish,  mountains  with- 
out forests,  men  without  faith,  women  without  modesty — thus  is  Genoa,"  was  a 
proverb  ever  in  the  mouth  of  the  enemies  of  the  Ligurian  city.  The  dissensions 
amongst  the  noble  families  of  G«noa  were  incessant,  but  the  Bank  of  St.  George 
never  allowed  civil  strife  to  interfere  with  business.  Wealth  flowed  into  the  city 
without  any  cessation,  and  enabled  its  citizens  to  construct  those  palaces,  marble 
arcades,  and  hanging  gardens  which  have  won  for  it  th«  epithet  of  la  Superba.  In 
the  end,  however,  ruin  overtook  the  Bank,  and  that  justly,  for  it  had  supplied 
princes  with  money  to  enable  them  to  wage  war,  and  its  bankruptcy  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  rendered  Genoa  politically  impotent. 

The  capital  of  Liguria,  in  spite  of  its  small  extent,  its  sinuous  streets,  its  ramparts, 
stairs,  and  dirty  narrow  quays,  may  justly  boast  of  palaces  equally  remarkable  for 
the  splendour  and  orig^inality  of  their  architecture.  Many  of  these  mag^ficent 
buildings  appeared  to  be  doomed  to  ruin  during  the  decay  of  the  town,  but,  on  the 
return  of  more  prosperous  times,  the  citizens  again  devoted  themselves  to  the 
embellishment  of  their  city.  Genoa  is  the  busiest  port  of  Italy.*  Its  shipowners 
possess  nearly  half  the  Italian  mercantile  marine,  and  three-fourths  of  the  vessels 
annually  built  in  Italy  are  famished  from  its  ship-yards.  The  harbour,  though 
320  acres  in  extent,  no  longer  suffices  for  the  hundreds  of  sailing  vessels  and 
st«amer8  which  crowd  into  it.  Nor  is  it  sufficiently  sheltered  against  the  winds, 
and  it  has  therefore  been  proposed  to  construct  a  vast  breakwater  &r  beyond  its 
present  limits.  Genoa  fancies  that  its  interests  are  not  sufficiently  attended  to  by 
the  Central  Government.  A  second  railway  across  the  Apennines  is.  urgently 
demanded,  in  order  to  manage  the  traffic  that  will  be  created  by  the  opening  of 
the  direct  railway  through  Switzerland,  which  will  place  G^oa  in  direct  com- 
munication with  Western  Germany. 

In  the  meantime  Genoa  is  expanding  in  all  directions.  Its  factories  of  maca- 
roni, paper,  silks  and  velvets,  soap,  oil,  jewellery,  metal-work,  pottery,  ornamental 
flowers,  and  other  objects  are  ever  increasing;   and  ovrar  del  Oenoes — Genoese 

*  Tonnage  of  yesiels  which  eniered  and  cleared  (including  coasting  vesnla) :— 1861, 1,086,764 ;' 1867, 
2,830,000 ;  W6,  3,109,796  tons.  In  the  laat-named  year  3,144  aailing  veaiela  and  070  atoaman  antcnd 
in  the  coaet  trade,  1,462  lailing  Yeasela  and  860  atcamen  from  abroad. 


id  towers  were 
)  reoesses  of  tho 
id  of  the  trade 
a  few  Arab, 
ect  spoken  by 

n  wresting  the 
tse  advantages 
ace  has  never 
nt  in  literature 
tion  in  former 

indifferent  to 
ountains  with- 
Genoa,"  was  a 
[he  dissensions 
:  of  St.  George 
3d  into  the  city 
palaces,  marble 
'a  Superba.    In 

had  supplied 
f  in  the  middle 


ts,  its  ramparts, 
remarkable  for 
»Be  mag^fioent 
wn,  but,  on  the 
mselves  to  the 
Its  shipowners 
s  of  the  vessels 
larbour,  though 
ng  vessels  and 
inst  the  winds, 
far  beyond  its 
attended  to  by 
aes  is.  urgently 
the  opening  of 
in  direct  oom- 

stories  of  maca- 
ery,  ornamental 
fenoea — Genoese 


Jl,  1,08«,764;  1867, 
170  iteamera  entcnd 


ITALY. 


filled  up  by  the  jealous  Genoese,  occupies  the  bottom  of  a  vast  bay.  It  has  glass- 
works and  potteries,  and  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  Turin.  Elsewhere  on  the 
Riviera  di  Punente  the  towns  are  crowded  closely  together.  Such  is  the  case  with 
the  twin  cities  of  Oneglia  and  Porto  Maurizio,  the  one  built  on  the  beach,  the  other 
on  a  steep  hill  dose  by,  and  known  as  the  "  Fountains  of  Oil,"  because  of  their 
extensive  plantations  of  olives.  At  San  Remo,  however,  olives  are  more  plentiful 
still.* 

On  the  Riviera  di  Levante  town  joins  town  like  pearls  in  a  necklace.  Albaro, 
with  its  charming  mansion.  Quarto,  whence  departed  the  expedition  which  took 
Sicily  from  the  Bourbons,  and  Nervi,  a  health  resort  for  persons  suffering  from 
pulmonary  diseases,  constitute  a  long-stretching  suburb  of  Genoa,  extending  in  the 
direction  of  Reoco  and  Camogli,  two  towns  abounding  in  shipping.  The  rocky 
promontory  of  Porto  Fino,  thus  named  aft«r  the  dolphins  which  formerly  fre- 
quented it,  imposes  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  further  extension  of  G«noa 
in  this  direction.  Having  traversed  the  tunnel  leading  through  this  promontory, 
we  reach  another  group  of  towns,  viz.  Rapallo,  the  industrious ;  Ohiavari,  a  great 
place  of  trade ;  Lavagna,  with  its  famous  quarries  of  grey  slates ;  and  Sestri  di 
Levante,  a  town  of  fishermen. 

The  coast  beyond  Sestri  is  but  sparsely  inbabited,  for  there  bold  cliffs  approach 
the  sea ;  but  having  doubled  the  superb  cape  of  Porto  Yenere,  we  enter  the  fine 
Gulf  of  Spezia,t  with  its  numerous  forts,  ship-yards,  arsenals,  and  other  build- 
ings. The  Italian  Government  has  been  busy  ever  since  1861  in  converting  this 
g^lf  into  a  first-rate  naval  arsenal,  but  no  sooner  has  a  portion  of  the  work  been 
completed  than  the  progress  made  in  the  arts  of  destruction  compels  the  engineers 
to  remodel  it  —  a  very  costly  task.  Whatever  future  may  be  in  store  for 
Spezia  as  a  military  port,  it  has  none  as  a  commercial  one,  for  though  it  affords 
excellent  shelter  to  vessels,  no  railway  connects  it  with  the  fertile  countries  beyond 
the  Apennines,  and  its  exports  are  limited  to  the  produce  of  the  valleys  in  its 
immediate  vicinity.  Spezia  is  indebted  for  its  high  rank  amongst  the  cities  of 
Italy  to  its  beautiful  gulf,  the  rival  of  the  Bay  of  Naples  and  the  roadstead  of 
Palermo.  From  the  summit  of  the  marble  bill  above  the  decayed  town  of  Porto 
Yenere  we  look  down  upon  a  marvellous  succession  of  bays  and  promontories,  and 
far  in  the  distance  the  mountains  of  Corsica  rise  indistinctly  above  the  blue  watens. 
Looking  to  the  east,  we  behold  the  picture^u'ie  towns  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  gulf  embedded  in  groves  of  olive-trees  and  cypresses,  the  Apuanio  Alps 
and  the  Apennines  bounding  the  horizon.  Right  opposite  is  the  charming 
town  of  Lerici,  and  to  the  south  of  it  the  shore  upon  which  Byron  reduced  to 
ashes  the  body  of  his  friend  Shelley :  no  spot  more  appropriate  for  this  mournful 
holocaust. 


•  Annual  produce  of  olive  oil  in  the  provinoe  of  Porto  Hauriaio,  which  inoladea  San  Bamo,  778,600 
gallons. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towni  of  Lignria  (1871) :— Genoa  (OenoTa),  183,621 ;  Savona,  24,861 , 
Spezia,  16,636 ;  San  Pier  d' Arena,  16,668 ;  Seatil  Fonente,  9,606 ;  San  Bemo,  9,017 ;  Ohiavati,  8  414 ; 
Chieglia,  7,944. 


MtMiaiiMiiMifei 


TUSCANY. 


289 


It  has  glaM- 
ewhere  on  the 
the  case  with 
)aoh,  the  other 
icause  of  their 
nore  plentiful 

lace.  Albaro, 
n  which  took 
suffering  from 
tending  in  the 
'.     The  rocky 

formerly  fre- 
sion  of  G«noa 
i  promontory, 
iavari,  a  great 

and  Sestri  di 

cliffs  approach 
enter  the  fine 
1  other  build- 
tonverting  this 
the  work  been 
I  the  engineers 
)  in  store  for 
)ugh  it  affords 
untries  beyond 
valleys  in  its 
st  the  cities  of 
le  roadstead  of 
town  of  Porto 
imontories,  and 
he  blue  waterb. 
>posite  side  of 
Apuanic  Alps 
the  charming 
rron  reduced  to 
r  this  mournful 

Sun  Bemo.  778,500 

1 ;  Savono,  24,861 , 
f;  Ohiavari,  8  414; 


IV. — Tuscany. 

Tuscany,  like  Liguria,  lies  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Apennines,  but  is  of  far 
greater  width,  for  that  back-bone  of  Italy  retreats  there  from  the  Oulf  of  Oenoa, 
and  stretches  right  across  the  broadest  part  of  the  peninsula  to  the  Adriatic. 
Besides  this'there  are  several  detached  plateaux  and  mountain  ranges  to  the  south 
of  the  valley  of  the  Arno.* 

The  Apennines  of  Tuscany  are  of  very  unequal  height,  and  they  are  traversed 
by  numerous  low  passes,  which  could  easily  be  converted  into  carriage  roads. 
Speaking  generally,  they  consist  of  a  series  of  elongated  and  parallel  mountain 
masses,  separated  from  each  other  by  valleys,  through  which  flow  the  head-streams 
of  the  Serchio  and  the  Arno.  The  first  important  mountain  mass  of  the  main 
chain  near  the  frontiers  of  Liguria,  which  is  commanded  by  the  Orsajo  and  Sucoiso, 
is  thus  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Magra  from  the  parallel  range  of  Lumigiana. 
The  chain  of  Oarfog^ana,  to  the  north  of  the  plains  of  Lucca,  has  for  its  pendant 
the  Alps  of  Apuana.  Monte  Oimone,  farther  east,  and  the  other  summits  of  the 
Alpe  Apennina  to  the  north  of  Pistoja  and  Prato,  are  attended  by  the  parallel 
ridges  of  the  Monti  Oatini  and  Monte  Albano,  on  whose  slope  is  the  famous  grotto 
of  Monsummano,  with  a  thermal  spring.  A  fourth  mountain  mass,  that  which  the 
direct  road  from  Florence  to  Bologna  crosses  in  the  Pass  of  Futa,  has  likewise  its 
lateral  chains,  viz.  the  Monte  Mugello,  to  the  south  of  the  Sieve  ;  the  Prato  Magno, 
encircled  by  the  Upper  Arno ;  and  the  Alps  of  Catenaja,  between  the  Arno  and  the 
Tiber.t 

The  Apennines  of  Tuscany  in  many  places  attain  a  height  of  5,000  feet,  and  are 
quite  Alpine  in  their  aspect,  the  upper  slopes  remaining  covered  with  snow  for 
more  than  half  the  year.  They  owe  much  of  their  grandeur  to  the  precipitous  slopes 
and  fantastic  profiles  of  the  calcareous  rocks  which  enter  so  largely  into  their  com- 
position. The  forests  of  chestnuts,  firs,  and  beeches  which  formerly  clothed  the 
whole  of  the  range  have  not  yet  been  entirely  destroyed.  The  beautiful  woods 
which  cover  the  slopes  of  Prato  Magno  have  impressed  the  mind  of  many  a 
poet ;  and,  since  Milton  sang  the  delights  of  Yallombrosa,  the  "  shaded  vale " 
has  become  a  proverbial  name  for  everything  sweet  and  touching  in  the  poetry  of 
nature.  Farther  to  the  west  the  monastery  of  the  Campo  di  Maldulo  (Camaldoli) 
occupies  one  of  the  most  beauteous  spots  in  all  Italy,  the  woods  and  meadows  of 
which  have  been  celebrated  by  Ariosto.  From  the  summit  above  the  convent  both 
the  "  Tuscan  and  the  Slavonian  Sea  "  can  be  seen,  as  that  poet  tells  us. 

The*  barren  escarpments  and  forests  of  the  Apennines  form  a  charming  contrast 
to  the  valleys  and  rounded  hills  of  Lower  Tuscany,  where  nearly  every  height  is 

•  Area  of  Tnacuiy,  9,287  iqaara  miles;  population  (1871),  1,083,810;  density,  214. 

t  Altitudes  (in  English  feet) : — 

^jMiMM'nn.— Alps  of  Succiao,  6,626 ;  Alps  of  Oamporaghena  (Oarfognana),  6,566 ;  Monte  Cimone,  7, 1 1 1 ; 
Monte  Falterone,  or  Falterona,  5,407. 

JRsMM.— Pass  of  Pontremoli,  or  La  Cisa  (Sarsana  to  Parma),  3,410;  Pass  of  Fiumalbo  (Luooa  to 
Modena),  3,940 ;  Pass  of  Futa,  or  Pietramala  (Florence  to  Bologna),  3,002 ;  Pass  of  Oamaldoli,  3,290. 

^ii<i-4pmNi«iM.—PiBanino  (Alpe  Apuana),  6,608;  Fietra  Marina  (Monte  Albano),  1,886;  Prato  Magno, 
6,183;  Alpe  di  Cateniga,  4,606  feet. 


..■'Ml'!!J.M'ii*'l»' 


MO 


ITALY. 


•urmounted  ly  tho  ruins  of  a  meditoval  oaatle  ;  graoeftil  villas  are  Mattered  oyer  the 
verdant  slopes,  farmhouses  stand  in  the  midst  of  vineyards  and  pointed  cypresses, 
and  every  cultivable  spot  is  made  to  yield  a  rich  harvest.  Historical  associations, 
the  taste  of  its  inhabitants,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  an  abundance  of  running  water, 
and  the  sweetness  of  the  climate  all  combine  in  making  Oentral  Tuscany  one 
of  the  most  privileged  regions  of  Italy.  Protected  by  the  rampart  of  the  Apen- 
nines against  cold  northerly  winds,  this  region  faces  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  whence 
blow  warm  and  humid  winds  of  tropical  origin.     The  rains  they  bring  are  not 

Fig.  82.— Tn  GoLreuMo  op  thb  Akmo,  niah  Siona. 


excessive,  thanks  to  the  screen  formed  by  the  mountains  of  Ooriica  and  Sardinia, 
and  the  happy  disposition  of  the  detached  hills  near  the  coast.  The  climate  of 
Tuscany  is  essentially  temperate,  and  to  its  equability,  no  less  than  to  the  natural 
beauty  of  their  abode,  the  Tuscans  owe,  no  doubt,  much  of  their  gaiety,  their  good- 
nature, fine  taste,  poetical  feeling,  and  &cile  imagination. 

The  valley  of  the  Amo  oompletely  separates  the  hills  of  Southern  Tuscany, 
usually  known  as  the  "  Sub- Apennines,"  from  the  principal  chain  of  the  mountains. 
This  valley,  with  its  defiles  and  ancient  lake  basins,  may  be  likened  to  a  moat 


MMUMl 


TUSOANY. 


Ml 


tered  over  the 
bed  cypresaea, 
1  aBsociations, 
anning  water, 
Tuscany  one 
K  of  the  Apen- 
1  Sea,  whence 
hring  are  not 


a  and  Sardinia, 
The  climate  of 
L  to  the  natural 
sty,  their  good- 

,them  TuBoany, 
the  mountains, 
med  to  a  moat 


bounding  the  wall  of  the  Apennines.  The  vale  of  Ohiana,  originally  an  arm  of  the 
sea,  and  then  a  lake,  forms  the  uppermost  portion  of  the  zone  which  separates  the 
Apennines  from  the  hills  of  Southern  Tuscany.  Then  follows  the  Oampogna  of 
Florence,  an  ancient  kke  bann,  which  it  would  be  easy  to  flood  again  by  building 
u  dam  across  the  defile  of  the  Ck)lfolina,  through  which  the  river  makes  its  escape, 
and  which  was  rent  asunder  by  the  "  Egyptian  Hercules."  Castruccio,  the  famous 
commander  of  the  Luccans,  actually  proposed  to  flood  the  plains  of  Florence  in  the 
fourteenth  century  by  constructing  a  dam  across  this  defile;  but  happily  his 
engineers  pronounced  the  scheme  to  be  impracticable,  for  they  supposed  the 
difference  of  level  to  amount  to  288  feet,  whilst  in  reality  it  is  only  fifty. 

The  Sub- Apennine  hills  to  the  south  of  the  Amo  are  of  rounded  contours,  of  a 
gloomy  grey  colour,  and  devoid  of  all  verdure.  Whilst  the  Apennines  consist  exclu- 
sively of  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  rooks,  the  Sub- Apennines  are  of  tertiary  formation, 
their  sandstones,  clays,  marls,  and  pudding-stones  being  pierced  here  and  there  by 
serpentine.     Well-defined  ranges  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.     Southern  Tuscany, 

Fig.  83 — DariLH  ov  tub  Armo. 
Vrom  the  Aoatriui  Staff  Hap.    Soale  1 :  980,000. 


BVfflM. 


indeed,  may  be  described  as  a  table-hmd  intersected  by  rivers  in  all  directions,  sur- 
mounted  by  irregular  groups  of  hills,  and  pierced  by  "  sinks,"  which  swaUow  up 
some  of  the  rivers.  The  cavities  of  the  Ingolla  form  one  of  these  sinks,  in  which 
several  rivulets  lose  themselves,  to  reappear  lower  down  as  the  source  of  the  Elsa 
Viva,  one  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Amo.  The  most  elevated  hills  of  this 
Sub- Apennine  region  form  the  wate^parting  between  the  Amo,  the  Oeoina,  and  the 
Ombrone,  and  in  the  Poggio  di  Montieri,  a  mountain  abounding  in  copper,  they 
attain  an  elevation  of  3,323  feet.  The  Labbro  (3.816  feet),  Oetona  (3,660  feet),  and 
Monte  Amiata  (6,460  feet),  to  the  south  of  the  Ombrone  valley,  rise  to  a  greater 
height,  but  geologioaUy  they  belong  already  to  Central  Italy.  The  Cetona  is  a 
Jurassic  outlier  surrounded  by  recent  formations.  Monte  Amiata,  a  trachy  tic  cone, 
is  the  most  elevated  volcano  of  continental  Italy.  It  no  longer  vomits  lava,  but 
numerous  hot  springs  and  solfataras  prove  that  the  volcanic  forces  are  not  yet  quite 
extinct.  The  Radicofani  (2,960  feet)  is  likewise  an  extinct  volcano,  whose  lava 
resenibles  petrified  froth,  and  can  be  cut  with  a  hatchet. 

Subterranean  agencies  must  indeed  be  very  active  in  Tuscany,  for  metalliferaaa 


ITALY. 


Teini  ramify  in  all  direotions,  and  the  number  of  minnral  tpringt  of  ererj  deaorip- 
tion  ii  larger  than  in  any  othor  part  of  Italy.  Aroongat  thew  npringa  there  arn 
nevorol  of  world-wide  reputation,  oa,  for  inatunce,  thoae  of  Monto  Cutini,  of  Han 
Oiuliano,  and  of  the  Bagni  di  Luooa.  The  brine  apringa  of  Tuioany  are  very 
productive ;  but  the  moat  oarioua,  and  at  the  aame  time  moat  uaeftil,  apringa  of  all 
aro  the  faraoua  lagoni,  in  a  aide  valley  of  the  Oeoina,  and  at  the  northern  foot  of  the 
Poggio  di  Montiori.  From  a  distance  denae  clouda  of  white  vapour  are  seen  roll- 
ing over  the  plain,  and  the  bubbling  noino  made  by  gaaes  escaping  through  the 
ponda,  or  lagoni,  ia  heard.  Theae  ponda  contain  various  aalta,  ailioa,  and  boraoic 
acid,  which  ia  of  great  value  in  the  manufacture  of  china  and  glaaa,  and  yielda  a 
considerable  revenue  to  Tuaoany.  Nowhere  elae  in  Europe,  except,  perhapa,  in 
the  crater  of  the  Eolian  Yuloano,  ia  boraoic  acid  met  with  in  aufficient  quantities 
to  ropuy  the  labour  of  extracting  it.  In  Tuaoany,  however,  there  are  aeveral  other 
localitiea  where  it  might  be  won  with  advantage,  as,  for  inatanoe,  near  Maasa 
Maritima,  to  the  south  of  the  Montieri. 

The  subterranean  fermentation  of  which  Tuacany  ia  the  acene  ia  no  doubt  duo 
in  a  large  meaaure  to  the  changea  which  have  token  place  in  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  land  and  aea.  Several  iaolated  hilla  rise  near  the  cuaat  like  ialanda  from 
the  aea,  and  theae  have  evidently  been  joined  to  the  mainland  by  the  alluvial 
depoaita  brought  down  by  the  rivers.  The  Monti  Sena  (3,000  feet),  to  the  east  of 
Pisa,  between  the  Amo  and  the  Serohio,  are  almost  insulated  even  now,  for  they 
are  surrounded  by  swamps,  and  the  level  of  the  Lake  of  Bientina,  at  their  eastern 
foot,  is  scarcely  thirty  feet  above  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  heights  along 
the  coast  to  the  south  of  Leghorn  are  not  quite  so  isolated,  but  the  lowland  which 
connects  them  with  the  table-land  of  the  interior  is  only  of  small  elevation.  The 
promontory,  however,  whose  extremities  are  occupied  by  the  towns  of  Populonia 
and  Piombino  (653  feet),  is  joined  to  the  mainland  only  by  a  low  plain  of  nand. 
The  most  perfect  type  of  these  ancient  islands  is  presented  to  us  in  the  supcib 
Monte  Argentaro,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Tuscan  littoral,  which  rises 
boldly  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  2,085  feet,  and  is  attached  to  the  mainland  by 
two  narrow  strips  of  land  covered  with  pine-trees,  enclosing  a  lake  of  regular 
shape  :  in  the  midst  of  it,  on.  a  Augment  of  the  ancient  beach,  ia  built 
the  town  of  Orbetello.  This  lake,  which  looks  almoat  as  if  it  were  the  work 
of  a  generation  of  giants,  has  been  converted  into  an  eel-pond,  and  miUiona  of  fish 
are  caught  in  it  every  year.  Towards  the  west  of  this  mountain,  in  the.  direction 
of  Corsica,  lie  the  islands  of  Oiglio  and  Monte  Cristo  (2,062  feet)  and  the  rock 
of  Formica.     The  island  of  Elba,  farther  north,  forms  a  small  world  of  its  own. 

The  rivers  of  Tuscany  have  wrought  great  changes  in  the  plains  through  which 
they  flow,  and  along  the  sea-coast.  Their  labour  has  been  facilitated  by  the  nature 
of  the  soil  which  they  traverse.  The  least  rain  converts  the  barren  hill-slopes 
into  a  semi-fluid  paste,  which  is  carried  by  the  rivers  down  to  the  sea.  The 
mouth  of  the  Amo  has  thus  been  pushed  forward  to  the  extent  of  seven  mUes  in 
the  course  of  a  few  centuries.  In  former  times  the  Serohio  and  the  Amo  united 
before  thoy  flowed  into  the  sea,  but  the  Pisans  diverted  the  former  river  to  the 


III 


■MMMHi 


TUSCANY. 


848 


every  deeorip- 
inga  there  arn 
Cutini,  of  Ban 
Many  are  very 
,  tprings  of  all 
lem  foot  of  the 
r  are  seen  roll- 
i;  through  the 
;a,  and  boraoic 
IB,  and  yields  a 
ipt,  perhaps,  in 
)ient  quantities 
■e  several  other 
se,  near  Massu 

I  no  doubt  duo 
elative  proper- 
ce  islands  from 
>y  the  alluvial 
,  to  the  east  of 
I  now,  for  they 
it  their  eastern 

heights  along 

lowland  which 
levation.  The 
18  of  Populonia 
'  plain  of  aand. 
i  in  the  supcrh 
al,  which  rises 
Le  mainland  by 
lake  of  regular 
leaoh,  is  built 
were  the  work 

millions  of  fish 
n  the  direction 
)  and  the  rook 
I  of  its  own. 
I  through  which 
d  by  the  nature 
rren  hill-slopes 

the  aea.  The 
'  seven  miles  in 
ihe  Amo  united 
ler  river  to  the 


north,  in  order  to  rid  themselves  of  its  unwelcome  deposits.  Pisa,  in  the  time  of 
Htrabo,  stood  at  a  distance  of  only  twenty  Olympian  stadia  from  the  Tyrrhenian 
8ea,  and  when  the  caacina  of  San  Rossore  was  built,  towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
century,  its  walls  were  close  to  the  beach,  which  is  now  at  a  distance  of  three 
miles.  Extensive  plains  intersected  by  dunes,  or  tomboli,  and  partly  covered  with 
forests  of  pines,  have  been  added  to  the  land  in  the  course  of  centuries.  These 
sandy  wastes  have  become  th«  home  of  largo  herds  of  horses  and  half-wild  cattle, 
and  the  camel  has  been  .Msclimatisou  there,  it  is  said,  since  the  Crusades.     These 

Vi^.  84      HnNTi  Ahuimtaho. 
nram  tba  rrtnoh  Chart.    84»k  1  1 188,000. 


Dtfmt 


.SHOm. 


changes  in  the  coast-line  may  not,  however,  be  due  exclusively  to  the  agency  of 
the  rivers,  for  there  exists  evidence  of  an  upheaval  of  the  land.  The  building 
stone  known  at  Leghorn  as  panchina  is  clearly  of  marine  origin,  and  the  shells 
which  enter  into  its  composition  are  still  met  with  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea. 

Amongst  the  changes  effected  by  human  agency  in  the  basin  of  the  Amo 
those  referring  to  the  Yal  di  Chiitna  are,  perhaps,  the  most  important.  This 
depression  connects  the  basins  of  the  Amo  and  Tiber,  and  may  possibly  have  served 
as  an  outlet  to  the  former  river  bdbre  it  had  opened  itself  a  way  through  the 


.  w-i^-SfA-v  ^  i---^ 


244 


ITALY. 


gorgo  below  Florence.  Formerly  the  water-parting  between  the  two  riyers  was 
close  to  the  Arno.  A  small  portion  of  its  drainage  was  carried  to  the  Tuscan 
river,  but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  vale  was  occupied  by  stagnant  pools, 


Fig.  86. — Val  di  Chiana. 

From  the  AuRtrian  Staff  Map.    Soale  1  :  318,000. 


extending  to  the  south  as  £ir  as  the  latitude  of  Montepuloiano,  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles.  The  whole  of  this  region  was  a  breeding-plaoe  of  fever.  Bante  and  other 
Italian  writers  speak  of  it  as  an  accursed  place.  The  inhabitants  made  vain 
attempts  at  drainage.     The  illustrious  Galileo,  when  consulted  <Hi  the  subjeot, 


^^^■"?i'^^ij^iii!uiaiamgiJii'iifflj!MitiB 


mMMMiiMnn 


ManMM 


mtmmm 


mmi^^m 


mm 


TUSCANY. 


246 


two  nvers  was 
to  the  Tuscan 
itagnant  pools, 


^^m: 

^^W^/ 


bance  of  twenty 
tante  and  other 
nts  made  vain 
m.  the  subject, 


declared  that  nothing  could  be  done  to  mend  this  evil ;  and  though  Torrioelli 
conceived  that  it  would  be  possible  to  drain  the  valley,  he  took  no  steps  to  put  his 
theories  into  practice. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  work  of  drainage  was  at 
length  seriously  taken  in  hand,  directed  by  Fossombroni,  the  celebrated  engineer. 
"Warps,"  or  colmate,  were  thrown  up  at  the  outlet  of  each  lateral  ravine  between 
which  the  debris  carried  down  from  the  flanks  of  the  mountains  was  deposited. 
The  swamps  gradually  filled  up,  and  the  soil  became  firm.  By  constructing 
a  dam  (argine)  across  the  vale  at  the  point  chosen  for  the  new  water-parting, 
an  outfall  was  created,  and  a  line  of  stagnant  swamps  was  thus  converted  into 
a  pure  rivulet.    The  valley,  at  one  time  a  hotbed  of  fever,  has  now  become  one  of 

Fig.  86.— Tkh  Laxb  of  Bibntina. 
Fiom  tbe  AutriMi  Steft  Map.    Scale  1 : 8»,000. 


Ui 


the  most  salubrious  districts  of  Italy.'  The  newly  won  lands  were  at  once  taken 
possession  of  by  agriculturists,  and  500  square  miles  were  thus  added  to  the  pro- 
ductive area  of  Tuscany.  Villages,  formerly  inhabited  by  fever-stricken  wretches, 
have  become  wealthy  towns,  and  the  success  of  this  bonification,  or  reclama- 
tion, has  been  thorough.  The  torrents  are  under  control  now,  and  .have  already 
deposited  17,650  million  cubic  feet  of  alluvium  over  an  area  of  50,000  acres,  as  if 
they  were  intelligent  workmen.  The  same  system  of  drainage  has  been  success- 
fully appAied  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  particularly  near  Grosseto,  6n  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ombrone. 

Amongst  the  great,  drainage  works  which  will  evermore  contribute  to  the  glory 
of  Tuflcui  engineers,  the  innumerable  canals  draiaiag  the  plains  of  Fuoeoohio, 

18 


life-Uj"!'""*^ 


246 


ITALY. 


Pontedera,  Pisa,  Lucca,  Leghorn,  and  Yiareggio,  each  of  which  was  formerly 
occupied  by  its  lake,  deserve  to  be  noticed.  One  of  the  most  difficult  of  these 
lakes  is  that  of  Bientina,  or  Sesto,  to  the  east  of  the  Pisan  hills,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  formed  by  an  overflow  of  the  Serohio.  In  former  times  this  lake  hod 
two  effluents,  one  running  north  to  the  Serohio,  the  other  south  to  the  Amo.  The 
outfall  left  nothing  to  be  desired  in  ordinary  times,  but  after  heavy  rains  the  two 
effluents  were  converted  into  inflowing  rivers,  and  if  the  sluices  had  not  been 
closed,  the  Amo  and  the  Serchio  would  have  rejoined  each  other  in  this  inland  sea. 
The  Bientina,  during  such  freshets,  covered  six  times  its  ordinary  area,  and  in 
order  to  save  the  fertile  fields  of  Tuscany  it  became  absolutely  necessary  to  create 
a  third  effluent.  The  engineers  conceived  the  happy  idea  of  conveying  this  new 
effluent  through  a  tunnel,  passing  beneath  the  Amo,  three  feet  in  width,  into  an 
ancient  bed  of  that  river,  now  supplanted  by  the  C!olombrone. 

In  most  of  these  enterprises  it  was  necessary  to  stmggle  on  in  spite  of  the 
miasmatic  atmosphere,  which  hung  more  particularly  over  the  littoral  zone, 
where  the  fresh  inland  water  mingles  with  the  salt  water  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  blending  of  the  two  waters  destroyed  the  fresh-water  plants  and  animals,  and 
the  deleterious  gases  arising  from  their  decomposition  poisoned  the  atmosphere. 
About  the  middle  of  last  century  an  engineer,  Zendrini,  proposed  to  constract 
sluices  separating  the  fresh  from  the  salt  water.  This  was  done,  and  the  fevers  at 
once  disappeared.  In  1768,  the  sluices  having  been  allowed  to  fall  out  of  repair, 
the  miasmatic  scourge  immediately  reappeared,  and  it  was  not  until  they  had 
been  repaired  that  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  villages  along  the  coast  was 
improved.  Twice  since  neglect  to  keep  the  sluices  in  a  proper  condition  has 
been  punished  with  the  same  results ;  but  from  1821  they  have  been  maintained 
in  thorough  order,  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  country  has  ever  since  been 
most  satisfactory.  Yiareggio,  in  the  centre  of  this  malarial  district,  was  up  to 
1740  hardly  more  than  a  hamlet,  avoided  on  account  of  its  insalubrity,  but  is  now 
a  seaside  town,  the  fitvourite  resort  of  numbers  of  visitors. 

Much  has  been  done,  no  doubt,  in  draining  the  land,  but  there  is  still  room 
for  many  improvements.  The  Maremma,  a  track  between  Piombino  and  Orbetello, 
remains  one  of  the  most  insalubrious  regions  of  Europe^  in  spite  of  what  has  been 
done  by  sanitary  engineers.  The  inhabitants  never  reach  a  high  age,  and 
though  they  descend  to  the  plain  only  when  it  is  absolutely  required  for  culti- 
vating their  fields,  they  frequently  carry  away  with  them  the  germs  of  disease. 
In  the  two  summers  of  1840  -and  1841  no  less  than  36,000  persons  su£fered  from 
fever  amongst  a  total  population  of  80,000  souls,  most  of  whom  reside  in  villages 
built  on  hills,  and  only  rarely  visit  the  pestilential  plain.  In  order  to  escape  the 
pernicious  influence  of  the  poisonous  air,  it  is  necessary  to  reside  constantly  at  an 
elevation  of  325  feet  above  the  sea,  and  even  that  does  not  always  suffice,  for 
the  episcopal  city  of  Sovana  is  notoriously  imhealthy,  though  built  at  that 
height.  Fevers  occur  frequently  at  a  distance  from  the  swamps,  and  Salvagnoli 
Marchetti  is  of  opinion  that  they  are  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  malaria 
is  said  to  creep  up  clayey  hills  permeated  by  empyreumatio  substances ;  it  likewise 


'Mill  n'w  '.t".»i;i'.»,n.u  .!a>.,iiif('.uaiftji 


i|iiii.iji  iiMi 


TUSCANY. 


247 


:h  was  formerly 
liffioult  of  these 
rhich  is  supposed 
aes  this  lake  had 
the  Amo.  The 
vy  rains  the  two 
IS  had  not  been 
1  this  inland  sea. 
uy  area,  and  in 
icessary  to  create 
veying  this  new 
n  width,  into  an 

in  spite  of  the 
le  littoral  zone, 
)  Mediterranean, 
and  animals,  and 
the  atmosphere, 
ised  to  construct 
and  the  fevers  at 
fall  out  of  repair, 
t  until  they  had 
ig  the  coast  was 
er  condition  has 
been  maintained 
I  ever  since  been 
strict,  was  up  to 
ibrity,  but  is  now 

ere  is  still  room 
no  and  Orbetello, 
of  what  has  been 
,  high  age,  and 
squired  for  oulti- 
lierms  of  disease, 
ons  su£fored  from 
reside  in  villages 
der  to  escape  the 
constantly  at  an 
Iways  suffice,  for 
;h  built  at  that 
s,  and  Salvagnoli 
oil.  The  malaria 
mces ;  it  likewise 


poisons  the  air  of  districts  aboun^iing  in  saline  springs,  and  still  more  that  near 
deposits  of  alum.  Southerly  winds  are  likewise  most  pernicious,  and  fevers 
rise  highest  in  the  valleys  which  are  exposed  to  them.  Places,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  are  fully  open  to  the  sea  breeze  are  quite  free  from  malaria,  even 
if  swamps  are  near,  as  at  Orbetello  and  Piombiuo. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  coasts  of  Etruria  did  not  suffer  from  malaria 
whilst  the  ancient  Tyrrhenian  cities  were  prosperous.    The  excavations  made 

Fig.  87.— Thb  Halabul  Rioions. 
nomUwAiutrteii  staff  Hap.    Scale  1 :  S,70(M)00. 


;*r&«Hith 


j    ^_y^*llUtoo 


Hoat  aflBotad. 


jEitnnbotoa. 


Bandarad  alnbriona. 


recently  in  connection  with  the  railways  have  revealed  a  complete  system  of 
subterranean  canals,  which  formerly  drained  the  whole  of  the  Maremmas. 
Populonia  and  other  large  cities,  of  which  only  a  few  ruins  are  fo^nd  now,  could 
certainly  not  have  existed  if  the  climate  had  been  as  unhealthy  as  at  present. 
The  ancient  Etruscans  were  famous  as  hydraulic  engineers.  Th^  embanked 
torrents,  drained  swamps,  and  rendered  the  country  cultivable,  but  their  engineering 
works  were  allowed  to  decay  soon  after  they  had  been  subjected,  and  the  country 
returned  to  its  primitive  savageness.    On  the  other  hand,  thwe  are  many  towns 


mtttttteiSsssSssisii^ 


248 


ITALY. 


vv 


which  were  considered  healthy  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  are  now  desolated  by 
fever.  Massa  Maritima,  to  the  south-west  of  the  Montieri  mountain,  was  rich 
and  populous  as  long  as  it  maintained  its  republican  liberties ;  but  no  sooner  had 
it  been  enslaved  by  Pisans  and  Sienese  than  its  drainage  works  were  allowed  to 
fall  into  decay,  and  in  the  end  it  found  itself  reduced  to  the  "  shadow  of  a  town." 
Sanitary  works  carried  out  recently  have  brought  back  some  of  its  ancient  pros- 
perity. 

Amongst  the  causes  which  have  contributed  most  materially  towards  a 
deterioration  of  the  climate  may  be  mentioned  the  destruction  of  the  mountain 
forests  and  the  rapid  increase  of  alluvial  lands  resulting  from  it.  The  monasteries 
of  Tuscany,  which  until  quite  recently  were  the  owners  of  the  fish-ponds  in  the 
Maremmas,  energetically  protested  againt  the  construction  of  embankments  or 
other  drainage  works,  which  they  conceived  would  interfere  with  their  cherished 
Lenten  food.  Several  of  the  inland  towns  rejoiced  in  the  possession  of  some 
unhealthy  swampy  tract,  to  which  obnoxious  persons  might  be  banished  with  a 
certainty  of  their  dying.  Even  the  Kings  of  Spain  established  a  penal  establish- 
ment at  one  of  the  most  deadly  spots  on  this  coast,  and  banishment  to  Talamone, 
at  one  time  a  flourishing  port  of  the  Republic  of  Siena,  was  tantamount  to  a 
sentence  of  death. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  reclaim  these  lands.  Macohiavelli  and  other 
statesmen  of  Tuscany  thought  that  the  former  salubrity  of  the  climate  ootild  be 
restored  by  merely  repeopling  the  country.  Oolonists  were  sent  for  from  other 
parts  of  Italy,  and  even  from  Greece  and  G«nnany,  but  they  soon  succumbed  to 
the  climate.  Since  that  time  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  rendering 
these  marshy  districts  more  salubrious.  Trees  have  been  planted,  and,  in  com- 
bination with  proper  drainage,  they  have  rendered  many  districts  habitable  which 
were  not  so  formerly.  Populonia  is  a  case  in  point.  FoUonica,  where  there  are 
furnaces  in  which  the  iron  ores  of  Elba  are  smelted,  is  likewise  looking  up, 
though  its  inhabitants  still  fly  the  place  on  the  approach  of  the  fever  season. 


The  Etruscans,  or  Ty^henians,  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Tuscans,  and  long 
before  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  they  were  the  preponderating  race  of  all 
Italy.  They  occupied  not  only  the  whole  of  the  southern  slope  of  the  Apennines 
as  far  as  the  Tiber,  but  had  also  founded  a  confederation  of  twelve  towns  in  the 
Gampagna,  of  which  Capua  was  the  head,  and  as  traders  and  pirates  they  held 
possession  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  still  named  after  them.  The  island  of  Oapri 
was  one  of  their  most  advanced  outposts  towards  the  south.  The  Adriatic  was 
likewise  their  own,  for  Adria,  Bologna  (called  Felsina  by  them),  Ravenna,  and 
Mantua  were  Etruscan  colonies,  and  the  Rhaetians  in  the  Alpine  valleys  were  their 
allies,  and  perhaps  kinsmen.  But  who  were  the  Etruscans  P  They  have  been 
classed  with  Aryans,  Ugrians,  and  Semites ;  with  Greeks,  Germans,  Scytbians, 
Egyptians,  and  Turks.  The Etruscan  inscriptions  on  ancient  monuments,  though 
very  legible,  have  not  hitherto  been  deciphered  eatisfaotorily^  If  Oorssen's  inter- 
pretation is  accepted,  their  language  resembled  the  Latin  tongues;   but  this 


aWMUMMMMMMMi 


I'liinmiia 


TireCANY. 


249 


)W  desolated  by 
dtain,  was  rich 
no  sooner  had 
rere  allowed  to 
low  of  a  town," 
bs  ancient  pros- 

allv  towards  a 
f  the  mountain 
rhc  monasteries 
ih-ponds  in  the 
mbankments  or 
their  cherished 
session  of  some 
)anished  with  a 
penal  establish- 
int  to  Talamone, 
antamount  to  a 

avelli  and  other 
slimate  could  be 
t  for  from  other 
in  succumbed  to 
\de  in  rendering 
3d,  and,  in  com- 
habitable  which 
where  there  are 
rise  looking  up, 
)ver  season. 

iisoans,  and  long 
>ting  race  of  all 
>f  the  Apennines 
Ive  towns  in  the 
pirates  they  held 
I  island  of  Oapri 
Dhe  Adriatic  was 
a),  Bavenna,  and 
ralleys  were  their 
They  have  been 
mans,  Scytbians, 
muments,  though 
f  Corssen's  inter- 
ingues;   but  this 


philologist,  after  all,  may  not  be  entitled  to  be  called   the  "(Edipus  of  the 
Ktruscan  sphinx." 

The  most  common  type  of  the  Etruscans,  as  transmitted  to  us  on  cinerary 
vases,  is  that  of  squat  men,  often  inclining  to  obesity,  with  broad  shoulders,  pro- 
minent face,  curved  noses,  broad  retreating  forehead,  dark  complexion,  dolicho- 
cephalous  skull,  and  curly  hair.  This  type  is  neither  Hellenic  nor  Italian. 
Amongst  their  monuments  there  are  none  of  those  curious  structures  known  as 
nuraghi,  which  abound  in  Malta,  Sardinia,  and  PanteUaria,  but  dohnens  are 
numerous.  The  sepulchral  monuments,  of  which  many  thousands  have  already 
been  brought  to  light,  prove  that  the  arts  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  develop, 
ment  in  ancient  Etruria.  The  paintings  in  the  interior  of  the  vaults,  the  bas-reliefs 
on  the  sarcophagi,  the  vases,  candelabra,  pottery,  and  bronzes,  resemble  similar 
work  produced  by  the  genius  of  Greek  artists.  The  arrangement  of  their  dwelling- 
houses,  though  not  devoid  of  originality,  proves  the  intimate  connection  existing 
between  the  civilisations  of  the  Etruscans  and  early  Greeks.  It  was  the  Etruscans 
who  initiated  Rome  into  the  arts.  The  Cloaca  Maxima,  the  most  ancient  monument 
of  the  Eternal  City,  the  wall  named  after  Servius  Tullius,  the  Mamertine  prison, 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  remains  of  the  Rome  of  the  kings,  were  their  work.  It  was 
they  who  erected  the  temples,  supplied  the  statues  to  deities,  built  the  dwelling- 
houses,  and  furnished  them  with  articles  of  ornament  Even  the  she-wolf  of 
bronBo,  now  in  the  Oapitoline  Museum,  and  a  symbol  of  the  Roman  people,  appears 
to  be  of  Etruscan  workmanship. 

The  Tuscans  of  our  day  differ,  however,  in  many  respects  from  their  Etruscan 
ancestors.  These  latter,  to  judge  from  the  paintings  in  their  sepulchral  cities, 
were  an  austere  race.  They  appear,  likewise,  to  have  been  a  nation  of  cooks  and 
gluttons.  Neither  of  these  qualities  can  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  their  desoend- 
anta.  The  modem  Tuscan  is  of  an  amiable  and  kindly  disposition,  he  is  pos- 
sessed of  wit  and  artistic  tastes,  easy  to  move,  and  altogether  perhaps  a  trifle  too 
pliant  of  character.  The  Tuscans  of  the  plain,  but  not  those  of  the  Maremmas, 
are  the  most  gentle  of  Italians ;  they  "  live  and  let  live,"  and  are  exceedingly 
good-natured.  A  singular  trait  distinguishes  them  from  the  rest  of  the  Italians : 
though  brave  when  carried  away  by  passion,  they  turn  with  horror  from  a  dead 
body.  In  this  we  may  trace  the  persistence  of  ancient  superstitions,  for  though 
the  Tyrrhenians  concealed  their  tombs,  the  worship  of  the  dead  was  the  most 
prominent  of  their  religious  observances. 

The  modem  Tuscans,  like  their  ancestors,  have  known  a  time  when  they  took 
the  lead  amongst  the  people  of  Italy,  and  even  now  they  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
nation  in  certain  respects.  After  the  decadence  of  Rome,  when  civilisation 
gravitated  towards  the  north,  the  valley  of  the  Amo  became  one  of  the  great 
centres  of  the  world's  activity.  At  that  time  the  passage  of  the  Alps  was  still 
difficult,  but  communications  by  sea  were  established  between  Tuscany,  France, 
and  Spain.  The  Apennines  not  only  sheltered  the  fertile  valleys  opening  upon 
the  Tyrrhenian  against  wAi  northerly  winds,  but  also  against  the  honles  of 
barbarian  invaders.     Tosoony  Was,  indeed,  a  jEavoured  region,  and  its  intelligent 


860 


ITALY. 


inhabitants  made  the  most  of  the  natural  advantages  they  possessed.  "  Work  " 
was  the  great  law  of  the  Florentines,  and  all,  without  exception,  were  expected  tu 
engage  in  it.  Whilst  Pisa  disputed  the  dominion  of  the  sea  with  Qenoa  and 
Venice,  Florence  became  the  head-quarters  of  commerce,  and  its  bankers  extended 
their  operations  to  every  part  of  Europe. 

But  Tuscany  was  more  than  a  commercial  and  industrial  country.  What 
Athens  had  been  to  the  world  two  thousand  years  ago,  republican  Florence 
became  during  its  period  of  prosperity,  and  for  the  second  time  in  the  history  of 
mankind  there  arose  one  of  those  centres  of  light  the  reflected  rays  from  which  still 
illuminate  our  own  times.  Arts,  letters,  sciences,  and  political  economy — every- 
thing, in  fact,  that  is  noble  in  this  world  was  cultivated  with  an  energy  to 
which  nations  had  been  strangers  for  a  long  time.  The  pliant  genius  of  the 
Tuscans  revelled  in  every  species  of  work,  and  amongst  the  names  great  in 
history  Florence  may  fairly  claim  some  of  the  greatest.  Where  are  the  men  that 
have  exercised  a  greater  influence  in  the  world  of  art  and  intelleot  than  Giotto, 
Orgagna,  Masaccio,  Michael  Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Yinci,  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
Brunellesohi,  Savonarola,  G(alileo,  or  Macohiavelli  P  It  was  a  Florentine,  too, 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  New  World,  and  justly  so,  for  it 
was  Vespucci  through  whom  the  discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  first  became 
known,  and  who,  in  1501,  bestowed  the  name  of  Noma  Mundus  upon  the  newly 
discovered  countries,  whilst  Oolumbus  died  in  the  belief  that  he  had  reached  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia. 

The  dialect  of  Florence  has  become  the  polished  language  of  the  whole  of 
Italy,  and  it  is  curious  that  this  honour  should  not  have  been  carried  off  by  Borne. 
But  whilst  Florenou  cultivated  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  through  her  great  writers 
exercised  an  iminense  influence,  the  city  of  the  popes  yielded  herself  up  to  the 
worship  of  the  past,  and  its  literature  was  written  in  a  dead  language,  more  or  less 
successfully  imitated  from  that  of  Oicero.  The  dialect  of  Borne  never  became  a 
language  like  that  of  Florence,  but  Italian  is  nevertheless  indebted  to  Home  for 
its  musical  pronunciation,  that  of  the  Tuscans  being  harsh  and  gutturaL  Hence 
the  old  proverb,  "  Lingua  Toscana  in  bocoa  Bomana."  The  delicate,  pure  poetry 
breathed  in  the  ritonteili  which  Tuscan  peasants  chant  in  the  evening  is  highly 
appreciated  by  all  admirers  of  Italian,  and  the  influence  which  the  fine  dialect  of 
the  Florentines  exercised  upon  the  unification  of  Italy  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  worshippers  of  Dante  are  almost  justified  in  saying  that  Italian 
unity  dates  from  the  day  on  which  the  great  poet  first  expressed  himself  ixt  the 
firm  and  sonorous  language  which  he  had  forged  out  of  ihe  various  dialects  spoken 
throughout  the  peninsula. 

The  geographical  position  of  Tuscany  accounts  for  the  ''ffluenoe  it  has  exer- 
cised up  vn  Italy  and  the  rest  of  the  world,  whilst  its  topcg  nithj  gives  us  the  key 
to  the  local  history  of  the  country.  The  Apennines  and  the  mountains  to  the 
south  of  the  Amo  divide  it  into  a  number  of  separate  basins,  each  of  which  gave 
birth  to  a  small  state  or  republic.    At  the  time  of  the  Tyrrhenians  Etruria  formed 


a»a 


SBMiB 


ms 


r-ir>-i  ■-'TTiiaijf 


■r 


TUSCANY. 


261 


led.  "Work" 
are  expected  tu 
rith  Genoa  and 
inkers  extended 

ountry.     What 
blican  Florence 
I  the  history  of 
from  which  still 
tonomy — every- 
h  an  energy  to 
t  genius  of  the 
names  great  in 
re  the  men  that 
lect  than  Giotto, 
drea  del   Sarto, 
Florentine,  too, 
justly  so,  for  it 
rds  first  became 
upon  the  newly 
had  reached  the 

of  the  whole  of 
led  off  by  Borne, 
her  great  writers 
erself  up  to  the 
age,  more  or  less 
never  became  a 
ted  to  Rome  for 
pitturaL    Hence 
cate,  pure  poetry 
vening  is  highly 
le  fine  dialect  of 
hardly  be  over- 
ying  that  Italian 
himself  m  the 
18  dialeotfl  spoken 


ence  it  has  exer- 
gives  us  the  key 
mountains  to  the 
Qh  of  which  gave 
IB  Etruria  formed 


a  confederation  of  cities,  whilst  during  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  divided  into 
numerous  small  republics,  frequently  at  war  with  each  other.  Since  that  time 
many  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  towns, 
but  even  now  most  of  the  free  cities  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  some  founded 
by  the  ancient  Etruscans,  occupy  a  high  rank  amongst  the  provincial  towns  of 
Italy. 

Florence  (Firenze)  is  not  one  of  these  ancient  cities  of  the  Tyrrhenians ;  it  is 
merely  a  Bomac  colony  of  comparatively  modern  origin.  In  tho  time  of  the 
Empire  it  was  of  small  importance,  for  Fiesole,  on  a  hill  to  the  north,  remained 
the  leading  town  of  the  country  until  destroyed  by  the  Florentines,  who  carried 
its  columns  and  statues  to  their  own  town.  The  rapid  growth  of  Florence  during 
the  Middle  Ages  is  due  to  its  position  on  the  highway  which  connects  Germany, 
Lombardy,  and  even  Bologna  with  Southern  Italy.  As  long  as  Bome  was  the 
capital  of  Italy  travellers  starting  from  the  valley  of  the  Tiber  crossed  the  Apen- 
nines  in  the  direction  of  Ancona  apd  Ariminum.  But  after  the  fall  of  Bome, 
when  barbarian  hordes  inundated  the  country  firom  the  north,  the  high-roads 
connecting  the  plains  of  Lombardy  with  the  valley  of  the  Amo  rose  into  impor- 
tance. This  great  military  highway  became  simultaneously  a  high-road  of  com- 
merce, and  it  was  only  natural  that  a  great  emporium  should  spring  up  on  the 
site  occupied  by  Florence.  The  "  city  of  flowers "  prospered,  and  became  the 
marvel  which  we  still  admire.  But  the  wealth  of  the  growing  commonwealth 
proved  its  destruction.  The  rich  bankers  grasped  at  political  power,  the  Medici 
assumed  the  title  of  princes,  and  though  the  arts  continued  to  flourish  for 
awhile,  public  virtues  decayed,  the  citizens  became  subjects,  and  intellectual  life 
ceased. 

Florence,  as  in  the  days  of  republican  liberty,  owes  much  of  its  wealth  to  the 
industry  of  its  inhabitants.  There  are  manufactories  of  silks  and  woollen  goods, 
of  straw  hats,  mosaics,  china,  cut  stones. (/>Mrra  dura),  and  other  objects,  all  of 
them  requiring  workmen  possessed  of  taste  and  manual  dexterity.  But  neither 
these  industries  nor  the  commerce  carried  on  by  the  town  would  have  raised 
Florence  above  the  level  of  other  populous  Italian  cities.  The  prominent  position 
it  holds  is  due  entirely  to  the  beauty  of  its  monuments,  which  attract  to  it  the 
lovers  of  art  f^om  every  quarter  of  the  world.  Not  even  Yenice  is  equally  rich  in 
architectural  masterpieces  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Benaissance.  The  museums 
of  Florence  "  la  Bella  " — such  as  the  Uffizi,  the  Fitti  (Galleries,  and  the  Academy 
of  Arts — are  amongst  the  richest  in  Europe,  and  contain  some  of  the  most 
highly  prized  treasures  of  art ;  its  libraries  abound  in  curious  manuscripts  and  rare 
old  books.  Nay,  the  very  streets  and  piazzas  of  the  town,  with  their  palaces, 
towers,  churches,  and  statues,  may  be  likened  to  a  huge  museum.  Brunelleschi's 
Duomo ;  Giotto's  Campanilla,  which  was  to  "  surpass  in  beauty  all  imagination  can 
conceive ; "  the  Baptistery,  with  its  incomparable  doors  of  brass ;  the  Piazza  della 
Signoria;  the  monastery  of  San  Marco,  now  a  museum  ;  the  gloomy  palace  of  the 
Strozzi;  and  numerous  other  buildings  of  superior  merit  make  Florence  the 
delightful  place  it  is.    Its  charms  are  enhanced  by  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding 


^m 


Wi 


ITALY. 


country,  and  the  traveller  will  always  recall  with  plearore  the  walks  along  the 
Amo,  the  hills  of  Sun  Miniato  and  Bello  Sguardo,  and  the  picturesque  spur  upon 
which  lie  the  villas  and  ruins  of  Etruscan  Fiesole.  Unfortunately  the  climate  of 
Florence  leaves  much  to  be  desired ;  the  wind  changes  abruptly,  and  the  heat  in 
summer  is  overpowering.  //  caldo  di  Firenne  has  become  proverbial  throughout 
Italy.  Narrow  btreets,  and  to  some  extent  the  disregard  of  the  kws  of  hygiene, 
cause  the  mortality  to  exceed  that  of  nearly  every  other  town  on  the  Continent. 

Fig.  88.— PtoKiMci :  iH«  DuoMO  ahd  Palazzo  Vbcchio. 


During  the  Middle  Ages  pestilence  was  a  frequent  visitor,  and  Boccaccio  tells  us 
that  in  a  single  season  nearly  100,000  inhabitants,  or  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
population,  were  swept  away  by  it.  Targioni  Tozetti  contrasts  the  site  of 
Empoli,  a  small  town  to  the  west,  with  that  of  Florence,  and  regrets  that  a 
project  &r  removing  Florence  thither  should  not  have  been  carried  out,  as  proposed 

in  im. 

The  only  town  of  any  importance  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Amo  is  Are««), 
an  ancient  city  of  the  Etruscans,  and  at  one  time  the  capital  of  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  republics  of  the  Middle  Ages.    The  inhabitants  ascribe  to  the  "  subtile 


■!i!!!!^i,  .'MU^'mi^^mm^A  i  iv,uiitiimi)in 


s»n 


^^;iljtf'><.'i.uii«i<*'« 


TUSCANY. 


268 


'alki  along  the 
ique  spur  upon 
'  the  climate  of 
ad  the  heat  in 
)ial  throughout 
iW8  of  hygiene, 
the  Oontinent. 


gl 


iQCoaooio  tellB  us 
da  of  the  entire 
asts  the  site  of 
d  regrets  that  a 
1  out,  as  proposed 

I  Amo  is  AreiKOi 
'  one  of  the  most 
M  to  the  "  Buhtile 


air  they  breathe  the  subtility  of  their  spirits,"  and  indeed  the  list  of  famous  men 
connected  with  the  town  is  very  long.  The  present  Arezzo,  however,  is  a  decayed 
place,  and  lives  upon  the  memories  and  the  monuments  of  a  past  age.  Oortona, 
further  south,  near  the  Lake  of  Trasimeno,  claims  to  bo  the  most  ancient  city  of 
Italy ;  but  all  traces  of  its  former  greatness  have  disappeared.  Siena,  which 
formerly  governed  the  whole  of  the  hilly  tract  between  *he  Amo  and  Orabrone, 
has  fallen  from  her  high  estate,  not  without  th6  fault  of  h  jwn  citiKons,  who  were 
continually  quarrelling  amongst  themselves.  Siena  no  longer  rivals  Florence  in 
population,  power,  or  industry,  but  may  still  compare  with  the  city  on  the  Amo 
aa  regards  its  public  buildings — many  of  them  in  the  Gothic  style — its  works  of 
art,  its  quaint  streets  and  piazzas,  and  its  magnificent  position  on  the  slopes  of 
three  hills.  Chiusa,  one  of  the  most  powerful  towns  of  ancient  Etruria,  is  of  no 
importance  now,  and  only  attracts  antiquarians  in  search  oi  its  ancient  tombs. 
The  vineyards  of  Montepulciano,  on  the  same  side  of  the  vale  of  Chiani,  produce 
the  "  king  of  wines."  Vol  terra  is  only  a  small  town  now,  interesting,  however, 
on  account  of  its  cyclopean  walls  and  a  museum  abounding  in  Etrascan  antiquities. 
The  environs  are  dreary  in  the  extreme.  Salt-works,  yielding  from  7,000  to  8,000 
tons  a  year,  quarries  of  alabaster,  copper  mines  at  Monte  Catini,  sulphur  springs, 
and  the  famous  lagoni  di  Monti  Cerboli  (see  p.  242),  are  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  cities  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Amo,  have 
retained  their  importance,  for  they  are  favourably  situated  for  commerce.  Prato, 
where  the  valley  of  the  Amo  is  widest,  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district. 
The  quarries  of  serpentine  in  the  neighbourhood  have  furnished  building  stones 
for  many  of  the  most  beautiful  edifices  of  Tuscany,  including,  the  cathedral  of 
Prato,  celebrated  on  account  of  Donatello's  marvellously  sculptured  pulpit. 
Pistoja,  where  the  railway  descends  from  the  Apennines,  is  a  busy  manufacturing 
town.  Other  towns  of  some  importance  are  Pescia,  Capanuori,  in  the  "  garden  of 
Italy,"  and  Lucca  the  industrious,  with  its  celebrated  pictures  by  Era  Bartolommeo. 

The  basin  of  the  Serchio  is  of  ineomparable  productiveness  since  its  marsh  lands 
have  been  brought  under  cultivation.  From  the  ramparts  of  Lucca  one  of  the 
most  charming  views  may  be  enjoyed.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  the  towers  and 
cupolas  of  the  town,  on  the  other  fertile  fields  and  orchards,  with  white  houses 
peeping  through  the  verdure,  and  distant  hills  surmounted  by  old  towers.  The 
impresrion  made  by  this  view  is  one  of  perfect  peace.  In  a  country  so  fertile  and 
beautiful,  it  would  seem,  the  people  ought  to  be  happy,  and,  if  enthusiastic  writers 
can  be  believed,  suoh  is  really  the  case,  and  the  peasants  of  Luooa  and  of  Lower 
Tuscany  in  general  enjoy  advantages  denied  to  their  class  elsewhere  in  Italy. 
They  are  farmers  for  the  most  part,  but  hold  their  land  by  long  leases,  and  their 
share  of  its  produce  is  regulated  by  ancient  custom.  The  land,  however,  does  not 
suffice  for  their  wants,  and  they  eraiigrate  in  thousandis  in  search  of  work.  Many 
of  these  emigrants  work  as  ganders. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Upper  Serchio  valley,  known  as  the  Ghurfagnana,  are  as 
industrious  as  those  near  Lucca,  which  is  the  natural  outlet  for  its  produce.  The 
slopes  and  spurs  descending  firom  the  Apennines  and  Apuanio  Alps  are  cultivated 


2M 


ITALY. 


in  terraces.  CastelnuoTo,  the  chief  town  of  this  valley,  occupies  one  of  tho 
most  delightful  npois  of  this  picturesque  district.  The  common  people  near  it  arc 
said  to  speak  the  best  Italian,  superior  even  to 'that  of  the  Sienese. 

The  valley  of  the  Magra  is  far  more  frequented  than  that  of  Oarfagnana,  for 
the  high-road  from  Parma  to  the  Gulf  of  Spezia  leads  through  it.  In  its  upper 
portion,  in  the  heart  of  the  Apennines,  stands  the  small  town  of  Pontremoli.  Its 
inferior  portion,  known  as  the  Lunigiana,  from  the  ancient  city  of  Luni,  is  m 
beautiful  as  the  parallel  valley  of  the  Serchio.  At  Sasana  it  opens  upon  the 
sea,  and  to  the  south  of  that  charming  town,  where  the  Apuanic  Alps  approach 
close  to  the  sea,  leaving  only  a  narrow  passage  of  some  not  in  history,  are  situated 
the  towns  of  Carrara  and  Massa.  Oarrara,  the  "  Quarry,"  has  replaced  Luni  as 
the  place  from  whence  the  white  marbles  so  highly  esteemed  by  sculptors  are 
exported,  and  choice  blocks  of  which  sometimes  fetch  £80  a  cubic  yard.  No  less 
than  720  quarries  perforate  the  neighbouring  hills,  and  about  300  of  these  are 
being  worked  now.  The  town  may  be  likened  to  an  agglomeration  of  sculptors' 
studios,  and  its  Academy  has  trained  artists  of  high  reputation.  Massa  enjoys 
a  better  climate  than  Carrara,  but  its  marbles  are  less  highly  esteemed.  As  to 
the  marbles  of  Serravezza,  which  are  quarried  in  the  Altissimo  and  other  moun- 
tains of  the  Apuanic  Alps  near  the  town  of  Pietra  Santa,  they  are  in  many 
instances  as  beautiful  as  those  of  Carrara.  Michael  Angelo  highly  appreciated 
them,  and  had  a  road  constructed  to  facilitate  access  to  thorn.  The  quarries  and 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood  also  yield  slates,  iron,  lead,  and  Skiver.* 

These  towns  at  the  foot  of  the  Apuanic  Alps  were  bound  to  prosper  in  prtf* 
portion  as  the  country  increased  in  wealth,  whilst  Pisa,  the  great  commercial 
republic  of  mediiBval  Tuscany,  was  doomed  to  decay,  owing  to  the  silting  up  of 
its  harbour.  This  Porto  Pisano  was  situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  south  oi 
what  was  then  the  mouth  of  the  Amo.  In  l4  i*^  its  depth  had  been  reduced  to 
five  feet,  a  century  later  only  rowing  boats  could  enter  it,  and  soon  after  it  was 
abandoned  definitely.  There  are^jio  traces  of  it  now,  and  its  very  site  is 
disputed.  But  though  Pisa  is  dead — Pisa  tnorta — ^the  city  still  possesses  admi- 
rable monuments  of  its  past  grandeur.  It  has  a  wonderful  cathedral ;  an  elegant 
baptistery  ;  its  Campo  Santa,  with  the  famous  frescoes  of  Orgagna  and  Gozzoli ; 
and  a  leaning  tower  commanding  a  view  of  the  Pisan  hills  and  the  alluvial  plains 
of  the  Amo  and  Serchio.  Its  commerce  has  dwindled  away,  but  it  is  still  the 
capital  of  a  rich  agricultural  distrioS  and  its  university  is  one  of  the  beet  in 
Italy.  It  possesses,  moreover,  that  which  no  change  in  the  commercial  high- 
ways  can  deprive  it  of,  a  mild  climate,  and  during  winter  attracts  numerous 
visitors  from  the  north. 

Leghorn,  or  Livomo,  has  inherited  the  commerce  of  Pisa.  It  is  the  natural 
outlet  of  the  fertile  districts  of  Tuscany,  and  its  commerce  is  far  more  important 
than  might  be  supposed  from  the  uofavourable  configuration  of  the  coast,  and 
is  surpassed  only  by  that  of  Genoa  and  Naples.t     Thousands  of  Spanish  and 

*  134,000  tons  of  marble  wen  qnarriad  in  1873,  valued  at  nearly  ^£500,000  ■tcrling. 
t  In  1873  <,466  veiMlt  of  920,626  toia  enterad :    6,314  vewela  of  001,633  ton*  cleared,  indniive  of 
ooaiting  Teaaeli. 


""— "sanaauBii 


TUSCANY. 


ies  one  of  tbo 
jple  near  it  are 

Jarfagnana,  for 

In  ita  upper 

ontremoli.    Its 

of  Luni,  is  aa 
tpens  upon  the 

Alps  approach 
try,  are  situated 
placed  Luni  as 
y  sculptors  are 
yard.  No  less 
DO  of  these  are 
on  of  sculptors' 
Massa  enjoys 
iteemed.  As  to 
ind  other  moun- 
y  are  in  many 
i;hly  appreciated 

rhe  quarries  and 

• 

prosper  in  pro> 

Ireat  commercial 

lie  silting  up  of 

to  the  south  o:! 

been  reduced  to 

oon  after  it  was 

its  very  site  is 

possesses  admi- 

Iral ;  an  elegant 

na  and  GoztoU  ; 

le  alluvial  plains 

ut  it  is  still  the 

of  the  hest  in 

gmmeroial  high- 

tracts  numerous 

It  is  the  natural 

r  more  important 

>f  the  coast,  and 

of  Spanish  and 

ag. 

I  olaund,  induira  of 


Portuguese  Jews  who  found  a  refuge  here  have  contni,  .ed  in  no  small  measure 
to  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  town.  Frnn  m  sircbite' '  .id  poiut  of 
view,  Leghorn  is  one  of  the  least  interesting  cities  of  ]  ly,  but  as  ■  outcome  of 
human  labour  it  is  one  of  the  most  curious.  Before  thi  ity  could  »  buUt,  'le 
swamps  which  occupied  its  site  had  to  be  drained,  and  an  artificial  harb< ,  '1 
to  be  excavated  for  the  protection  of  vessels.  Numerous  canals  intcriHJc  ohe 
north-western  portion  of  the  town,  which  is  known  as  New  Venice.  A  i^e 
breakwater  marks  the  entrance  to  the  harbour,  and  on  a  sand-bonk  in  the  uifing 
rises  the  tower  of  Meloria,  which  recalls  the  naval  engagement  in  which  the  fleet 
of  the  Fisans  was  destroyed  by  the  Genoese. 

Fig.  89.— Thi  Hakbooe  or  Liohorn. 
SmI*  1 !  ll*,O0O. 


"ss: 


n 


v...» 


'■     V 


^'V 


•  - )  > 


\  ^■^■■■-  P\  :>^ 


(/-•"■■ 


-mr 


Insular  Tuscany  consists  of  Elba  and  several  smaller  islands,  which  mark  the 
site  of  an  isthmus  that  formerly  joined  the  mainland  to  Corsica,  and  contribute 
greatly  towards  the  beauty  of  the  Tuscan  littoraL 

Elba,  once  the  miniature  kingdom  of  Napoleon,  is  larger  than  all  the  other 
islands  together.*  An  ancient  dependency  of  the  Etruscan  city  of  Populonia, 
Elba  rises  above  the  blue  waters  of  the  Tyrrhenian  a  picturesque  group  of 
mountains.  A  narrow  and  dangerous  strait  separates  its  steep  coasts  from  the 
promontory  of  Piombino,  where  passing  vessels  were  formerly  obliged  to  pay  toll. 

The  granitic  heights  of  Monte  Oapanne,  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  island, 

*  Aim,  U  sqiian  buIm;  population,  21,723  lonla. 


m 


.j'M 


886 


ITAI.T. 


•ttain  an  elerntlon  of  3,303  feet ;  the  dume-ahaped  billi  of  lerpentine  at  the  other 
oxtromity  arc  1.000  feet  in  height,  and  the  centre  of  the  island  is  oootipied  by 
hilla  of  vurioufl  formations,  covered  with  brushwood.  The  yarioty  of  rocks  is  very 
groat,  taking  into  account  the  small  extent  of  the  island.  Associated  with  tho 
granites  and  serpentine,  wo  meet  with  beds  of  kaolin,  and  with  marble  similar 
to  that  of  Oitrrara.  Remarkable  crystals  and  precious  stones  abound  to  such 
an  extent,  that  Elba  has  been  likened  to  a  "  mineralog^oal  cabinet "  on  a 
vast  fl(!ale. 

Formerly,  when  the  sea  was  infested  by  pirates,  the  inhabitants  retreated 
to  the  recesses  of  the  interior,  or  to  the  summits  of  steep  promontories,  where  tho 
picturesque  ruins  of  ancient  fortifications  may  still  be  seen.  Several  of  the  old 
inland  villages  continue  to  be  inhabited ;  amongst  others,  that  of  Oapoliberi,  tho 
"  Mountain  of  the  Free,"  which  is  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  acropolis.  After 
the  suppression  of  piracy  the  islanders  came  down  to  the  marina,  or  coast, 
and  established  themselves  in  the  towns  of  Porto  Ferrajo,  Porto  Longone, 
Marciana,  and  Rio.  Tlie  resources  of  the  island  are  considerable,  and  a£ford 
plenty  of  occupation  to  fishermen,  salt-makers,  wine-growers,  and  gardeners.  The 
inhabitants  are  hospitable,  and,  though  neighbours  of  the  fierce  Oorsicans,  they 
possess  all  the  gentleness  of  Tuscans. 

Elba  is  not,  however,  so  much  noted  on  account  of  its  fisheries,  vineyards,  salt- 
works, or  commerce,  as  because  of  its  rich  deposits  of  ir<  a  ore.  The  russet- 
coloured  olifia  of  ironstone  are  visible  from  the  mainland,  liie  huge  excavations 
made  by  the  miners,  many  of  whom  are  convicts,  resemble  the  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  and  the  reddish  brown,  violet,  or  blackish  colour  of  the  rocks  helps 
the  illusion.  Of  the  quantity  of  ore  carried  away  from  here  in  the  course  of 
twenty-five  or  thirty  centuries  we  can  hardly  form  a  conception.  The  ironstone 
is  bedded  in  layers,  differing  in  colour  according  to  the  nature  of  the  earthy 
ingredients,  and  rising  into  hills  600  and  more  feet  in  height,  the  slopes  of 
which  are  covered  with  brushwood  (tnacchie).  Shovels  and  spades  are  tho  only 
mining  tools  required  in  clearing  away  these  heaps  of  ore,  of  which  at  least 
100,000,000  tons  remain.  By  regular  mining  operations  500,000  tons  might 
be  obtained  annually  during  twenty  centuries.  The  annual  produce  at  present 
hardly  exceeds  100,000  tons.  The  ore  is  more  particularly  suited  to  the  manu- 
facture of  steel.  Loadstones  abound  near  Oapo  Oalamita.  The  mariners  of 
the  Mediterranean  formerly  made  use  of  them  in  the  construction  of  a  primitive 
ship's  compass,  by  placing  them  in  a  piece  of  cork,  which  they  allowed  to  float 
in  a  basin  of  water. 

The  smaller  islands  of  the  Tuscan  archipelago  are — Giglio,  with  quarries 
of  granite;  Monte  Cristo,  a  pyramidal  rook  rising  2,130  feet  above  the  sea-level; 
Pianosa,  with  an  agricultural  penal  settlement ;  Oapraja,  with  a  small  town 
built  within  an  amphitheatre  of  pink-coloured  granite ;  and  Gorgona  (987  feet).* 


•  Population  of  the  prindpsl  towni  of  Tnacany  (in  1871} :— Flornioe  (Firense),  167,098;  Leghorn 
(Lirorno),  89,402;  Piai,  41,796;  Siena,  23,965;  Laoca,  21,286;  Pnto,  16,924;  Oanara,  10,848;  Firtoja, 
12,960;  Ateiso,  11,161;  Yiareggio,  9,983;  Pontsdera,  7,991;  San  Oatdano,  6,862;  Fojano  dei:a Cihiana, 


THE   APENNINES,  TIUMB,  MABOHES,  AND  AUUUZZUS. 


367 


tine  at  the  other 
1  ia  oootipied  by 

of  rook«  ia  very 
Kjittted  with  the 

marble  aimilur 
abound  to  auch 

cabinet "  on   a 

}itantfl  retreated 
toriea,  where  the 
iveral  of  the  old 
f  Oapoliberi,  the 
icropolia.  After 
%arina,  or  coaat, 
Purto  Longone, 
able,  and  afford 
gardenera.  The 
)  Ooraioana,  they 

I,  vineyarda,  aalt- 
re.  The  ruaaet- 
huge  excavationa 
sratera  of  extinct 
the  rocka  helps 
in  the  courae  of 
.  The  ironatone 
re  of  the  earthy 
tt,  the  alopea  of 
lea  are  the  only 
)f  which  at  least 
,000  tona  might 
oduoe  at  preaent 
ed  to  the  manu- 
Fhe  marinera  of 
on  of  a  primitive 
ly  allowed  to  float 

io,  with  quarries 
eve  the  aea-level ; 
th  a  amall  town 
fona  (987  feet).* 

186),  167,098;  Legbom 
tmrm  10,848;  Fiatoja, 
;  Fojano  del'a  Ohiaiu, 


v.— Thk  Roman  Apennines,  tick  Vaixky  ok  thk  Tihek,  tiik   Marliikb,  ano 

THE  AHKiixzua. 

That  portion  of  the  Italian  peninsula  which  has  Rome  for  its  centre  may  be 
likened  tu  the  trunk  of  the  body,  for  it  ia  there  the  Apennines  uttuin  their  greatest 
huight,  and  nowhere  else  to  the  south  of  the  Po  are  rivers  of  equal  magnitude  met 
with.* 

The  Hiuia  rampart  of  the  Apennines  runs  parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic. 
To  the  n\ariuor,  who  sees  these  mountains  rise  above  the  verdure  of  the  littoral 
region,  ihey  have  an  appearance  of  the  greatest  regularity.  Summit  rises  beyond 
Bummit,  one  lateral  chain  succeeds  to  the  other,  and  every  one  of  the  numerous 
valloya  descends  perpendicularly  to  the  coaat.  The  slope  throughout  is  steep,  and 
the  geological  strata,  whether  of  Jurasaic,  cretaceous,  or  tertiary  age,  suooeed  each 
other  regtdurly  from  the  snow-clad  sununits  down  to  the  promontories  of  the 
coast.  The  only  irregularity  oonaiata'  in  u  detached  group  of  hills  (1,880  feet)  to 
the  aouth  of  Ancona,  above  which  the  Hxia  of  the  Apennines  changes  its  direction. 
This  region  of  Italy  is  the  natural  counterpart  of  Liguria.  The  position  of 
Ancona  correaponda  with  that  of  Genoa,  and  the  coaat,  which  extends  on  the  one 
band  to  Emilia,  and  on  the  other  towards  the  peninsula  of  Monte  Oarguno,  may 
fairly  be  likened  to  the  "  Rivieraa  "  of  Genoa,  with  this  exception,  that  its  direction 
is  inverse.  The  territory  between  the  mountains  and  the  coast  is  narrow,  the 
littoral  road  frequently  winds  round  promontories,  and  the  towna  extend  up  the 
hill-sides.  Still  thib  portion  of  Italy  is  not  aa  atrougly  prott«^>ted  by  nature  aa 
Liguria.  Towarda  the  north  it  expands  upon  the  plain  of  the  Po,  whilat  the 
terraces  at  the  foot  of  the  main  range  of  the  Apennines  aff'  )rd  easy  aoceas  from 
the  west.  Daring  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to  our  own  daya 
neighbouring  statea  have  fought  for  the  posaession  of  this  territory,  which  has 
become  known,  from  this  oirciuuatanoe,  aa  the  "  Marches ;  "  that  is,  the  diaputed 
frontier  diatricta,  where  every  town  ia  a  fortreaa  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill. 

The  Apenninea  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Marchea  and  Ijatium,  or 
Rome,  like  thoae  of  Etroria,  are  grouped  in  aeparate  mountain  moaaea.  The  first 
of  these  conomands  the  valley  of  the  Tiber  in  the  east ;  it  extenda  in  the  north  to 
Monte  Oomero  (3,828  feet)  and  the  Fumajolo,  or  head-stream  of  the  Tiber,  and  in 
the  aouth  to  Monte  Yerone  (5,006  feet).  Though  inferior  in  height  to  other  parts 
of  the  Apennines,  theae  mountaina  are  known  as  the  Alpe  delta  Luna.     A  gap, 


6,127;  Empoli,  6,949 ;  Volterra,  fi,796 ;  Main  Maritima,  6,766 ;  Porto  Fem^o,  6,779  ;  Faoeochio,  6,766 ; 
FigUne  Vttldamo,  6,678;  Montaloino,  6,186;  Pontaadeve,  6,141;  Pontelungo,  6,039;  Butf,  6,029; 
Muaw^  4|786;  Orbetello,  4,674;  Pontramcdi,  4,473. 


*  Rome  . 
ITmbria 
Marches 
AbrusBoa 


»•,  Square 
IUm. 

FODulaUon 
Tl871). 

4,662 

886,700 

3,720 

649,600 

8,761        . 

916,420 

4,898 

918.770 

16,921 


3.220,490 


Demdtr. 

184 
148 
214 
188 

190 


'e;Bl*«»-'^ 


968 


ITALY. 


through  which  passes  the  road  from  Perugia  to  Fano,  separates  them  from  Monte 
Cutria  (5,585  feet).  At  that  point  the  Apennines  bifdrcate,  and  two  parallel 
ranges  can  be  traced  thence  for  a  distance  of  120  miles,  as  far  as  the  trausverse 
range  of  the  Majella  (9,158  feet),  which  reunites  them,  and  from  which  radiate 
the  mountains  of  Southern  Italy.  These  parallel  chains  belong  to  the  Jurassic  and 
cretaceous  formations,  and  neither  of  them  forms  a  water-parting,  for  whilst  the 
Nera  and  other  rivers  tributary  to  the  Tiber  force  themselves  a  passage  through 
the  western  one,  that  on  the  east  is  broken  by  niunerous  gorges,  through  which 
rivers  and  torrents  find  their  way  into  the  Adriatic.  The  most  considerable 
of  these  rivers  is  the  Fescara,  which  rises  on  the  plateau  of  the  Abruzzos,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  Atemo,  and  traverses  the  eastern  range  where  it  is  highest.  The 
gorg^  excavated  by  this  river  is  sufficiently  wide  to  afford  space  for  a  railway 
joining  the  Adriatic  to  the  basin  of  the  Tiber. 

The  plateau  of  the  Abruzzos,  enclosed  by  these  parallel  ranges,  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  natural  citadel  of  Central  Italy.  On  its  western  side  rise  the  double 
pyramids  of  Monte  Yelino  (8,157  feet) ;  in  the  north  Monte  Yettore  (8,131  feet) 
forms  the  termination  of  the  range  of  the  Sibillini ;  in  the  east  rises  the  culminat- 
ing point  of  the  Apennines,  a  mountain  covered  with  snow  the  greater  part  of  the 
year,  and  appropriately  called  the  "  Great  Rock  of  Italy  " — "  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia  " 
(9,518  feet).  The  fact  that  this  magnificent  mountain  is  the  highest  in  all  Italy 
has  been  known  from  times  immemorial.  The  Romans  conceived  they  had  dis- 
covered the  "  umbilic  of  Italy  "  in  a  small  lake  near  it,  upon  which  floated  an  island 
formed  of  rank  vegetation.  The  Marsi  and  their  allies,  when  they  took  up  arms 
against  their  Roman  oppressors,  chose  Corfininm,  in  its  neighbourhood,  for  the  seat 
of  their  empire,  and  snmamed  it  Italioa;  and  there,  too,  the  first  movements 
which  led  to  the  resurrection,  of  modem  Italy  took  place.  The  Gran  Sasso,  as 
seeni  from  the  Adriatic,  affords  a  magnificent  spectacle.  Its  calcareous  masses 
cannot  boast  of  much  beauty  of  profile,  but  this  is  compensated  for  by  the  fine 
Alpine  regpion  extending  beneath  its  summit,  which  remains  the  haunt  of  bears  and 
chamois,  and  where  rare  plants  in  the  meadows  remind  us  of  Switzerland.  Forests 
of  beeches  and  pines  are  still  met  with  in  a  few  places,  and  are  all  the  more 
appreciated  as  forests  no  longer  exist  in  the  lowland  T«)gion8.  This  univiersal 
destruction  of  the  forests  is  one  of  the  great  misfortunes  of  Italy.  In  many  parts 
of  the  Roman  Apennines  even  the  soil  has  been  washed  away,  and  only  in  a  few 
crevasses  do  we  meet  with  brooms  and  briers. 

The  valleys  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines  are  enclosed  between 
calcareous  spurs  of  the  main  range,  some  of  which  attain  a  considerable  elevation. 
The  Tiber  itself  thus  passes  between  two  lofty  mountains,  rising  at  the  lower 
extremity  of  two  of  these  Sub-Apennine  spurs,  and  forming  a  kind  of  triumphal 
gateway.  These  are  the  Soraote  (2,270  feet)  and  Gennaro  (4,162  feet).  These 
fine  mountains,  with  the  Sabine  Hills  and  the  volcanic  groups  near  them,  form 
the  horizon  of  the  Roman  Oampagna,  and  their  natural  beauties  are  enhanced  by 
the  memories  of  art  and  history  which  attach  to  them. 

Several  ranges  of  hills  and  detached  mountain  groups  of  calcareous  fonnation, 


lem  from  Monte 
ind  two  parallel 
IS  the  trauBverse 
m  which  radiate 
the  Jurassic  and 
g,  for  whilst  the 
passage  through 
B,  through  which 
lost  considerahle 
bruzzos,  where  it 
is  highest.  The 
ce  for  a  railway 

IS,  may  be  looked 
e  rise  the  double 
ttore  (8,131  feet) 
ses  the  culminat- 
reater  paiii  of  the 
nSassod'Italia" 
ighest  in  all  Italy 
red  they  had  dis- 
1  floated  an  island 
tey  took  up  arms 
rhood,  for  the  seat 
first  movemsnta 
le  Gran  Sasso,  as 
calcareous  masses 
d  for  by  the  fine 
launt  of  bears  and 
tzerland.    Forests 
are  all  the  more 
I.    This  univiBrsal 
In  many  parts 
md  only  in  a  few 

enclosed  between 
iderable  elevation, 
sing  at  the  lower 
kind  of  triumphal 
162  feet).  These 
8  near  them,  form 
s  are  enhanced  by 

I* 

Lcareous  formation, 


,^'mMiJ0' 


SI 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBEB,  MABOHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


259 


like  the  Sub-Apennines,  border  upon  the  shore  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  and  the 
marshes  which  extend  along  it.  Such  are  the  hills,  rich  in  alum,  which  are 
grouped  around  the  ai    lent  traobytic  cone  of  the  Tolfa.     Such,  too,  are  the  Monte 

Lepini  (4,845  feet),  the  naked  crest  of  which  has  been  likened  to  an  ass's  back 

schiena  d'aaino — and  which  bound  the  Pontine  Marshes  on  the  east.  In  some 
of  the  recesses  of  these  hills  there  still  exist  forests  of  chestnut-trees  and  beeches, 
where  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Volsci  may  pasture  their  hogs  ;  but  almost 
everywhere  else  the  hill-sides  are  bare  of  vegetation,  and  the  scorching  rays  of 
the  sun  have  split  the  rocks  into  innumerable  angular  fragments.  To  the  east  of 
the  marshes  rises  a  summit  with  ten  pinnacles,  covered  with  dense  shrub  on  the 
land  side,  but  barren  towards  the  sea,  a  few  stunted  palms  excepted,  which  grow 
in  the  fissures  of  the  rock.  This  isolated  hill,  a  counterpart  of  the  Argentaro  of 
Tuscany,  is  the  Oircello  (1,729  feet),  famous  as  the  residence  of  the  enchantress 
Circe.  The  grotto  where  she  changed  human  beings  into  animals  is  still  pointed 
out  there  to  the  curious,  and  the  remains  of  cyclopean  walls  recall  the  mythical 
age  of  the  Odyssey.  The  ancient  (Greeks,  who  were  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  Italy,  looked  upon  this  dreaded  promontory  of  Circe  as  one  of  the  most 
important  islands  of  the  Western  Cydades. 

During  the  glacial  period  the  sea,  in  which  have  been  deposited  the  chalk  and 
other  rocks  composing  the  Sub- Apennines,  was  the  scene  of  volcanic  action  on  a 
grand  scale.  The  matter  ejected  was  heaped  up  in  a  line  of  volcanic  cones, 
n^nning  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  Apennines  and  thf*  coast  of  the 
Mediterranom.  These  cones  are  joined  to  each  other  by  thick  layers  of  tufa, 
which  cover  the  whole  of  the  plain  as  £ur  as  the  foot  of  the  calcareous  mountains, 
and  extend  for  a  distance  of  nearly  120  miles,  from  Monte  Amiata,  in  Tuscany,  to 
the  mountains  of  Albano,  being  interrupted  only  by  the  alluvial  valley  of  the 
Tiber.  Ponzi  and  other  geologists  are  of  opinion  that  this  tufa  was  ejected  ^m 
submarine  volcanoes,  carried  away  by  the  currents,  and  equally  distributed  over 
the  depressions  of  the  sea-bottom.  No  fossils  have  been  discovered  in  it  hitherto, 
which  is  accounted  for  by  the  presence  of  icebergs,  which  prevented  a  development 
of  animal  life. 

This  volcanic  region  is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  numerous  lakes.  The 
largest  of  these,  that  of  Bolsena,  was  formerly  looked  upon  as  an  ancient  crater. 
This  crater  would  have  exceeded  by  far  the  larg^t  volcanic  vents  met  with  in 
the  Andes  or  in  Java,  for  it  has  a  circumference  of  twenty-five  miles,  and  covers 
an  area  of  forty-four  square  miles.  Modem  geologists,  however,  look  upon  this 
orateriform  lake  as  a  basin  of  erosion,  and  though  it  occupies  the  centre  of  a 
plateau  formed  of  aches,  sconce,  and  lava,  these  do  not  form  a  steep  edge  towards 
the  lake,  as  in  the  case  of  veritable  craters  in  the  same  district.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  latter  is  that  of  Latera,  to  the  west  of  the  lake,  in  the  centre 
of  which  rises  a  cone  of  eruption,  the  Monte  Spignano,  which  has  a  diameter 
of  nearly  five  miles. 

The  district  of  the  Bolsena  is  likewise  remarkable  on  account  of  its  vertical 
precipices  of  tufa  and  lava.     Its  picturesque  towns  and  villages  are  perched  upon 


^MUlU-JWKUi  xittoWil 


260 


ITALY. 


bold  promontories  looking  down  on  the  valleys.  The  old  town  of  Bagnorea 
occupies  the  extremity  of  an  immense  mole,  and  is  joined  to  the'  new  town  by  u 
giddy  path,  bounded  by  steep  precipices,  which  timid  travellers  do  not  care  to 
venture  upon.  Orvieto  stands  on  an  isolated  rock  resembling  a  fortress.  Pittigliano 
is  surrounded  by  precipices  :  by  cutting  away  a  few  yards  of  the  narrow  isthmus 
which  joins  it  to  the  rest  of  the  plateau,  access  to  it  would  be  impossible  to  all  but 
birds.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  nobles  and  towns  were  continually  at  war,  the 
capture  of  one  of  these  eyries  was  looked  upon  as  a  grand  achievement. 

Lake  Bolsena  discharges  its  surplus  waters  through  the  Marta  into  the 
Mediterranean.  The  fine  Lake  of  Bracciano,  to  the  south  of  it,  gives  rise  to 
the  Arrone.  It,  too,  appears  to  be  a  basin  formed  by  a  subsidence  of  the  ground 
or  erosion,  and  not  a  crater.    The  Lake  of  Yioo,  on  the  other  hand,  clearly 

Fig.  90.— The  Lake  of  Bolsira. 
Scale  1 :  457,000. 


SlUlM. 


occupies  an  ancient  volofuio,  though  its  rampart  has  been  gutted  towards  the  east. 
Close  to  the  lake,  and  within  the  encircling  rampart,  rises  Monte  Yenere,  a  perfect 
cone,  the  gentle  slopes  of  which  are  luxuriantly  wooded.  Formerly  the  lake 
surrounded  this  cone,  but  the  breach  through  which  its  emissary  esqapes  to  the 
Tiber  having  gradually  been  deepened,  the  waters  of  the  lake  subRided.  Tradition 
says  that  an  ancient  city  lies  at  its  bottom. 

On  crossing  the  Tiber  we  reach  the  beautiful  volcanic  group  of  Albano, 
within  the  great  crater  of  which  may  still  be  traced  the  remains  of  several 
secondary  craters,  some  of  them  occupied  by  lakes.  The  principal  one  of  these, 
Monte  Cavo  (2,790  feet),  rises  in  the  very  centre  of  the  exterior  rampart. 
Tradition  points  it  out  as  one  of  EEannibal's  camps.  The  exterior  slopes  of  the 
mountain  consist  of  pozzuolana,  small  stones,  and  ashes,  through  which  the 
torrents  have  dug  out  furrows  in  divergent  directions.     The  diversity  of  these 


THE  APENNINES,  TIfiEB,  ICABOHES,  AND  ABBUZZOS. 


261 


n  of  Bagnorea 
new  town  by  a 
do  not  care  to 
ess.  Pittigliano 
narrow  isthmus 
38sible  to  all  but 
lally  at  war,  the 
lent. 

Marta  into  the 
it,  gives  rise  to 
e  of  the  ground 
iT  hand,  clearly 


18»|io' 


towards  ihe  east, 
y enere,  a  perfect 
onnerly  the  lake 
ay  escapes  to  the 
)sided.    Tradition 

^roup  of  Albano, 
imains  of  sereral 
[pal  one  of  these, 
exterior  rampart, 
trior  slopes  of  the 
rough  which  the 
diversity  of  these 


Tolcanio  products  enables  us  to  trace  the  phases  of  activity  of  this  Roman 
Vesuvius,  which  was  active  at  a  much  more  recent  epoch  than  the  volcanoes 
farther  north,  and  sent  its  streams  of  lava  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome. 

The  Lake  of  Albano  discharges  its  surplus  waters  through  a  tunnel  7,665  feet 
in  length,  which  has  been  in  existence  for  more  than  twenty-two  centuries.     The 

Fig.  91. — La  Momtaona  o'Albamo. 

Ftoin  tha  Aubrian  Staff  Msp. 

Swl*  1 :  SM/WO. 


lake  is  famous  on  account  of  a  small  crab,  large  numbers  of  which  are  forwarded 
to  Rome  during  Lent.  It  is  the  only  q>eoies  of  this  animal  hitherto  discovered  in 
fresh  water,  and  zoologuts  conclude  from  this  that  the  crater  now  occupied  by  the 
lake  formerly  communicated  with  the  sea,  but  was  separated  from  it  by  slow 
upheavals  and  the  ejection  of  volcanic  products.  Flint  implements  and  vases  of 
baked  clay,  discovered  in  the  thick  layers  of  volcanic  peperino,  prove  that  at  the 
18 


t.i-liHMiiDmW 


£.W3i 


^ 


0gfl)jgKmim-tmmii* 


ITALY. 


period  of  the  earliest  eruptions  the  country  was  already  inhabited  by  a  ciyilised 
population.  Some  of  the  vases  referred  to  are  doubly  precious,  for  they  present 
us  with  delineations  of  the  houses  of  that  prehistoric  epoch.  Roman  coins  and 
clasps  of  bronze,  discovered  in  the  upper  layers  of  lava,  prove  that  these  are 
comparatively  recent.  In  fact,  the  most  diverse  developments  of  civilisation  have 
left  their  traces  in  these  ancient  craters.  Alba  Longa  and  other  towns  of  the  Latins 
have  been  replaced  by  Roman  cities ;  then  came  the  castles  of  the  popes,  and  of 
other  high  dignitaries  of  the  Church  ;  and  at  present  these  hills  are  one  of  the 
chief  resorts  of  the  crowds  of  strangers  who  flock  to  Rome  from  every  quarter  of 
the  world.  On  the  culminating  point  of  Monte  Oavo  stood  the  famous  temple  of 
Jupiter  Latialis,  where  the  Latins  ralebrated  their  federal  FerisD.  The  last 
remains  of  this  temple  were  swept  away  in  1783,  to  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  church.  From  its  site  the  eye  embraces  a  view  extending  to  the  hills  of 
Sardinia. 

The  Lake  of  Nemi  no  longer  reflects  in  its  bluish  waters  the  foliage  of 
luxuriant  trees,  or  the  walls  of  that  dreaded  temple  of  Diana  whose  priest  was 
only  allowed  to  assume  office  after  he  had  killed  his  predecessor  in  a  duel.  It,  too, 
has  its  subterranean  emissary,  like  the  Lake  of  Albano.  As  to  the  Regillus, 
famed  for  the  defeat  of  the  Latins  by  the  Romans,  it  has  dried  up,  whilst  the 
incrustating  Lake  of  Tartari  and  that  of  the  Solfatara,  with  its  floating  islands, 
are  mere  shallow  ponds,  which  owe  their  fame  almost  exclusively  to  the  vicinity 
ofTivoli. 

All  these  volcanic  lakes  are  of  considerable  depths,  whilst  the  lakes  in  the 
calcareous  regions  are  shallow.*  One  amongst  them,  that  of  Fucino,  has  been 
drained  recently,  and  the  same  fate  is  in  store  for  that  of  Trasimeno.  Lake 
Fucino  originally  occupied  an  area  of  104  square  miles,  and  its  surplus  waters 
discharged  themselves  towards  the  north-west  into  the  Salto,  a  tributary  of  the 
Tiber.  At  an  epoch  not  known  to  us  the  dimensions  of  the  lake  became  less.  It 
no  longer  discharged  an  effluent,  but  its  waters  rose  and  fell  according  to  whether 
the  seasons  were  wet  or  dry.  Occasionally  they  rose  as  much  as  60  feet,  and  two 
cities,  Marruvium  and  Pinna,  are  said  to  have  been  swallowed  up  during  one  of 
these  floods.  At  other  times  it  was  reduced  to  a  swamp.  The  ancient  Romans, 
desirous  of  suppressing  a  hotbed  of  fever,  and  of  gaining  fertile  soil  for  agriculture, 
attempted  to  drain  this  lake.  Claudius  employed  30,000  slaves  for  eleven  years 
in  cutting  a  passage  through  the  mountains  from  it  to  the  Liri.  This  great  work 
was  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  greedy  Narcissus,  but  it  turned  out  a 
failure,  for  after  a  short  time  the  tunnel  became  choked.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  an  attempt  was  made  to  reopen  this  tunnel,  but  the  drainage  of  the  lake 
has  only  been  achieved  quite  recently,  in  accordance  with  plans  designed  by 
M.  de  Montrioher,  and  carried  out  at  ^e  expense  of  Prince  Torlonia.    Between 

*  VoLOAHic  Laku  : — BoUma:  urctt,  43  iq.  m. ;  height,  996  ft. ;  depth,  460  ft.  Srmeeimio :  area,  2S  eq.  m. ; 
height,  49Sft.;  depth,  820ft.  AUiant:  ares,  2*3  aq.  m.;  height,  1,000  ft.;  depth,  466  ft.  ITtmi:  area, 
0*8  iq.  m. ;  height,  1,108  ft. ;  depth,  164  ft.  Shaixow  Lakh  •.—Trmtimmto :  area,  46  cq.  m. ;  height^ 
848  ft. ;  dppth,  21  ft.    Ammo  (in  1860) :  axea,  61  aq.  m. ;  height,  2,300  ft. ;  depth,  92  ft. 


"^"^^^^S^SSSSSMSSIS 


'-"M^SSSSfM 


.JW 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBEB,  MAECHES,  AND  ABBUZZOS. 


268 


ied  bya  omlised 
,  for  they  present 
[toman  coins  and 
re  that  these  are 
r  civilisation  have 
wns  of  the  Latins 
the  popes,  and  of 
ills  are  one  of  the 
I  every  quarter  of 
famous  templti  of 
rerisD.  The  last 
the  construction 
g;  to  the  hills  of 

irs  the  foliage  of 
whose  priest  was 
a  a  duel.  It,  too, 
to  the  Begillus, 
ied  up,  whilst  the 
a  floating  islands, 
sly  to  the  vicinity 

the  lakes  in  the 
Fuoino,  has  been 
frasimeno.  Lake 
its  surplus  waters 
i  tributary  of  the 
)  became  less.  It 
ording  to  whether 
i  50  feet,  and  two 
up  during  one  of 
>  ancirait  Romans, 
loil  for  agriculture, 
w  for  eleven  yean 
This  great  work 
at  it  turned  out  a 
In  the  thirteenth 
ainage  of  the  lake 
>lan8  designed  by 
orlonia.    Between 


meeimo :  ana,  22  iq.  m. ; 
1,  466  ft.  Nmi:  area, 
urea,  46  cq.  m. ;  height, 
1,92  ft. 


1855  and  1869  a  new  tunnel  was  excavated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  one,  and 
nearly  160,000,000  cubic  yards  of  water  were  conveyed  through  it  into  the  Liri, 
and  thence  to  the  sea.  The  whole  of  the  ancient  lake  bed  has  been  converted  into 
smiling  fields,  traversed  in  all  directions  by  carriage  roads ;  houses  have  been 
erected  on  spots  formerly  covered  with  water ;  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  have 
been  planted ;  and  the  salubrity  of  the  country  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired 
now.  Some  idea  of  the  progress  made  in  the  art  of  engineering  since  the  time 
of  the  Romans  may  be  formed  by  comparing  this  new  tunnel  with  the  old  one. 
The  latter  was  18,500  feet  in  length,  had  an  average  section  of  12  square  yards, 
and  cost  (according  to  M.  Rotrou)  £9,840,000.  The  new  tunnel  has  a  length  of 
20,680  feet,  a  section  of  24  square  yards,  and  cost  £1,200,000. 

Fig.  92.— Thi  Amciimt  Laki  of  Fccixo. 

BoOe  1  :  418,000. 


SlIilM. 


The  Lake  of  Perugia,  better  known  as  the  Lake  of  Trasimeno,  on  account  of 

the  terrible  memories  which  attach  to  it,  still  retains  nearly  the  dimensions  which 

it  had  at  the  dawn  of  history.     If  this  lake  were  to  rise  only  a  few  feet,  its 

surplus  waters  would  find  their  way  into  the  Tresa,  a  tributary  of  the  Tiber ;  but 

its  basin  is  shallow,  and  evaporation  suffices  for  carrying  off  the  water  conveyed 

into  it  by  its  tributary  rivulets.    Amongst  these  is  the  famous  Sanguinetto,  on 

the  banks  of  which  the  armies  of  Hannibal  and  Flaminius  were  engaged  in  battle, 

when, 

"  b«neath  the  feftf, . 
An  earthquake  teeled  nnheededly  away." 

The  lake,  with  its  islands  and  charming  contours,  is  beautiful  to  look  upon, 
but  the  low  hills  surrounding  it  are  sterile,  the  climate  is  insalubrious,  its  waters 
harbour  but  few  fish,  and  the  inhabitants  on  its  shores  look  impatiently  forward 


gaMMiwyigaiiA^ 


mm 


IM  ITAIiT. 

to  the  time  when  the  engineers  will  fulfil  their  promise  of  winning  for  agriculture 
30,000  acres  of  fertile  land  now  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

But  far  more  urgent,  on  sanitary  and  economical  grounds,  are  the  claims  of 
the  Roman  Oampagna ;  that  is,  of  the  region  lying  between  the  Tolfa  of  Civitu 
Yecchia,  Monte  Soracte,  the  Sabine  Hills,  and  the  volcanoes  of  Latium.  Slavery 
and  maladministration  have  converted  a  fertile  region  into  a  desert  extending  to 
the  very  gates  of  Rome.  Painters  are  enraptured  with  this  Ronum  Oampagna ; 
they  admire  its  melancholy  aspect,  its  picturesque  ruins  hidden  beneath  brambles, 


Fig.  93.— Lakb  op  Tkasimimo. 

Timn  th*  AnaMiii  Staff  Kav. 

SmU*  1 :  «iO,000. 


^.9^:^ 


-tmiMk 


its  solitary  pines,  its  pools  reflecting  the  purple  clouds,  and  visited  by  thirsty 
buffaloes.  True  this  region,  bounded  by  hills  of  bold  contours,  is  full  of  grandeur 
and  sadness ;  but  the  air  that  hangs  over  it  is  deadly,  the  soil  and  climate  of 
this  Agro  Bonumo  have  deteriorated,  and  fever  now  reigns  there  supreme. 

Two  thousand  years  ago  the  Roman  Oampagna,  which  xsovers  an  area  of 
600,000  acres  to  the  north  of  the  Tiber,  and  extends  from  the  sea  to  the  moan- 
tains,  was  a  fertile  and  carefully  cultivated  country.  Then  its  inhabitants  were 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfs,  the  Roman  patricians  appropriated  the  land,  and 


THE  APENNINE8,  TIBER,  MABOHES,  AND  ABBUZZ08. 


965 


ig  for  ag^otilture 

ire  the  olaims  of 
e  Tolfa  of  Civita 
Liatium.  Slavery 
sert  extending  to 
>man  Oampagna; 
beneath  brambles, 


visited  by  thirsty 
is  full  of  grandeur 
oil  and  climate  of 
i  supreme, 
xsovers  an  area  of 
le  sea  to  the  moun- 
ts inhabitants  were 
iated  the  land,  and 


covered  it  with  villas  and  parks.  When  these  magnificent  residences  were  given 
up  to  pillegpe  and  to  flames,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  dispersed,  and  the  country 
immediately  became  a  desert.  Since  that  epoch  most  of  the  Ag^  is  held  in 
mortmain  by  ecclesiastical  corporations  or  princely  families,  and  whilst  all  the 
rest  of  Europe  has  been  making  progress,  the  Gampagna  has  become  even  more 
sterile  and  insalubrious.  Swamps  continually  invade  the  lowlands,  and  an  atmo- 
sphere charged  with  miasmata  hangs  ever  above  the  hills.  Malaria  has  already 
knocked  at  the  gates  of  Rome,  and  the  fevers  produced  by  it  decimate  the  popula- 
tion of  its  suburbs. 

Fig.  94 — ^Tbi  Bomam  Oampaoiia.  • 


Not  a  village,  not  even  a  hamlet,  is  met  with  throughout  ibis  afflicted  region. 
The  only  buildings  are  the  wretched  storehouses  of  the  proprietors,  whose  wide 
domains  are  roamed  over  by  herds  of  half-wild  grey  cattle,  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Huns,  and  distinguished  by  immense  horns,  fre- 
quently suspended  in  the  huts  of  the  peasantry,  who  fancy  that  they  keep  off  the 
"  evil  eye."  The  soil  of  these  neglected  pastures  consists  of  alluvium  mixed  with, 
volcanic  debris  and  marls,  but  only  a  few  patches  are  cultivated.  The  farmers  and 
labourers  who  engage  in  this  labour  cany  their  lives  in  their  hands,  and  are 
frequently  struck  down  by  fever  before  they  are  able  to  regain  their  villages  in 


ITALY. 


the  hills.  What  can  be  done  to  reatore  to  thia  region  ita  fertility,  aalubrity,  and 
population  P  No  doubt  it  will  be  neoeaaary  to  drain  the  marahea,  and  ^o  plant 
treea  capable,  like  che  Euoalyptua,  of  abaorbing  the  poiaonous  miaamata ;  and  thiM 
haa  been  done,  with  a  oonaiderable  amount  of  aucoeaa,  since  1870,  near  the  abbey 
of  Tre  Fontane.  Bat,  aboye  aJl,  it  will  be  neoeaaary  to  interest  the  cultivator 
of  the  soil  in  ita  productireneaa.  Even  in  the  most  salubrious  districts  of  the 
ancient  Papal  dominiona  the  population  ia  being  decimated  by  misery  and  the 
maladiea  following  in  ita  train.  In  the  valley  of  Sooco,  to  the  aouth*eaat  of  Rome, 
which  abounda  in  cereala,  vinea,  and  fhiit  treea,  the  cultivator  of  the  aoil  is 
restricted  to  a  diet  of  maize,  for  proprietora  and  money-lendera  eat  up  the  rest  of 
his  produce. 

An  uncultivated  and  insalubrioua  region  extends,  likewiae,  along  the  sea  to  the 
south  of  the  Tiber.  Poisonous  vapoura  arise  from  the  stagnant  watera  aeparated 
by  dunea  from  the  sea,  and  in  order  to  escape  them  it  is  neoessary  to  seek  a  refuge 
in  the  hills  of  the  interior,  or  even  on  jetties  built  out  into  the  sea,  aa  at  Porto 
d' Anzio.  The  palacea  which  formerly  lined  the  shore  from  Ostia  to  Nettuno,  and 
from  the  ruiuf  of  which  have  Ixyn  recovered  some  of  our  moat  highly  valued 
art  treasures,  tuoh  aa  the  Gladiator  and  Apollo  Belvedere,  have  been  buried 
long  ngo  beneath  the  dunes  or  in  the  swamps.  The  most  dreaded  of  these 
malarial  districts  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Monti  Lepini,  and  extenda  from  Porto 
d'Anzio  to  Terraoina.  It  is  known  as  the  Pontine  Marshes,  from  an  ancient  city 
named  Pometia,  which  no  longer  exists.  No  less  than  twenty-three  cities 
formerly  flourished  in  what  is  now  a  deserted  and  deadly  country,  but  which  was 
the  most  prosperous  of  ahe  districts  held  by  the  confederation  of  the  Volsoi.  The 
Roman  conquerors  created  "  peace  and  solitude "  at  the  same  time.  Four 
hundred  and  forty  years  after  the  building  of  Rome,  when  Appius  constructed 
his  famous  road  to  Terracina,  the  country  was  only  a  swamp.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  since  to  reclaim  this  region,  but  it  still  remains  the  haunt  of 
boars,  deer,  and  semi-savage  buflEoloes,  whose  ancestors  were  imported  from  Africa 
in  the  seventh  century.  The  canals  dug  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  appear  to 
have  been  of  little  use ;  the  works  undertaken  by  Theodorio  the  Qoth  were  more 
efficaoioun;  but  stagnant  waters  and  malaria  in  the  end  regained  the  mastery.  The 
engineers  employed  by  Pius  YI.  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
failed  likewise,  and  this  district  of  290  square  miles  remains  a  wilderness  to  the 
p*>38ent  day.  If  a  brigand  seeks  refuge  in  it,  pursuit  is  stopped,  and  he  is  allowed 
to  die  in  peace. 

In  order  to  drain  these  marshes  an  aooumulatics  of  difficulties  will  have  to  be 
surmounted.  A  range  of  wooded  dunes  bounds  the  marahes  on  the  west.  Having 
crossed  these,  we  enter  a  second  zone  of  marshes,  which  are  separated  f^m  the  sea 
by  a  second  range  of  dunes,  extending  northward  from  the  Monte  Oircello,  and  like- 
wise densely  wooded.  These  two  formidable  barriers  would  have  to  be  surmounted 
in  order  to  drain  the  marshes  towards  the  west.  Nor  are  the  prospects  more  pro- 
mising in  the  direction  of  Terraoina,  for  there,  too,  every  outlet  ia  stopped  by  dunes. 
The  streams  and  canals  crossing  the  marshes  are,  moreover,  choked  up  with  a  dense 


THE  APBNNIN^,  TIBEB,  IfABOHES,  AND  ABBUZZ08. 


867 


ty,  lalubrity,  and 
bes,  and  ^o  plant 
iaimata ;  and  thin 
0,  near  the  abbey 
Mt  the  cultivator 
IB  diatriota  of  the 
y  miaeiy  and  the 
uth-east  of  Rome, 
or  of  the  aoil  is 
eat  up  the  rest  of 

ong  the  sea  to  the 
i  waters  aeparated 
f  to  seek  a  refuge 
e  sea,  as  at  Porto 
i  to  Nettuno,  and 
ost  highly  valued 
lave  been  buried 
dreaded  of  these 
tends  from  Porto 
)m  an  ancient  city 
prenty-three  cities 
ry,  but  which  was 

the  Vokoi.  The 
une  time.  Four 
Lppius  constructed 

Yarious  attempts 
lains  the  haunt  of 
ported  from  Africa 
Lugustus  appear  to 
le  Goth  were  more 
the  mastery.  The 
ighteenth  century 
wilderness  to  die 
,  and  he  is  allowed 

ies  will  have  to  be 
the  west.  Having 
irated  from  the  sea 
I  Oircello,  and  like- 
9  to  be  surmounted 
>rospect8  more  pro- 
B  stopped  by  dunes, 
^ed  up  with  a  dense 


growth  of  aquatic  plants,  which  impedes  the  circulation  of  the  water,  feeble  though 
it  be.  Herds  of  buffaloes  are  sometimes  driven  into  these  streams  to  trample  down 
the  vegetation,  but  neither  this  barbarous  procedure  nor  the  more  regular  process 
of  mowing  has  availed  against  its  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth,  and  the  water 


Fig.  95 — Thb  PoNTiini  M aurw. 
SmO*  1 :  wojoeo. 


remains  stagnant.  Bains  are  not  only  heavy  in  this  portion  of  Italy,  but  the 
superabundant  waters  of  neighbouring  river  basins  actually  find  their  way  through 
subterranean  channels  into  the  depression  opoupied  by  the  Pontine  Ma^whes. 
This  happens  after  heavy  rains  in  the  case  of  the  Saoco,  a  tributary  o>f  the 
Oarigliano,  and  of  the  Teverone,  a  tributary  of  the  Tiber,  and  to  this  circumstance 


•»68 


HALT. 


moat  be  aacribed  the  ourioui  fact  first  aioertained  by  M.  de  Prony,  rin.  that  thn 
volume  of  water  annually  diacharged  by  the  Badino,  which  drains  the  marahuN, 
exceeds  by  one*half  the  whole  of  the  rain  which  annually  deaoenda  upon  them. 
When  thia  happena  the  whole  of  the  country  ia  under  water.  Another  danger 
ariaea  during  dry  weather.  It  happens  then  occaaionally  that  the  parched 
vegetation  ia  ignited  through  the  oareleaaneaa  of  herdamon ;  the  fire  communlcatot 
itaelf  to  the  turfy  aoil,  and  the  latter  amouldera  until  the  aubaoil  water  ia  reached. 
In  thia  manner  traota  of  land  which  were  looked  upon  aa  aeoure  againat  every 
inundation  are  converted  into  marah.  During  the  greater  portion  of  the  year 
the  Pontine  Marahea  preaent  the  appearance  of  a  plain  covered  with  herbage  and 
flowera,  and  it  ia  matter  for  surprise  that  a  country  so  fertile  ahould  be  without 
iniui^itanta.  The  town  of  Ninfa,  which  was  built  iu  the  eleventh  century,  near 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  plain,  haa  aince  been  abandoned,  its  walla,  houaes, 
and  palacea  atill  remaining,  covered  with  ivy  and  other  creeping  planta. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  our  engineers  would  be  able  to  reclaim  thia  deaolate 
region.  The  ayatem  adopted  in  the  caae  of  the  valley  of  the  Ohiana  may  not 
be  practicable,  but  other,  if  more  coatly,  meana  may  be  deviaed.  Whatever  the 
outlay,  it  ia  aure  to  be  productive,  for  even  now  the  marahea  yield  rich  harvests  of 
wheat  and  maize. 

The  Tiber,  or  Tevere,  the  great  river  of  the  Romana,  has  defied  all  attempts 
at  correction  down  to  our  own  days,  and  ita  sudden  floods  are  said  to  be  even  more 
formidable  now  than  they  were  in  the  days  of  the  Republic.  Ever  since  the  time 
of  Angus  Martins  there  has  been  going  on  a  struggle  against  the  alluvium  brought 
down  by  the  river,  and  it  will  need  all  the  skill  of  the  Italian  engineers  to  master 
this  difficult  problem. 

The  Tiber  is  by  far  the  most  important  river  of  the  peninsular  portion  of  Italy, 
and  ita  basin  is  the  most  extensive.*  It  is,  too,  the  only  river  that  ia  navigable 
in  ita  lower  courae  from  Oatia  to  Fidenes.  The  Tiber  riaea  on  the  western  alope 
of  the  Alpe  della*  Lwa»,  in  the  latitude  of  Florence.  The  valley  through  which 
it  flowa,  whilat  in  the  heart  of  the  Apenninea,  is  of  aorpaaaing  beauty ;  at  one  time 
it  expanda  into  broad  and  fertile  baains,  at  othera  it  ia  hemmed  in  by  precipitous 
rooka.  Below  the  charming  baain  of  Perugia  the  Tiber  receives  the  Topino, 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  aeveral  atreams  in  the  old  laonatrine  basin  of  Foligno, 
one  of  the  most  delightfiil  diatriots  of  all  Italy,  aitaated  at  the  foot  of  the  Oreat 
Apenninea  and  of  the  Ool  Fiorito,  which  leads  across  them.  The  Olitono  (Oli- 
tumnus)  debouches  upon  this  plain,  famous  on  account  of  its  pdUuoid  waters : — 

"  Th«  mort  living  cryBtal  that  was  e'er 
Hie  hannt  of  tlie  river  nymph,  to  gaae  and  lare 
Her  limbe." 

!I^e  ruins  of  a  beautiful  temple  still  remain  near  the  source  of  this  river,  but  the 
miraculous  power  of  the  latter  of  changing  into  a  brilliant  white  the  wool  of  the 
sheep  grazing  upon  its  scored  banks  has  gone  for  ever. 

*  Basin,  6,47/(  square  miles ;  length,  260  miles,  of  which  60  are  nsTigahlo. 


iUE  Al'EKNlKi'iti,  TIBiilil,  MAKOUE^,  ASU  AUUUZZOS. 


ly,  ri».  thftt  thn 
ini  the  inanh(!!4, 
inda  upon  them. 

Another  danger 

lat  the  parched 
ire  communicate* 

water  is  reached, 
ire  against  every 
tion  of  the  yeur 
with  herbage  and 
bould  be  without 
nth  century,  near 

its  walls,  houses, 
plants. 
)laim  this  desolate 

Ohiana  may  not 

,    Whatever  the 
Id  rich  harvests  of 


iefted  all  attempts 
id  to  be  even  more 
)ver  since  the  time 
3  alluvium  brought 
mgineers  to  master 

iar  portion  of  Italy, 
r  that  is  navigable 
1  the  western  slope 
Lley  through  which 
eauty ;  at  one  time 
d  in  by  precipitous 
iceives  the  Topino, 
le  basin  of  Foligno, 
)  foot  of  the  Great 
The  Olitono  (OU- 
dluoid  waters : — 


The  Nera  is  the  most  important  tributary  of  the  Tiber;  "  it  gives  it  to  drink," 
as  the  Italian  proverb  says,  and  rivals  it  in  volume.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  several  streams  descending  from  the  Sibilline  Mountains,  Monte  Volino,  and 
the  Sabine  Hills.  About  two  thousand  ycum  ago,  it  is  said,  most  of  these  rivulets 
did  not  reach  the  Tiber ;  they  were  intercepted  in  the  plain  of  Kieti,  where  they 

Fig.  94.— Amoibnt  LACvaTRiNS  Baiimi  or  thb  Timh  and  ToriNo. 
StaU  1  :  SMiOOO. 


A^l 


vouono^ 


I  this  river,  bat  the 
iiite  the  wool  of  the 

MTIgablOi 


formed  the  Laons  Yelinos,  represented  at  the  present  day  by  a  few  ponds  and 
marshes  scattered  over  the  fertile  fields  of  the  "  Garden  of  Roses."  A.  breach 
effected  in  the  calcareous  rocks,  and  several  times  enlarged  since,  allowed  tht> 
pent-up  waters  of  the  Yelino  to  escape  to  the  Nera,  and  in  doing  so  they  formed 
those  beautiful  cascades  of  Marmora,  above  Temi,  whose  charms  have  been 
celebrated  by  poets  and  painters.    The  river  falls  down  a  perpendicular  height  of 


:*)^ift^<,»«jrf.t.lV>^Vi"-^V',"' 


pfS^i\-T  ri--^ 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBEB,  MAEOHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


271 


>  blocks  of  rock, 


:,%,'■:  r- 


;;^iPi^>^ 


■'^^^. 


more  charming,  are  the  numerous  cascatellas  of  the  Anio,  or  Teverone,  the  last 
affluent  of  any  importance  which  the  Tiber  receives  above  Rome.  Standing  on  the 
verdant  hill  upon  which  is  built  the  picturesque  town  of  Tivoli,  silvery  cascades 
may  be  seen  to  escape  in  every  direction.  Some  of  them  glide  down  the  polished 
rocks;  others  shoot  forth  from  gloomy  arches,  remain  suspended  an  instant  in  the 
air,  and  then  disappear  again  beneath  the  foliage ;  but  every  one  of  them,  whether 

Fig.  98.— Thb  Dilta  or  tub  Tibih. 
Aoooiding  to  Daiondeau  (1861)  and  DeRJordins. 


a  powerful  jet  or  a  mere  thread  of  water,  possesses  some  charm  of  its  own,  and, 
as  a  whole,  they  form  one  of  the  most  deUghtful  spectacles  to  be  witnessed  in 
Italy.  It  is  tiiese  cascades  which  h»ve  rendered  TivoK  famous  throughout  the 
world ;  and  in  spite  of  the  popular  rhyme — 


^rand,  but  perhaps 


■  TivoU  di  mal  conforto, 
0  piovot  o  tira  vento,  o  moiu  a  morto  I ' 


THE  APENNINES.  TIBEB.  MABGHES,  AND  aBBUZZOS. 


278 


mcient  Romans, 


^■^■x-- 


—  —  *    -  ,'  ,  r^ 


iJS^'^f  -'-— 


ruins,  to  the  west 
I  been  proposed  to 


utilise  the  great  water  power  of  the  Anio  far  more  extensively  than  has 
been  done  hitherto.  The  ancients  contented  themselves  with  quarrying  the 
concretionary  limestone,  or  travertin,  deposited  by  the  calcareous  waters  of 
the  river,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet.  They  made  use  of  this 
stone  for  the  construction  of  their  public  buildings.  Travertin,  when  first 
quarried,  is  white ;  after  a  certain  time  it  turas  yellow,  and  subsequently  assumes 
a  beautiful  roseate  hue,  which  imparts  a  character  of  majesty  to  the  edifices 
constructed  of  it. 

Below  their  confluence  with  the  Anio,  the  yellow  waters  of  the  Tiber, 
discoloured  by  the  clay  brought  down  from  the  plains  of  Fmbria,  rush  beneath 
the  bridges  of  Rome.  Soon  afterwards  the  river  winds  round  the  last  hills, 
which  formerly  bounded  an  ancient  gulf' of  the  aea,  now  silted  up.  The  influence 
of  the  tides  makes  itself  felt.  At  the  head  of  the  Sacred  Island,  formerly 
dedicated  to  Venus,  and  famous  for  its  roses,  but  now  a  dreary  swamp,  covered 
with  reeds  and  asphodeke,  it  bifurcates.  The  principal  branch,  the  old  Tiber, 
passes  to  the  south  of  this  island.  Ostia,  which  was  the  port  of  the  river  during 
the  early  days  of  Rome,  is  buried  now  beneath  fields  of  cereals  and  thistles,  at 
a  distance  of  five  miles  from  the  sea.  Excavations  made  there  since  1855  have 
laid  bare  several  temples,  tombs,  and  warehouses.  The  merchants  of  Rome  were 
compelled  to  abandon  that  city  two  thousand  years  ago,  on  account  of  a-  bar  formed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  Roman  emperors,  anxious  to  have  an  outlet  into  the  sea,  ordered  a  ship 
:anal  to  be  excavated  to  the  north  of  Ostia.  This  is  the  Fiumieino,  which  the 
orosive  action  of  the  Tiber  has  converted  into  a  small  river;  Claudius  had  huge 
docks  excavated  to  the  north  of  this  canal,  and  a  new  Ostia  arose  near  them. 
Trajan  qsened  another  port  to  the  south-east  of  it,  which  remained  for  several 
centuries  the  port  of  Rome.  But  it,  too,  has  been  silted  up  for  about  a  thousand 
years,  and  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  Tiber  is  continually  encroaching 
upon  the  sea,  the  rate  of  progress  being  about  three  feet  annually  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Fiumieino,  and  ten  feet  at  that  of  the  old  Tiber.  Extensive  ruins  of 
palaces,  bftths,  and  storehouses  exist  near  the  ancient  port  of  Trajan,  and  several 
works  of  art  have  recently  been  excavated  there. 

The  mouth  of  the  Tiber  is  thus  closed  by  a  bar,  like  that  of  aU  other  rivers  which 
flow  into  the  Mediterranean ;  and  the  Romans,  instead  of  being  able  to  n^ike  use 
of  their  river  for  oommimioating  with  the  sea,  are  obliged  to  hftve  recourse,  to  more 
distant  harbours.  In  former  times  they  kept  up  this  communication  with  Sicily, 
Oreece,  and  the  Orient  through  Antium,  Anxur  (Terracina),  and  even  Putooli; 
but  since  the  countries  of  the  North  have  riaen  into  political  and  commercial 
importance,  Oivita  Yeochia  has  become  the  great  maritime  entrep6t  of  the  valley 
of  the  Tiber.  It  is  well  known  that  Garibaldi  has  conceived  the  stupendous 
project  of  conv^ing  Rome  into  a  great  maritime  city.  The  stagnant  waters  of 
the  Oampagna  are  to  be  carried  off  by  means  of  a  huge  sanitary  canal,  the  bed  of 
the  Tiber  is  to  be  deepened,  and  an  artificial  harbour  capable  of  receiving  the 
largest  vessels  is  to  be  constructed  far  out  in  the  Mediterranean. 


i>miyHiii«a^^fe'«A^i<^'^^w^^''i'-^«^ 


ffr* 


ITALY 


The  exeoutinn  of  this  vast  soheme  is  no  doubt  attended  with  immense  di£S- 
culties,  not  the  least  amongst  which  are  the  annual  floods  of  the  Tiber.  Ancient 
writers  tell  us  that  these  inundations  were  dreaded  not  only  because  of  the  damage 
done  directly,  but  also  because  of  the  great  quantities  of  animal  and  vegetable 
deposits  which  remained  in  the  fields  after  the  subsidence  of  the  waters.  The  nature 
of  these  floods  has  continued  the  same  down  to  the  present  time.  At  Rome,  though 
its  distance  from  the  sea  is  only  twenty-two  miles,  the  river  frequently  rises  forty  or 
fifty  feet,  and  in  December,  1598,  it  rose  sixty-five  feet  I  How  is  this  huge  volume 
of  water  to  be  disposed  of  after  it  has  passed  beneath  the  bridges  of  Rome  ?  If 
the  destruction  of  the  forests  in  the  Apennines  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
these  floods,  will  it  be  sufficient  to  replant  them?  Or  would  it  be  preferable 
to  restore  some  of  those  ancient  lakes  into  which  numerous  rivers  discharged 
themselves,  which  now  take  their  course  to  the  sea  ?  The  difficulties  are  great 
indeed,  for  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines  is  exposed  to  the  rain-bearing 
westerly  and  south-westerly  winds,  and  the  floods  of  every  one  of  the  numerous 
tributaries  of  the  Tiber  take  place  simultaneously,  and  combine  to  form  one  vast 
inundation. 

It  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  account  for  the  great  floods  of  the  Tiber  which 
take  place  in  winter,  but  the  condition  of  the  river  during  summer  has  for  a  long 
time  baffled  inquiry.  The  level  of  the  river  during  the  dry  season  is  far  higher 
than  could  possibly  be  accounted  for  by  the  small  quantity  of  rain  which  foils 
within  its  basin.  Its  volume  in  summer  is  never  less  than  half  its  average 
volume,  a  phenomenon  not  hitherto  observed  in  the  case  of  any  other  river.  The 
Seiae  has  a  basin  five  times  larger  than  that  of  the  Tiber,  and  its  average  volume 
is  almost  double ;  yet,  after  a  continuance  of  dry  weather,  its  volume  is  only  a 
third  or  fourth  of  the  Italian  river.  This  perennity  of  the  Tiber  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  assuming  that  it  is  fed,  during  the  dry  season,  from  subterranean 
reservoirs,  in  which  the  water  is  stored  up  during  winter.  These  reservoirs  must 
be  very  numerous,  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  numerous  "  sinks,"  or  "  swallows," 
met  with  on  the  calcareous  plateaux  of  the  Apennines.  One  of'  these  sinks, 
known  as  the  -'  Fountain  of  Italy,"  near  Alatri,  dose  to  the  Neapolitan  frontier, 
has  the  appearance  of  a  huge  pit,  160  feet  in  depth  and  300  feet  across.  Its 
bottom  is  occupied  by  a  forest,  and  numerous  springs  give  ris6  to  luxuriant 
herbage,  upon  whicl.  sheep  lowered  by  means  of  ropes  feed  with  avidity.  It  is 
from  sinks  like  this  that  the  rivers  of  the  country,  the  Tiber  and  the  Sacoo,  are 
fed.  It  has  been  computed  by  Yenturoli  and  Lombardini,  the  engineers,  that 
about  three- fourths  of  the  liquid  mass  of  the  Tiber  during  winter  are  derived  from 
subterranean  lakes  hidden  in  the  depths  of  the  Apennines.  The  volume  of  water 
annually  supplied  from  this  source  to  the  Tiber  would  fill  a  basin  having  an  area 
of  100  square  miles  to  a  depth  of  80  feet !  * 

Primitive  Rome  is  to  a  large  extent  indebted  for  her  power  to  the  Tiber,  not 

*  Annnal  rainfiiU  at  Bome,  30-7  inches ;  at  the  foot  of  the  Apenninea,  43-8  in. ;  on  the  sammiti, 
94-5  in.  Yolame  of  the  Tiber:  average  10,180  cubic  ft.;  nrnximmn,  C0,400  cubic  ft. ;  minimnm,  4,6iS0 
onbio  ft.,  a  second. 


■•.■A:'^:if.-^^imtsS-'!S^Mi;:Mi«M^ 


Whlilil'iUllI     ^ 


w 


THE  APENNINES.  TIBEB,  MABOHES,  AND  ABBUZiTOS. 


tflB 


h.  immense  diffi. 

Tiber.  Ancient 
Be  of  the  damage 
al  and  vegetable 
aters.  The  nature 
At  Rome,  though 
ntly  rises  forty  or 
this  huge  volume 
es  of  Rome?  If 
rinoipal  causes  of 

it  be  preferable 

rivers  discharged 

Bculties  are  great 

the  rain-bearing 

of  the  numerous 

to  form  one  vast 

the  Tiber  which 
aer  has  for  a  long 
ison  is  far  higher 

rain  which  fells 
half  its  average 
other  river.  The 
its  average  volume 
volume  is  only  a 
Fiber  can  only  be 
from  subterranean 
ise  reservoirs  must 
I,"  or  "  swallows," 
le  of'  these  sinks, 
Bapolitan  frontier, 
)  feet  across.  Its 
ris6  to  luxuriant 
Ith  avidity.  It  is 
and  the  Sacoo,  are 
he  engineers,  that 
r  are  derived  from 
e  volume  of  water 
rin  having  an  area 

T  to  the  Tiber,  not 

in. ;  on  the  Bummiti, 
do  ft. ;  minimiun,  4,M0 


because  that  river  is  navigable,  but  because  it  traverses  the  centre  of  a  vast  basin, 
of  which  Rome  is  the  natural  capital.  Rome,  moreover,  occupied  a  central 
position  with  regard  to  the  whole  of  Italy  and  the  world  of  the  ancients ;  but,  as 
has  already  been  pointed  out,  Rome  no  longer  lies  upon  any  of  the.  great  high- 
roads of  nations.  That  city  certainly  occupies  not  only  the  centre  of  Italy, 
but  of  all  the  coimtries  surroimding  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea ;  and  its  climate  would 
leave  little  to  be  desired,  if  it  were  not  for  the  insalubrity  of  the  Campagna.  Still 
Rome,  though  the  residence  of  two  sovereigns,  the  King  of  Italy  and  the  Pope,  is 
not  even  the  principal  city  of  the  peninsula,  and  still  less  so  the  capital  of  the 
Latin  race.  It  is  said  that  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the  popes  resided 
at  Avignon,  the  population  of  Rome  was  reduced  to  17,000  souls.  Gregorovius, 
than  whom  no  one  is  better  acquainted  with  that  epoch  in  the  history  of  Rome, 
doubts  this ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  after  the  sack  ordered  by  the  Con- 
stable of  Bourbon  its  population  was  reduced  to  30,000  souls.  More  recently 
Rome  has  increased  rapidly,  but  it  is  still  very  inferior  to  Naples,  and  even  to 
Milan. 

From  the  very  first  the  Romans  were  a  mixed  race.  The  myth  of  Romulus 
and  Remus,  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women,  and  incessant  internal  conflicts  bear 
evidence  to  this  &Mt.  The  remains  of  ancient  cities,  oyclopean  walls,  burial- 
grounds,  iims,  vases,  and  ornaments  prove  that  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber 
the  Etrurians  were  at  least  as  strong  as  the  Italians.  Elsewhere  the  Gauls 
predominated,  and  frt)m  an  intermixture  of  all  these  various  peoples  sprang  the 
primitive  Roman. 

When  Rome  had  reached  the  zenith  of  her  power  things  wore  a  diflerent 
aspect,  and  thousands  of  foreigners  became  amalgamated  with  the  Latins,  G(auls, 
Iberians,  Mauritanians,  Greeks,  Syrians,  and  Orientals  of  every  race  and  climate ; 
slaves,  freemen,  and  citizens  flocked  towards  the  capital  of  the  world,  and 
modified  the  character  of  its  inhabitants.  Towards  the  dose  of  the  Empire  there 
were  more  strangers  within  the  walls  of  Rome  than  Romans,  and  when  the  empire 
of  the  West  broke  to  pieces,  and  the  empress-city  was  pillaged  repeatedly  by 
barbarian  hordes,  the  Italians  had  already  become  mixed  with  the  most  diverse 
elements.  This  endless  mixture  between  different  races,  victors  and  vanquished, 
masters  and  slaves,  accounts,  perhaps,  more  satisfactorily  for  the  g^reat  changes 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  course  of  two  thousand  years  in  the  character  and 
spirit  of  the  Romans.  Still  the  Romans  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  the 
80-called  Transteveroni,  have  preserved  the  old  Roman  type,  as  transmitted  to  us 
in  statues  and  on  medals. 

Rome  is  great  because  of  its  past,  and  its  ruins  are  more  attractive  than  its 
modem  buildings ;  it  is  a  tomb  rather  than  a  living  city.  These  monuments, 
raised  by  the  former  masters  of  the  world,  strongly  impress  the  imagination.  The 
sight  of  the  Ooliseum  arouses  an  admiration  akin  to  terror,  unless  we  look  upon 
this  formidable  edifice  as  a  mere  heap  of  stones.  The  thought  ihat  this  vast  arena 
was  crowded  with  men  who  sought  to  kill  each  other,  that  the  steps  surrounding 
it  were  occupied  by  8,000  human  beings  who  delighted  in   this  butchery  and 


^.»»^fesa@aasaiyaa£ia^^ 


ffit 


ITALT. 


encouraged  it  by  their  shouts,  calls  up  an  amount  of  baseness,  ferocity,  and 
frenzy,  whose  existence  could  not  fail  to  sap  the  foundations  of  Roman  civilisation, 
and  make  it  an  easy  prey  to  the  barbarian.  The  Forum  awakens  memories  of 
quite  a  different  nature.  Abominations  were  practised  there,  too,  but  its  history 
as  a  whole  exhibits  it  as  the  true  centre  of  the  Bomau  world.  It  was  from  this 
spot  that  the  first  impetus  was  given  to  the  nations  of  the  West ;  it  was  here  that 


Fig.  100.— Born. 


the  ideas  imported  firom  every  quarter  of  ike  world  bore  fruit  The  walls, 
columns,  temples,  and  churches  which  surround  the  Forukn  relate  in  mute  lan- 
guage the  principal  events  in  the  history  of  Rome ;  and  if  we  search  beneaih 
existing  edifices  we  meet  with  structures  more  ancient,  which  take  us  back  to  a 
period  still  more  remote,  for  edifice  has  succeeded  edifice  on  this  spot,  where 
pulsated  the  life  of  the  Roman  people.  And  thus  it  is  throughout  Rome.  Every 
ancient  monument,  arcade,  or  broken  column,  every  stone,  bears  witness  1;o  some 


-*• 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBBB,  MABOHES.  AND  ABBUZZOS. 


m 


ferocity,  and 
•man  civiliaation, 
9ns  memories  of 
>,  but  its  history 
[t  was  from  this 
it  was  here  that 


fruit  The  walls, 
slate  in  mute  lan- 
we  search  beneath 
take  us  back  to  a 
1  this  spot,  where 
LOut  Rome.  Every 
irs  witness  to  some 


historical  event,  and  though  it  may  be  difficult  sometimes  to  interpret  these 
witnesses  of  the  past,  the  truth  is  elicited  by  degrees. 

In  spite  of  pillage  and  wholesale  destruction,  there  still  exist  numerous 
ancient  monuments,  of  which  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa  is  one  of  the  most 
marvellous.  The  Vandals,  who  are  usually  charged  with  the  work  of  destruction, 
pillaged  the  city,  it  is  true,  but  they  demolished  nothing.  The  systematical 
destruction  had  begun  long  before  their  time,  when  the  materials  for  building  the 
first  church  of  St.  Peter  were  taken  from  the  Circus  of  Oaligula,  and  from  other 
monuments  near  it.  The  same  plan  was  pursued  in  the  construction  of  innume- 
rable other  churches  and  buildings  of  every  kind.  Statues  were  broken  to  pieces 
and  used  for  making  lime,  and  in  the  be^nning  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  only 
remained  six  of  them  in  all  Rome,  five  of  marble  and  one  of  bronze.  The  invasion 
of  the  Normans  in  1084,  and  the  numerous  wars  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  were 
frequently  attended  by  pillage  and  conflagrations,  wrought  further  havoc,  but  so 
large  had  been  the  number  of  public  buildings  and  monuments,  that  on  the  revival 
of  art  in  the  sixteenth  oentury  many  still  remained  for  study  and  imitation.  Since 
that  time  the  architectural  collection  enclosed  by  the  walls  of  Rome  has  been 
guarded  with  the  utmost  care,  and  still  further  enriched  by  the  masterpieces  of 
Michael  Angelo,  Bramante,  and  others. 

On  the  Palatine  Hill  the  most  curious  remains  of  ancient  Rome,  including  the 
foundations  of  the  palaces  of  the  CsBsars  and  of  the  walls  of  Eoma  Quadrata,  have 
recently  been  laid  open.  It  was  on  this  hill,  so  rich  in  precious  ^relics,  that  the 
first  Romans  built  their  city,  in  order  to  afford  it  the  protection  of  steep  escarp- 
ments, and  of  the  marshes  on  the  Tiber  and  Yelabro.  When  Rome  grew  more 
populous  it  became  necessary  to  descend  from  this  hill.  The  town  spread  over 
the  valley  of  the  Yelabro,  which  had  been  drained  by  Tarquin  the  Etruscan,  and 
then  olinibed  up  the  surrounding  hills.  A  small  island  in  the  Tiber  occupied  its 
centre.  This  the  Romans  looked  upon  »&  a  sacred  spot.  They  enclosed  it  by  a 
nuwmry  embankment,  shaped  like  a  ship,  erected  an  obelisk  in  its  centre  to 
represent  a  mast,  and  a  temple  of  ^sculapius  upon  the- poop.  This  island  .was 
likened  to  a  vessel  bearing  the  fortunes  of  Rome. 

There  is  still  another  Rome,  the  subterranean  one,  which  is  well  worth  study, 
for  we  learn  more  from  it  about  early  Ohristianity  than  from  all  the  books  that 
have  been  written.  The  crynts  of  the  Christian  burying-plaoes  occupy  a  zone 
around  the  city  a  couple  of  miles  in  width,  and  embrace  about  fifty  distinct 
catacombs.  Signer  Rossi  estimates  the  length  of  these  subterranean  passages  at 
360  miles.  They  are  excavated  in  the  tufia,  and  are,  on  an  average,  a  yard  in  width, 
but  they  include  chambers  which  SOTved  as  oratories,  and  numerous  tiers  of  niches  for 
the  bodies.  The  inscriptions,  bas-reliefe,  and  paintings  of  these  cities  of  the  dead 
were  at  all  times  respected  by  thn  pagans,  and  fortunately  t>e  entrances  to  them 
were  dosed  up  at  the  time  the  Barbarians  invaded  Ro'  This  saved  their 

contents  from  destruction,  and  everything  was  found  intacv  when  they  were  first 
reopened  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  These  tombs  prove  that  the 
popular  belief  of  the  Christians  of  that  time  was  very  different  from  what  it  is 
20 


'.*S»W»*?KtWVH  H 


276 


ITALY. 


represented  to  have  been  bj  contemporaneous  writers,  who  belonged  to  a  different 
class  of  society  from  that  of  the  majority  of  the  faithful.  A  serene  gaiety  reigns 
throughout,  and  lugubrious  emblems  find  no  place  there.  We  neither  meet  with 
representations  of  martyrdoms  nor  with  skeletons  or  images  of  Death ;  even  the  cross, 
which  at  a  later  epoch  became  the  great  symbol  of  Christianity,  is  not  seen  there. 
The  most  common  symbols  met  with  are  those  of  the  Good  Shepherd  carrying  a 
lamb   upon  his  shoulders,  and   the  vine  decked  with  leaves.      In  the  oldest 

Fig.  101 — Tub  Hills  of  Romb. 


catacombs,  which  date  back  to  the  second  and  third  centuries,  the  figures  are 
Greek  in  character,  and  abound  in  heathen  subjects.  One  represents  the  Good 
Shepherd  surrounded  by  the  Three  Graces.  There  are  two  Jewish  catacombs, 
likewise  excavated  in  the  tufa,  and  they  enable  us  to  compare  the  religious  notions 
which  prevailed  at  that  time  amongst  the  followers  of  the  two  religions. 

By  an  absurd  predilection  for  mystical  numbers,  Rome  is  even  now  spoken  of 
as  the  "  City  of  the  Seven  Hills,"  although  it  lost  all  claim  to  such  a  designation 


THE  APENNINES.  TIBEB,  MABOHEd,  AND  ABBUZZOS. 


m 


iged  to  a  different 
rene  gaiety  reigtis 
neither  meet  with 
kth ;  even  the  croas, 
is  not  seen  there, 
epherd  carrying  a 
In   the  oldest 


w 


w 


rm- 


.<^jk\ 


V  ▼^■-  . 


32L 


WLxmM 


ies,  the  figures  are 
Bpresents  the  Good 

Jewish  catacombs, 
be  religious  notions 
religions. 
»Yen  now  spoken  of 

such  a  designation 


after  it  had  outgrown  the  walls  built  by  Servius  TuUius.  Independently  of 
Monte  Testaooio,  which  is  merely  a  heap  of  potsherds,  there  are  at  least  nine 
hills  within  the  walls  of  actual  Rome,  viz.  the  Aventino,  to  which  the  plebeians 
retired  during  their  feeble  struggles  for  independence ;  the  Palatino,  the  ancient 
scat  of  the  GsDsars ;  the  Capitolino,  surmounted  by  the  temple  of  Jupiter ;  Monte 
Celio  (Oselius) ;  the  E.squilino ;  Quirinale ;  Citorio ;  and  the  Pincio,  with  its 
public  gardens.  Besides  these,  there  ate  two  hills  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  viz.  Monte  Oianicolo  (Janioulum),  the  highest  of  all,  and  the  Vatican, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  Latin  word  taten,  a  soothsayer,  it  having  once  been 
the  seat  of  Etruscan  divination. 

Faithful  to  its  traditions,  the  last  hill  has  ever  since  remained  the  place  of 
vaticinations.    When  the  Christian  priests  left  the  obscurity  of  the  catacombs  they 
established  themselves  upon  it,  and  thence  they  governed  Homo  and  the  Western 
world.    The  Papal  palace,  abounding  in  treasures  of  art,  was  bui     upon  it,  and  close 
to  it  stands  the  resplendent  basilica,  of  St.  Peter,  the  centre  of  Catholic  Christen- 
dom.    A  long  aiT^de  connects  the  palace  with  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  the 
ancient  mausoleum  of  Hadrian.    The  guns  of  this  fortress  no  longer  defend  the 
Vatican,  for  the  temporal  power  of  the  pontiffs  is  a  thing  of  the  past ;  but  their 
sumptuous  church  of  St.  Peter,  with  its  dome  rising  high  into  the  air,  and  visible 
even  from  the  sea,  its  statues,  marbles,  and  mosaics,  bears  witness  to  the  fact  that 
the  riches  of  all  Christendom  formerly  found  their  way  to  Rome.    St.  Peter's  alone 
cost  nearly  £20,000,000   sterling,  and  is  ouly  'tne  out   of  the  366  churches 
of  the  city  of  the  popes.      At  the  same  time,  thn  admiration  which  their 
sumptuous  edifice  arouses  is  not  without  its  alloy.    A  multiplicity  of  ornaments 
dwarfs  the  proportions  of  this  colossal  building,  and,  more  serious  still,  instead  of 
its  being  the  embodiment  of  an  entire  epoch  of  its  faith  and  ideas,  it  is  repre- 
sentative only  of  a  transitory  phase  in  the  local  history  of  Catholicism,  of  an  age  of 
contradictions,  when  the  paganism  of  the  Rraiaissance  and  the  Christianity  of  the 
Middle  Ages  allied  themselves  in  order  to  give  birth  to  a  pompous  and  sensuous 
neo-Catholicism  suited  to  the  tastes  and  caprices  of  the  century.     How  different  is 
the  impression  we  derive  from  this  building  from  that  which  the  sombre  nave  of 
a  Gothic  cathedral  makes  upon  us  I    If;  is  a  remarkable  &ct  that  the  quarter 
of  Rome  in   which  the    ohuroh  of    St.   Peter    is    built  is  the  only  portion 
of  the  city  which  was  laid  waste  by  the  Mussulmans  in  846,  who  are  thus 
able    to    boast    of    having    sacked    Papal    Rome    and    taken    possession     of 
Jerusalem,  whilst  the  tomb  of  Mohammed  has  ever  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
faithful.    As  to  the  Jews,  they  did  not  come  to  Rome  as  conquerors.    Shut  up  in 
their  filthy  Ghetto  near  the  swampy  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  not  far  from  that 
arch  of  Titus  which  reminded  them  of  the  destruction  of  their  temple,  they  have 
been  the  objects  of  hatred  and  persecution  duriug  nineteen  centuries.     They  have 
survived,  thanks  to  the  power  of  their  gold,  and  since  their  liberation  from  bondage 
they  contribute  even  more  to  the  embellishmrait  of  the  Italian  capital  than  do 
their  Christian  fellow-citizens. 

Our  nineteenth  century  is  not  &vourable  to  the  creation  of  edifices  fit  to  rival 


gife^Mi^pggiisafeiBPWw*^"^*'*^^ 


,:^^mmi^imimii%iv 


MO  ITALT. 

the  Oolisenm  or  St.  Peter'*,  but  there  are  work*  of  another  nature,  not  Iors 
deserving  of  attention,  which  may  distinguiah  thia  third  era  in  the  history  of 
Rome.  Above  all,  it  will  be  neceaaary  to  protect  the  city  againat  the  floods 
of  the  Tiber,  and  to  improve  ita  aanitary  condition.  The  bed  of  the  river  will 
have  to  be  deepened,  embankmenta  oonatmcted,  and  a  ayatem  of  drainage 
eatabliahed. 

It  ia  well  known  that  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  to  the  Rome  of  tho 
ancienta  was  prodigioua.  In  the  time  of  Trajan  nine  grand  aqueducta,  having  a 
total  length  of  262  miloa,  aupplied  about  4,400  gallona  of  water  per  aeoond,  and 
thia  quantity  woa  -.ugmented  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth  by  canala  aubaequently 
oonatruoted.  Even  now,  although  moat  of  theae  '  cient  aqueducta  are  in 
niina,  the  water  aupply  of  the  capital  of  Italy  ia  aupenor  to  that  of  moat  other 
citiea.*  But  if  the  time  ahould  ever  come  when  Rome  will  occupy  the  whole  of 
the  apace  enoloaed  within  ita  walla,  if  ever  the  Forum  ahould  again  become  the 
centre  of  the  city,  then  the  want  of  water  will  be  felt  there  aa  much  as  in  moat  of 
the  other  great  towna  of  Europe. 

Irrespectively  of  the  inaalubrity  of  the  environa,  there  ia  another  reooon  why 
modem  Rome  cannot  compare  with  the  ancient  city.  Ita  atreeta  no  longer 
radiate  from  a  centre  towarda  all  the  pointa  of  the  oompeaa,  aa  they  did  of 
yore.  The  Appian  Road,  which  on  first  leaving  the  city  pasaes  through  a  curious 
avenue  of  tomba,  ia  typical  of  the  old  roada,  oonatruoted  in  atraight  linea,  and 
ahortening  diatancea.  It  ia  true  that  theae  ancient  highwaya  have  been  anper- 
aeded  by  railvaya,  but  they  are  still  few  in  number,  and  Rome  ia  not  rituated 
on  a  trunk  line.  Eleewhere  railwaya  were  built  from  the  capital  of  the  oonntry 
towarda  ita  periphery ;  in  Italy,  on  the  contrary,  it  waa  Florence,  Bologna,  and 
Naplea  which  oonatruoted  linea  converging  upon  Rome. 


Rome  ia  one  of  thoae  large  citiea  whioh  are  leaat  able  to  exiot  upon  their  own 
resources,  and  having  no  port,  and  ita  immediate  vicinity  being  rendered  unin- 
habitable by  miaamata,  it  haa  attached  to  it  outlying  places,  and  ocoupiea  a 
position  aimilar  to  that  of  a  apider  in  the  centre  of  its  web.  Ita  gardena,  ita  rural 
retreata,  and  ita  induatrial  eatabliahmenta  are  all  in  the  hill  towna  of  Tivoli ;  at 
Fraaoati  (near  whioh  are  the  ruins  of  TuacnInm) ;  at  Marino  (where  the  confederated 
nationa  of  Latium  held  their  meetinga) ;  at  Albano  (joined  by  a  magnificent  viaduct 
to  Ariccia) ;  at  Yelletri  (the  old  oity  of  the  Yolaoi) ;  at  Paleatrina  (more  ancient  than 
either  Alba  Longa  or  Rome,  and  occupjring  the  site  of  a  famoua  temple  of  Fortune, 
the  pride  of  ancient  Pneneste).  Its  watering-places  are  at  Palo,  Fiumicino,  and 
Porto  d'Anzio,  whioh  adjoina  the  little  town  of  Nettune,  so  famous  because  of  the 


*  Water  nipply  of  wnne  leading  oitiee  (in  gmnoni)  :— 


Borne  (1869)  . 
Furie(1876)  . 
London  (1874) 
Olaigow  (1874)     . 
WuUngton  (1870) 


FerDiy. 
41,«80,000 
78,100,000 
110,000,000 
32,482,500 
86,000,000 


FerlnlMUtaat. 
108 

44 

27-5 

62 
860 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBEB.  MABCHE8,  AND  ABBUZZOS. 


881 


nature,  not  long 
in  the  history  of 
gainat  the  floods 

of  the  river  will 
tem  of   drainage 

the  Rome  of  the 
ueducte,  having  a 
r  per  second,  and 
inals  subsequently 
iquedncts  are  in 
lat  of  most  other 
supy  the  whole  of 
again  become  the 
luch  as  in  most  of 

lother  reason  why 
streets  no  longer 
8,  as  they  did  of 
through  a  curious 
■traight  lines,  and 
havo  been  super- 
me  is  not  situated 
Ltal  of  the  country 
ence,  Bologna,  and 


list  upon  their  own 
ing  rendered  unin- 
B,  and  occupies  a 
s  gardens,  its  rural 
>wnsof  Tivoli;  at 
ire  the  confederated 
magnificent  viaduct 
.  (more  ancient  than 
I  temple  of  Fortune, 
alo,  Fiumioino,  and 
nous  because  of  the 


haughty  beauty  of  its  women.  Its  only  seaport  is  Oivita  Yecohia,  a  dreary  town 
on  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  with  a  magnificent  harbour.*  The  ancient  harbours  to  the 
south  of  the  Tiber  are  very  little  resorted  to  in  our  day.  Terraoina,  hiddnn  amidst 
verdure  at  the  foot  of  white  cliffs,  is  only  used  by  Rome-bound  travellers  coming  by 
the  coast  road  fVom  the  south,  t  Nearly  every  other  town  of  Latium  is  built  un 
one  or  other  of  the  two  great  roads,  of  which  one  leads  northward  to  Florence,  whilst 
the  other  penetrates  the  valley  of  the  Saooo  towards  theflouth-east,and  finally  issues 
upon  the  campagna  of  Naples.  Yiterbo,  the  "  city  of  nice  fountains  and  pretty 
girls,"  is  the  principal  town  in  the  north.     Alatri,  on  the  slope  of  the  Garigliano, 

Fig.  lOa.— CiTITA  ViCOHU. 
S«al*l:8JB8. 


iOnOFnt. 


and  commanded  by  a  superb  necropolis  enclosed  by  oydopean  walls,  occupies  a 
similar  position  in  the  south.  In  .the  east,  in  one  of  the  most  charming  valleys  of 
Sabina,  traversed  by  the  ever-cool  waters  of  the  Anio,  lies  Subiaco,  the  ancient 
Sublaquenm,  thus  named  after  the  three  reservoirs  constructed  by  Nero,  who  used 
to  fish  trout  in  them  with  a  golden  net.  It  was  in  a  holy  cave  {aaero  apeeu)  near 
Subiaco  that  St.  Bennet  established  his  famous  monastery,  which  preceded  the 
still  more  famous  monastery  of  Monte  Oasino,  and  conjointly  with  that  of  Lerins, 
in  Provence,  became  the  cradle  of  monaohiam  in  the  West.^ 

*  Value  of  exixnto  sod  importo,  1868,  iSl.S48,000;  1868,  »M,600. 

t  Tonnage  of  Tetaela  which  entered  and  cleared  at  me  p<nta  of  Latinm  in  l%Ti :— Oivita  Veoohia 
£20,000  (1875,  600,8C1) ;  Finmidno,  68,00(> ;  Porto  d'Amdo,  80,900;  Tarracina,  888,000  tone. 

t  Towna  of  Latium  (1871) :— Borne,  329,886  (1876,  264,280);  Yiterbo,  16,826;  Velletri,  14,798; 
Civita Veoohia,  10,484;  Feraotino,  8,360;  TiYoli,  7,780;  Frodnono,  7,714;  Snbiaoo,  6,900;  SoMa,  6,650; 
Alatri,  6,898  intaaUtaota. 


'  *'^^*'^f«^' 


2R'2 


ITALT. 


Perugia,  tho  capital  of  Umbria,  on  the  rood  from  Rome  to  Anoono,  ia  one  of  tliu 
ancient  cities  of  the  Etrusoana,  and  excavation*  carried  on  in  it«  vicinity  buvu 
revealed  tombs  of  thn  highest  interest.  After  every  war  and  disaster  this  city 
has  arisen  from  its  ruins,  for  its  position  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain,  and  at  the 
point  of  junction  of  several  natural  high-roads,  is  most  favourable.  It  is  both  a 
Roman  and  a  Tuscan  city,  and  at  the  period  »!  the  Renaissance  it  gave  birth  to 
one  of  the  groat  Nohools  of  painting.  There  still  remain  numerous  monuments  at 
Perugia  which  date  back  to  that  famous  epoch,  and  although  no  longer  one  of  tho 
artistic  head-quarters  of  Italy,  it  is  still  the  seat  of  a  university ;  its  trade,  espo- 
cially  in  raw  silk,  is  active ;  and  its  clean  houses  and  streets,  its  pure  atmosphere, 
und  charming  inhabitants  annually  attract  to  it  a  large  number  of  the  foreigners 
who  spend  the  winter  at  Rome.  Perugia  has  by  far  outstripped  its  rival,  Foligno, 
which  was  formerly  the  great  commercial  mart  of  Oentral  Italy,  and  still  oarrios 
on  a  few  branches  of  industry  ;  amongst  others,  the  tanning  of  leather.  As  to 
Assisi,  it  is  justly  famous  because  of  its  temple  of  Minerva,  and  its  gorgeous 
monasteries  decorated  with  the  frescoes  of  Oimabue  and  his  successor,  GKotto, 
the  last  of  the  Greek  and  the  first  of  the  Italian  painters.  Assisi  is  only  a  small 
place  now,  but  its  environs  are  fertile  and  densely  inhabited.  It  gave  birth  to 
Francesco  d' Assisi,  the  founder  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis. 

Other  towns  of  Umbria,  though  not  now  of  much  importance,  may  boast  of 
having  once  played  a  great  part  in  history,  or  of  possessing  beautiful  monuments. 
Spoleto,  the  gates  of  which  Hannibal  sought  in  vain  to  force,  has  a  superb  basilica, 
a  Roman  viaduct  carried  across  a  deep  ravine,  and  mountains  clad  with  pines  and 
chestnuts.  Terni  is  proud  of  its  famous  cascade  (see  p.  270).  Orvieto,  to  the 
north  of  the  Tiber,  near  the  frontier  of  Tuscany,  is  haughty  und  dirty,  but  justly 
famous  on  account  "^f  its  marvellous  cathedral,  one  of  the  most  costly  and  tasteful 
buildings  in  the  world.  Oitta  di  Oastello,  on  the  U<  per  Tiber,  and  Gubbio,  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  mountains,  are  the  two  principal  towns  in  the  Umbrian  Apen- 
nines. Both  are  delightfully  situated,  and  possess  efficacious  mineral  springs. 
At  Gubbio  are  shown  the  famous  "Engubion  Tables,"  seven  plates  of  bronze 
covered  with  Umbrian  characters,  and  tho  only  relics  of  that  kind  known  to  exist. 
The  little  town  of  Fratta,  now  known  as  Umbertide,  half-way  between  Perugia 
and  Citta  di  Castello,  is  only  of  local  importance.* 

Ancona  is  the  Adriatic  port  of  the  Roman  countries.  It  is  an  ancient  city  of 
the  Dorians,  which  still  retains  the  name  given  it  by  its  founders,  on  account  of  its 
being  situated  at  the  "  angle  "  formed  by  the  coast  between  the  Gulf  of  Venice 
and  the  Southern  Adriatic.  A  fine  triumphal  aroh  near  the  mole  attests  the 
importance  which  IVajan  attached  to  the  possession  of  this  port.  Thanks  to  its 
favourable  position  and  the  labour  bestowed  upon  the  improvement  of  its  harbour, 
Ancona  is  one  of  the  three  great  places  of  commerce  on  the  Adriatic ;  it  ranks  next 
to  Venice,  and  is  almost  the  equal  of  Brindisi,  though  not  one  of  the  stages  on  the 
road  to  India.     Its  commerce  is  fed  by  Rome,  the  Marches,  and  Lombardy ;  and 

•  Popniationof  the  piinoipal  towns  of  Umbria  (1871) :— Perugia,  16,708 ;  Rieti,  12,906 ;  Temi,  12,41'  i 
FoUisn>.  8,471 ;  Spoleto,  7.490;  Orvieto,  7.423 ;  Oitta  di  Ouatollo,  6.(88;  Asdai,  6,826.;  Qubbio,  6,848. 


'^T'^i"W*"SlWCW*WTOWW!rT 


TB£  APENNINES,  TIBEfi,  MARCHES,  AND  AUIIUZZOB. 


288 


)ona,  ii  one  of  tliu 

its  vicinity  buvu 

disuater  thii  city 

plain,  and  at  the 

ble.     It  is  both  a 

)e  it  gave  birth  tu 

>ua  monuments  at 

longer  one  of  the 

' ;  its  trade,  espu- 

pure  atmosphoro, 

of  the  foreignori) 

its  rival,  Foligno, 

,  and  still  oarrioa 

f  leather.     As  to 

and  its  gorgeous 

suooesBor,  GKotto, 

dsi  is  only  a  small 

It  gave  birth  to 

aoe,  may  boast  of 
utiful  monuments, 
a  superb  basilica, 
ad  with  pines  and 
Orvieto,  to  the 
d  dirty,  but  justly 
costly  and  tasteful 
md  Oubbio,  in  the 
he  Umbrian  Apen- 
}  mineral  springs. 
L  plates  of  bronze 
ad  known  to  exist. 
f  between  Perugia 

an  ancient  city  of 
'8,  on  account  of  its 
le  Gulf  of  Venice 
9  mole  attests  the 
rt.  Thanks  to  its 
nent  of  its  harbour, 
iatio;  it  ranks  next 
)f  the  stages  on  the 
id  Lombardy ;  and 

li,ri.906;T«mi,13,41*i 
6«S26;  aabbio.6,M3. 


amongst  its  exports  are  fruits,  oil,  asphalt  from  the  Abruisos,  sulphur  Arom  the 
Apennines,  and  silk,  "  the  very  bent  in  the  world,"  if  the  native  estimate  of  its  quality 
(un  be  accepted.*  The  other  ports  along  this  coast  offer  but  little  heltor,  and 
ibeir  commerce  is  small.  Pesaro,  the  native  town  of  Rossini,  is  only  visited  by 
vessels  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons.  Fasso  merely  admits  barges.  The  small  river  port 
of  Sinigaglia  (Senigallia)  was  formerly  much  frequented  during  the  fair,  at  which 
commodities  valued  at  £1,000,000  sterling  used  to  change  hands,  but  since  its 
abolition  in  1870  it  has  been  deserted. 

With  the  exception  of  Fabriano,  which   occupies  a   smiling  valley  of  the 

Fig.  lOa.— Vaixiti  ur  Ebmion  on  thi  Wmtimn  Hlom  or  tnb  ArBNiiiMst. 

Soo*  1 1 4aR,ooo. 


BMilM. 


Apennines,  and  of  Asooli-Pioeno,  ol  ;  river  Tronto,  the  inland  towns  of  the 
Marches  are  huilt  upon  the  summit  of  hills,  but  extend  through  their  suburbs  to 
the  cultivable  plains.  The  prinoipul  amongst  them  are  Urbino,  whose  greatest 
glory  consists  in  having  been  th  ^  birthplace  of  Raffael,  and  which,  like  its  neighbour 
Pesaro,  formerly  produced  a,  kind  of  faience  much  valued  by  connoisseurs ;  Jesi ; 
Osimo ;  Maxerata ;  Reoanati,  the  native  place  of  Leopardi ;  and  Fermo.  One  of  the 
most  famous  of  thase  hill  towns  is  Loreto,  formerly  the  most-frequented  place  of 
pilgrimage  in  the  Ohristian  world.    Before  the  Beformation,  and  at  a  time  when 

•  Tonnage  of  remU  which  entered  and  cleared  from  Anoona  in  the  ooaak  and  foriagn  trad*)  3<8,202 
tons  in  IMS,  872,877  ton*  in  1867,  7<1.689  tona  in  187». 


^i:.jj-UAato.}fci.^4M^iMsiMiiMa^^ 


tt4 


ITALY. 


travelling  was  far  more  difficult  than  now,  as  many  as  200,000  devotees  visited 
the  shrines  of  Loreto  every  year.  They  were  shown  there  the  veritable  house  in 
which  the  Virgin  Mary  was  bom,  and  which  was  carried  by  angels  to  the  spot  it 
now  occupies,  and  where  it  is  sheltered  by  a  magnificently  decorated  dome.  At 
Castelfidardo,' close  by,  was  fought  the  battle  which  cost  the  Pope  the  greater  part 
of  the  "  patrimony  of  St.  Peter." 

There  are  only  a  few  towns  in  the  uplands  of  the  Abruzzos.  The  principal  of 
these  is  Aquila,  founded  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
The  other  towns  are  diSoult  of  access,  and,  far  from  attracting  inhabitants  from 
beyond,  they  send  their  vigorous  sons  to  the  lowlands,  where  they  are  known  as 
Aquilani,  and  highly  appreciated  as  terrace  gardeners.  The  most  populous  places 
are  met  with  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Atemo,  or  command  the  road  leading  to 
the  coast  and  the  fertile  fields  of  the  Adriatic  slope.  Solmona  is  embedded  in  a 
huge  garden,  anciently  a  lake,  and  overlooked  in  the  south  by  the  steep  scarps  of 
Monte  Majella.  Popoli,  at  the  mouth  of  a  defile,  where  the  Atemo  assumes  the 
name  of  Pescara,  is  one  of  the  busiest  places  between  the  sea  and  the  uplands. 
Ghieti,  lower  down  on  the  same  river,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  town  in  the  old 
Neapolitan  province  to  introduce  steam  into  its  spinning-mills  and  other  fiictories. 
Teramo  and  Lanciano  are  likewise  places  of  some  importance,  but  the  only  ports 
along  the  coast,  Ortona  and  Yasto,  are  merely  frequented  by  small  coasting  vessels.* 

A  small  district  in  the  Marches,  joined  to  the  coast  by  a  single  road,  has 
maintained  its  independence  through  ages.  Monte  Titano,  which  rises  in  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  parts  of  the  Apennines,  and  the  base  of  which  has  been  used  as 
a  quarry  sittoe  time  immemorial,  bears  upon  its  simmiit  the  old  and  famous  city 
of  San  Marino.  From  its  turreted  walls  the  citizens  can  see  the  sun  rise  above 
the  Ulyrian  Alps.  San  Marino,  with  some  neighbouring  hamlets,  constitutes  a 
^'  most  illustrious "  republic,  and  is  now  the  only  independent  municipality  of 
Italy.  Named  after  a  Dalmatian  mason  who  lived  as  a  hermit  on  Monte  Titano, 
San  Marino  has  existed  as  a  sovereign  state  from  the  fourth  century,  its  citizens 
having  at  all  times  known  how  to  turn  to  advantage  the  jealousies  of  their  neigh- 
bours. The  constitution  of  this  republic,  however,  is  anything  but  demoorati& 
The  citizens,  even  though  they  be  landed  proprietors,  have  no  votes,  and  are  at 
most  permitted  to  remonstrate.  The  su  preme  pow«>  is  vested  in  a  Oounoil  of  sixty 
members,  composed  of  nobles,  citieens,  and  landowners.  The  title  of  councillor  is 
hereditary  in  the  family,  and  when  a  family  becomes  extinct  the  remaining  fifty- 
nine  choose  another.  The  Council  appoints  the  various  officials,  including  a  captain 
for  the  town  and  one  for  the  country.  San  Marino  has  its  little  army,  its  budget, 
and  its  monopolies.  A  portion  of  its  income  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  titles  end 
of  decorations,  and  on  the  payment  of  £1,400  it  has  even  created  dukes,  who  take 
rank  with  the  highest  nobility  of  th«)  kingdom.  Taxation  is  voluntary.  When 
the  public  chest  is  empty  a  drummer  is  sent  round  the  town  to  invite  oontribu- 

*  Towna  of  the  MardhM  h»ving  over  10,000  inhabitants :— Anoona,  3ft,lll ;  Jeri,  18,472 ;  Budgaglu, 
11,173;  AMsoli-Piceno,  11,878;  Fermo.  16,803;  llacemta,  11,194;  Fetaro,  13,376;  TTrUno,  10,1M. 

^fc-MCM  .—Lanciaiio,  1S,482 ;  Ohi«ti,  14,321 ;  AqnOa,  13,613 ;  CampobaHO,  18,846 ;  Sobnona,  13,683 ; 
Yasto,  10,098. 


ir 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBEB,  MABGHES,  AND  ABBUZZOS. 


285 


f  devotees  visited 
eritable  house  in 
sis  to  the  spot  it 
>rated  dome.  At 
e  the  greater  part 

The  principal  of 
3ror  Frederick  II. 

inhabitants  from 
hey  are  known  as 
st  populous  places 
B  road  leading  to 
is  embedded  in  a 
the  steep  scarps  of 
temo  assumes  the 
and  the  uplands, 
rst  town  in  the  old 
nd  other  fiiotories. 
but  the  only  ports 
1  coasting  vessels.* 
a  single  road,  has 
ch  rises  in  one  of 
L  has  been  used  as 
I  and  famous  city 

the  sun  rise  above 
alets,  constitutes  a 
it  mumcipality  of 

on  Monte  Titano, 
sntury,  its  citizens 
lies  of  their  neigh- 
g  but  demooratia 
>  votes,  and  are  at 
t  a  C)ouncil  of  sixty 
tie  of  counoilloir  is 
le  remaining  fifty- 
including  a  captain 
e  army,  its  budget, 
le  sale  of  titles  &nd 
ed  dukes,  who  take 
voluntary.  When 
to  invite  oontribu- 

Jeri,  18,472;  Binigsglia, 
rs ;  T7rt>iiio,  10,184. 
,8,846;  SoImoB%lM88; 


tions.  Though  perfectly  independent,  this  republic  accepts  a  subsidy  from  Italy, 
and  claims  the  special  protection  of  the  King.  Its  criminals  are  shut  up  in  an 
Italian  prison,  its  public  documents  are  printed  in  Italy,  and  an  Italian  judge 
occupies  the  bench  of  the  republican  prsetorium.     There  is  no  printing-office  in  the 


Fig.  104. — BmiNi  and  San  Habino. 
Suae  1  :  150,000. 


■sifaM. 


little  state,  for  the  Council  is  afraid  that  books  objectionable  to  the  surrounding 
kingdom  might  be  issued  from  it.* 

*  Ana  of  San  Huhio,  34  iquara  miles;  population  (1874),  7,816. 


m 


fciagni.t  .-j.!.-'"<ji 


m 


886 


ITALY. 


VI. — SouTHERir  Italt,  Naplbr 

Amokgst  the  yarious  states  which  have  been  welded  into  the  modem  kingdom  of 
Italy,  NapleSr  though  second  to  others  in  population  and  industry,  occupies  the 
largest  area.*  It  embraces  the  whole  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  and  its  coast 
has  a  development  of  995  miles.  Formerly  the  country  was  better  known  than 
any  other  portion  of  Italy  as  Greater  Greece,  but  now  many  parts  of  it  ate 
scarcely  known  at  all. 

The  Apennines  of  Naples  can  hardly  be*  described  as  a  mountain  chain.  They 
consist  rather  of  distinct  mountain  groups  joined  by  transverse  ranges,  or  by 
elevated  saddles.  In  the  first  of  these  groups  the  serrated  crest  of  the  Meta 
(7,364  feet)  rises  above  the  zone  of  trees,  and  is  separated  from  the  Abruzzos  hy 
the  deep  vaUey  of  the  Sangro,  which  flows  to  the  Adriatic.  Farther  to  the  south, 
beyond  the  valley  of  Isemia,  which  gives  birth  to  the  Yoltumo,  rise  the  mountains  of 
the  Matese,  culminating  in  the  Miletto  (6,717  feet),  the  last  bulwark  of  the  Samnites. 
Other  summits,  less  elevated,  but  equally  steep  and  imposing,  rise  near  Benevento 
and  Avellina.  They  aboimd  in  savage  defiles,  in  which  many  a  bloody  battle  has 
been  fought.  The  valley  of  the  "  FurosB  Caudinee,"  where  the  Romans  humbled 
themselves  before  the  Samnites,  and  made  promises  which  they  never  meant  to 
keep,  may  still  be  recognised  on  the  road  from  Naples  to  Benevento.  The  memory 
of  this  event  lives  in  the  Oaudarola  Boad,  and  the  village  of  Forchia  d' Arpaia.  This 
mountain  region,  which  might  fitly  be  called  after  its  ancient  inhabitants,  is  con- 
nected in  the  south  with  a  transveraal  chain,  running  east  and  west,  and  termi- 
nating in  Oape  Campandlo,  to  the  south  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  The  beautiful 
island  of  Capri,  with  its  white  olifis  and  caverns  flooded  by  the  azure  water  i  of 
the  Mediterranean,  lies  off  this  cape. 

The  eastern  slope  of  the  cretaceous  mountains  of  Naples  is  gentle,  and  gradually 
merges  in  argillous  tacoglieri,  or  table-lands,  deposited  during  the  Pliocene 
epoch.  The  tavogliere  de  la  Pugiia  is,  perhaps,  the  most  sterile  and  dreary 
portion  of  Italy.  It  is  cut  up  into  terraces  by  deep  ravines,  through  which 
insignificant  streams  find  their  way  to  the  Adriatic,  and  the  centres  of  population 
must  be  looked  for  at  the  mouths  of  valleys  or  along  the  high-roads.  The  country 
itself  is  a  vast  solitude,  deserted  by  all  except  nomad  herdsmen^  There  are  no 
shrubs,  and  a  kind  of  fennel,  which  forms  the  hedges  separating  the  pasturing 
grounds,  is  the  largest  plant  tc  be  seen.  Hovels,  resembling  tombs  or  hei^  of 
stone,  rise  ^  ;re  and  there  in  the  midst  of  these  pb'jns.  Fortunately  the  old  feudal 
customs  which  prevented  the  cultivation  of  theiie  puins,  and  compelled  the  moun- 
taineers to  keep  open  wide  paths,  or  iratturi,  tiirough  their  fields  for  the  passage 
of  sheep,  have  been  abolished,  and  the  aspect  of  the  tavogliere  improves  from  year 
to  year. 

These  tavoglieri  completely  separate  the  mountains  of  the  peninsula  of  Gargano 
— the  "  spur "  of  the  Italian  "  boot  " — from  the  system  of  the  Apennines.    The 
northern  slopes  of  these  rug^;ed  mountains  are  still  clad  with  forests  of  beeches 
*  Ares,  axolnaive  of  th*  AbriuuM,  38,002  iquare  miles ;  population,  6,251,7A0. 


80UTHEBN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


287 


todem  kingdom  of 
istry,  occupies  the 
Dsula,  and  its  coast 
letter  known  than 
vy  parts  of  it  ate 

tain  obain.  Tbey 
jrso  ranges,  or  by 
crest  of  the  Meta 
I  the  Abruzzos  by 
irther  to  the  south, 
Lse  the  mountains  of 
irk  of  the  Stamnites. 
ise  near  Benevento 
I  bloody  battle  has 
)  Romans  humbled 
ey  never  meant  to 
rento.  The  memory 
lia  d'Arpaia.  This 
inhabitants,  is  con- 
id  west,  and  termi- 
tes. The  beautiful 
the  azure  water  i  of 

«ntle,  and  gradually 
iring  the  Pliocene 
sterile  and  dreary 
les,  through  which 
ntres  of  population 
roads.  The  country 
len.  There  are  no 
ating  the  pasturing 
'  tombs  or  heiqw  of 
lately  the  old  feudal 
[impelled  the  moun- 
elds  for  the  passage 
improves  from  year 

leninsula  of  Gargano 
he  Apennines.  The 
h  forests  of  beeches 

in,  «,2A1,7S0. 


and  pines,  which  supply  the  best  pitch  of  Italy,  and  by  thickets  of  carob-trees  and 
other  plants,  whose  flowers  are  transformed  by  the  bees  into  delicious  honey  ;  but 
the  very  name  of  the  most  elevated  summit — Monte  Oalvo  (5,150  feet),  or  "  bald 
mountain  " — proves  that  the  deplorable  destruction  of  forests  has  been  going  on 
here  as  in  the  rest  of  the  peninsula.  In  former  times  the  recesses  of  Monte 
Gargano  wer-:  Lcld  by  Saracen  pirates,  and  they  defied  the  Christians  there  for  a 
long  time,  iu  ^-pue  of  the  many  sanctuaries  which  had  been  substituted  for  the 
ancient  heathen  temples.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  the  church  on  Monte 
Sant'  Angelo,  at  the  back  of  Manfredonia,  which  was  frequently  resorted  to  by  the 
navigator  about  to  leave  the  shelter  of  the  bay  for  the  dangerous  coasts  of  Dalmatia 
or  the  open  sea. 

Fig.  lOA. — HoMTB  Oaboaho. 


iyg./t£fc 


lOMflM. 


The  Neapolitan  Apennines  terminate  in  the  south  with  tbe  ancient  volcano  of 
Monte  Tultur  (4,356  feet).  Farther  south  the  country  gradually  sinks  down 
into  a  table-land  intersected  by  deep  ravines,  which  discharge  their  waters  in  three 
directions — towards  the  Bay  of  Salerno,  the  Bay  of  Taranto,  and  the  Adriatic. 
The  Apennines,  far  fkt>m  bifurcating,  as  shown  on  old  maps,  are  cut  in  two  by 
the  low  saddle  of  Potenza,  and  on  the  peninsula  forming  the  "  heel "  of  Italy  only 
low  ridges  and  terraces  are  met  with. 

The  peninsula  of  Oalabria,  however,  is  rugged  and  mountainous.  The  Apen- 
nines, near  Lagonegro,  again  rise  above  the  zone  of  forests.  Monte  Polino 
(7,656  feet)  is  the  highest  summit  in  Naples.    The  group  of  which  it  forms  the 


W^Uw«.iliia»Ul»yttJiaillllMJ.^>JM"^?^w:'' ''-'■■»■■  -j^tl-IMWJ^iJiBlk.Wi.f-JiitMJi.u'iMAlllV'SMIWi^ 


•itmmflitt 


288 


ITALY. 


centre  occupies  the  entire  width  of  the  peninsula,  and  along  its  western  coast  it 
forms  a  wall  of  cliffs  even  less  accessible  than  those  of  Liguria.  Towards 
the  south  it  opens  out  into  wooded  valleys,  where  the  inhabitants  collect  manna, 
an  esteemed  medicinal  drug.  The  deep  valley  of  the  Grati  separates  these 
mountains  from  the  Sila  (5,863  feet),  which  is  composed  of  granites  and  schists, 
and  still  retains  its  ancient  forests,  haunted  by  brigands.  The  shepherds  who 
pasture  their  flocks  in  tLe  clearings  of  these  woods  are  said  to  be  the  descendants 
of  the  Saracens,  who  formerly  occupied  this  "  Country  of  Rosin,"  by  which  name 
it  was  known  to  the  Greeks. 

To  the  south  of  the  isolated  Sila  the  peninsula  narrows  to  a  neck  of  small 
elevation,  where  raised  beaches  attest  the  successive  retreats  of  the  sea.  A 
third  mountain  mass,  of  crystalline  formation,  rises  to  the  south  of  this  depres- 
sion, its  furrowed  slopes  clad  in  forests.  This  is  the  Aspromonte  (6,263  feet),  or 
"  rugged  mountain."  One  of  its  spurs  forms  the  palm>clad  promontory  of  Sparti- 
vento,  or  "  parting  of  the  winds." 

Naples,  like  Latium,  has  its  volcanic  mountains,  which  form  two  irregular  ranges, 
one  on  the  continent,  the  other  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  and  are,  perhaps,  connected 
beneath  the  sea  with  the  volcanic  mountains  of  the  Lipario  Islands  and  Mount 
Etna.  One  of  these  is  Mount  Yesuvius,  the  most  famous  volcano  of  the  world,  not 
because  of  its  height  or  the  terror  of  its  eruptions,  but  because  its  history  is  that 
of  an  entire  population  who  have  made  its  lavas  their  home. 

Scarcely  have  we  left  the  d'^file  of  Oaeta  and  entered  upon  the  paradisiacal 
Tfrra  di  Lavoro  than  we  cc  "  ^.fon  the  first  volcano,  the  Rocca  Monfina  (3,300 
feet),  which  rises  between  two  calcareous  mountains,  one  of  which  is  the  Massico, 
whose  wines  have  been  sung  by  Horace.  No  eruption  of  this  volcano  is  on 
record,  and  a  village  now  occupies  its  shattered  crater.  To  judge  from  the 
streams  of  lava  which  surround  its  trachytic  cone,  its  eruptions  must  have 
been  formidable.  The  entire  Campania  is  covered  to  an  unascertained  depth 
with  ashes  ejected  from  it,  and  the  marine  shells  found  in  them  prove  that  the 
whole  of  this  regpion  must  have  been  upheaved  at  a  comparatively  recent 
epoch. 

The  hills  which  rise  to  the  south  of  the  Campania  cannot  boast  of  the  grandeur 
of  the  Rocca  Monfina,  but  they  have  been  looked  upon  from  the  most  remote 
times  as  one  of  the  great  curiosities  of  our  earth.  Standing  upon  the  com- 
manding height  of  the  Camaldoli  (518  feet),  the  Fhlegrean  Fields  lie  at  our 
feet.  Acquainted  as  we  now  are  with  the  far  more  formidable  volcanoes  of  Java 
and  the  Andes,  this  verdant  sea-bound  country  may  not  strike  us  as  a  region  of 
horrors.  But  our  Greco- Roman  pn  'ecessors  looked  upon  it  with  very  different 
eyes,  and  being  unable  to  account  for  the  phenomena  they  witnessed,  they 
ascribed  them  to  the  gods.  The  quaking  soil,  the  flames  bursting  forth  firom 
hidden  furnaces,  the  gaping  funnels  communicating  with  unexplored  caverns,  lakes 
which  disappeared  at  irregular  intervals,  and  others  exhaling  deadly  gases — all 
these  things  left  their  impress  upon  ancient  mythology  and  poetry.  At  the  time 
of  Strabo  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Raise  had  become  the  favourite  reeort  of 


■•m 


■'.'.'(,."!i!w»a» 


^^W-^^'m^^:::MP?^:'tm^^&sk.M^im 


^^i^M^M^mSKKSSSS^ 


mt  I  .miiiiiiiiiiiw  iiiji|iiiiiJHI»'  iw'.;  "^  ■  I" 1 .1 II  "II '.f :i"rS^BP?S 


tB  western  coast  it 
liiguria.  Towards 
mts  collect  manna, 
iti  separates  these 
'anites  and  scliists, 
'he  shepherds  who 
he  the  descendants 
by  which  name 

to  a  neck  of  small 
ts  of  the  sea.  A 
uth  of  this  depres- 
>nte  (6,263  feet),  or 
>montory  of  Sparti- 

wo  irregular  ranges, 
perhaps,  connected 
[slands  and  Mount 
10  of  the  world,  not 
B  its  history  is  that 

ion  the  paradisiacal 
Ksca  Monfina  (3,300 
hich  is  the  Massico, 
this  volcano  is  on 
ro  judge  from  the 
uptions  must  have 
unascertained  depth 
ihem  prove  that  the 
omparatively  recent 

toast  of  the  grandeur 
>m  the  most  remote 
ing  upon  the  com- 
{a  Fields  lie  at  our 
ble  volcanoes  of  Java 
ike  us  as  a  region  of 
t  with  very  different 
hey  witnessed,  they 
bursting  forth  from 
cplored  caverns,  lakes 
ag  deadly  gases — all 
poetry.     At  the  time 
e  favourite  resort  of 


"■    im'immmmm'mi^mmiifmmmmmmmrmmm'mmm^i'i^m'fmr- 


-r 


80UTHEBN  ITALY.  NAPLES.  IM 

voluptoaries,  and  ■umptuou*  villas  roae  upon  every  promontorj ;  but  the  terrori 
inspired  by  hidden  flames  and  mysterious  caverns  had  not  yet  departed.  A 
dreaded  oracle  was  said  to  have  iti  nni  there,  guarded  by  Cimmrrians,  to  whom 
strangers  desirous  of  consulting  tho  gods  had  to  apply.  These  troglodytse  were 
doomed  never  to  behold  the  sun,  and  only  quitted  their  caverns  during  the  night. 

Fig.  106.— Tri  Aihis  or  thi  Campania. 
Aooordlnf  to  Car  Va|t.    Bode  1 :  8Hk,400. 


tCmpri 


IBBl 


CZH^JmL? 


SSSlTiwibytM 
10 


The  Phlegrean  Fields  were  likewise  supposed  to  have  been  the  battle-ground  of 
giants  struggling  for  the  possession  of  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Oampania.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  Fozzuoli  was  looked  upon  as  the  spot  from  which  Christ  descended 
into  helL 

The  number  of  craters  still  distinguishable  is  twenty.     If  we  were  to  suppose 


m 


ITALY. 


the  jountry  to  be  deprived  of  its  vegetation,  its  aspect  would  resemble  that  of  thn 
surface  of  the  moon.  Even  the  city  of  Naples  occupies  an  ancient  crater,  tho 
contours  of  which  have  become  almost  obliterated.  To  the  went  of  it  several  old 
craters  can  still  be  traced,  one  of  them  occupying  a  promontory  of  tufa,  surmounted 
by  what  is  called  the  tomb  of  Virgil.  Passing  through  the  famous  grotto  of 
Posilipo,  we  find  ourselves  in  the  Phlegrean  Fields.  On  our  left  rises  the  small 
conical  island  of  Nisita,  its  ancient  crater  invaded  by  the  sea.  Farther  on  wo 
reach  the  crater  known  as  the  Solfatara,  the  Forum  Vuloani  of  the  ancients.  Its 
last  eruption  took  place  in  1198,  but  it  still  exhales  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  '''he 
Park  of  Astroni  lies  to  the  north.  The  interior  slope  of  its  enclosing  wall  is  exceed- 
ingly steep,  so  as  to  render  impossible  the  escape  of  the  deer  and  boars  which 
are  kept  within.  The  only  access  is  through  an  artificial  breach.  Another  crater, 
less  regular  in  shape,  is  now  filled  with  the  bubbling  waters  of  the  Lake  of 
Ag^ano.  Near  it  is  the  famous  Qrotto  of  Dogs,  with  its  spring  of  carbonic  acid. 
Other  springs  of  gas  and  sulphurous  water  rise  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  to 
them  Pozzuoli  is  indebted  for  its  name,  which  is  >aid  to  mean  the  "  town  of 
stinkfl."  The  town,  in  turn,  has  given  its  name  to  the  earth  known  as  pozzuolana, 
which  supplies  an  excellent  material  for  the  manufacture  of  cement. 

The  coast  of  Pozzuoli  has  undergone  repeated  upheavals  and  subsidences,  in 
proof  of  which  the  three  columns  of  the  temple  of  Serapis  are  usually  referred  to. 
At  a  time  anterior  to  the  Romans  this  temple,  together  with  the  beach  upon  which 
it  stands,  sank  beneath  the  waters  of  the  sea,  and  its  columns  must  have  been  exposed 
to  their  action  for  many  years,  perhap<«  centuries,  for  up  to  a  height  of  twenty 
feet  they  are  covered  with  tubes  of  serpulsB,  and  perforated  by  innumerable  holes 
bored  by  pholadidse.  In  the  course  of  time  it  rose  again  slowly  above  the  waters. 
This  happened,  perhaps,  in  1538,  when  the  Monte  Nuovo  sprang  into  existence.  In 
the  short  period  of  four  days  this  new  volcano,  490  feet  in  height,  rose  above  the 
surrounding  plain,  and  buried  the  village  of  Tripergola  beneath  its  ashes.  A  beach 
now  known  as  La  Starza  was  formed  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  and  two  sheets  of 
water  to  the  west  of  Monte  Nuovo  were  out  off  from  the  sea.  One  of  these,  the  Lago 
Lucrino,  is  famous  for  its  oysters ;  the  other  is  the  Lago  d'Avemo,  which  Yirgil,  in 
conformity  with  antique  legends,  described  as  the  entrance  to  the  infernal  regions. 
It  occupies  an  ancient  crater,  and  its  pellucid  waters  abound  in  fish.  There  are  no 
exhalations  of  poisonous  gases  now,  and  birds  fly  over  the  lake  with  impunity.  Still 
its  vicinity  is  haunted  by  the  memories  of  the  old  pagan  mythology.  Lake  Fusaro 
is  referred  to  by  the  ciceroni  as  the  Acheron ;  close  to  it  they  point  out  the  den  of 
Cerberus ;  the  sluggish  stream  of  Acqua  Morta  has  been  identified  with  the  Cocytus ; 
Lake  Lucrino,  or  rather  a  spring  near  it,  with  the  Styx ;  and  the  remains  of  a  sub- 
terranean passage  which  connected  the  Averno  with  the  sea  are  pointed  out  as  the 
whilom  grotto  of  the  Sibyl.  The  inhabitants  of  Ounue,  which  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Chalcis,  and  the  ruins  of  which  still  exist  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
to  the  east  of  Pozzuoli,  brought  with  them  the  myths  of  Hellas,  and  Grecian  poetry, 
which  took  possession  of  them,  has  kept  their  memory  alive. 

It  is  quite  proper  that  this  region  of  Tartarus  should  have  its  contrast  in  Elysian 


;' '.v.'m" 


-'fesMMM.- 


.fe.^a&w.ajgiy.,j,. 


w 


■enible  that  of  thn 
inoient  crater,  tbtj 
it  of  it  several  old 
f  tufa,  turmounted 

famous  grotto  of 
,efb  rises  the  small 
L    Farther  on  wo 

the  ancients.  Its 
id  hydrogen,  '''he 
ing  wall  is  exceed- 
■  and  boars  which 
1.  Another  crater, 
ri  of  the  Lake  of 
g  of  carbonic  acid, 
ibourhood,  and  to 
ean  the  "  town  of 
own  as  pozzuolana, 
lent. 

uid  subsidences,  in 
usually  referred  to. 

beach  upon  which 
ihave  been  exposed 

height  of  twenty 

innumerable  holes 
f  above  the  waters, 
into  existence.  In 
^ht,  rose  above  the 
its  ashes.     A  beach 

and  two  sheets  of 
e  of  these,  the  Lago 
10,  which  Virgil,  in 
lie  infernal  regions. 
Ssh.  There  are  no 
ith  impunity.  Still 
logy.  Lake  Fusaro 
)oint  out  the  den  of 
d  with  the  Gocytus ; 
le  remains  of  a  sub- 
i  pointed  out  as  the 
1  was  founded  by  a 
[editerranean  coast, 
ind  Grecian  poetry, 

contrast  in  Elysian 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 

Fields,  and  this  name  has  actually  been  bestowed  upon  a  portion  of  the  peninsula 
of  BaisD,  wl^ioh  formed  the  chief  attraction  of  the  voluptuous  Romans,  and  where 
Mariufl,  Pompey,  CoDsar,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Agrippina,  Noro,  and 
others  bad  their  palaces.  Many  a  fearful  tragedy  has  been  anacted  in  these 
sumptuous  buildings.  But  hardly  a  trace  of  them  exists  now  ;  nature  has 
resumed  possession  of  the  country,  and  the  hills  of  tufa  and  volcanoes  are  the 
only  curiosities  of  the  peninsula.  Cupe  Miseno  is  one  of  these  old  volcanoes,  and 
from  its  summit  may  be  enjoyed  one  of  the  most  delightful  prospects  in  the  world. 
The  whole  of  the  Bay  of  Naples — "a  bit  of  heaven  fallen  upon  r,ur  earth  "—lies 
spread  out  beneath  us,  and  Isohia  the  joyous,  formidable  Cupri,  the  promontory  of 
Sorrento,  Mount  Vesuvius,  and  the  houses  and  villas  of  Naples  fill  up  the  space 
bounded  by  the  sea  and  the  distant  Apennines. 

The  island  of  Procida  joins  the  Phlegrean  Fields  to  the  chain  of  island  volcanoes 
lying  off  the  Bay  of  Qaeta.  Ischia  is  the  most  important  of  these,  and  its  volcano, 
the  Epomeo  (2,520  feet),  almost  rivals  Mount  Vesuvius  in  height.  One  of  its 
most  formidable  eruptions  occurred  in  1302,  at  a  time  when  Mount  Vesuvius 
was  quiescent,  but  after  the  latter  resumed  its  activity  Isohia  remained  in 
repose.  Similarly,  when  the  Monte  Nuovo  was  ejected  from  the  earth,  the  huge 
volcano  went  to  sleep  for  no  less  a  period  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  years. 
Isohia  Las  known  no  eruption  for  five  centuries  and  a  half,  and  the  gases  escaping 
from  its  thirty  or  forty  hot  springs  are  now  the  only  signs  of  volcanic  activity. 

Isohia  has  certainly  been  upheaved  during  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  for 
its  traohytic  lavas  re8t  in  many  places  upon  clays  and  marls  containing  marine 
shells  of  living  Mediterranean  species.  Some  of  these  have  beep  found  at  a  height 
of  nearly  2,000  feet.  At  the  present  time  the  tufa  rocks  of  Ischia,  and  of  the  other 
volcanic  islands  to  the  west  of  it,  are  being  washed  away  by  the  sea.  Ventotene, 
the  ancient  Pandaturia,  to  which  the  Roman  princesses  were  exiled,  is  hardly 
more  now  than  a  heap  of  scorisD.  Ponza,  likewise  a  place  of  exile  of  the  Romans, 
has  been  separated  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  sea  into  a  number  of  smaller 
islands.  Its  lavas  overlie  Jurassic  rooks,  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  of  Monte 
Giroello  on  the  coast  nearest  to  it. 

Mount  Vesusius  (4,100  feat),  the  pride  and  dread  of  the  Neapolitans,  was  like- 
wise an  island  during  prehistoric  times.  The  marine  shells  found  in  the  tufa  of 
Monte  Somma  prove  this,  and  on  the  east  the  volcano  is  still  surrounded  by  plains 
but  little  elevated  above  the  sea.  Formerly  the  mountain  was  covered  with 
verdure  to  its  very  summit,  but  an  immense  explosion  shattered  its  cone,  and  the 
ashes  thrown  up  into  the  air  shrouded  the  whole  of  the  country  in  darkness. 
Even  at  Rome  the  sun  was  hidden,  and  an  age  of  darkness  was  believed  to  have 
set  in.  When  at  length  the  light  reappeared,  the  face  of  the  country  was  found 
to  have  undergone  a  marvellous  change.  The  mountain  had  lost  its  shape,  the 
fertile  fields  were  hidden  by  masses  of  debris,  and  entire  towns  had  been  buried 
beneath  ashes. 

Since  that  terrible  event  Mount  Vesuvius  has  vomited  lavas  and  ashes  on  many 
oocasionB.     No  periodicity  has  been  traced  in  these  outbursts,  and  the  intervals 


f.'i^^S^KI^^ist^". 


M, 


292 


iTATiY. 


of  ropoM  woro  generally  of  suffioient  duration  to  enable  Tegetation  to  retume  ita 
■way.  But  these  eruptions  hav(«  become  more  iVequent  since  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  hardly  a  decode  passes  by  without  one  or  more  if  them.  Each  of  them 
modifies  the  contours  of  the  mountain,  whose  grea^  <'.>  't>*:  vent  has  undergone 
many  changes.  The  orescent-shaped  mass  of  debrib  -'.'r}-  '  -rrrundn  the  old 
crater,  known  as  the  Atrio  del  Cavallo,  waa  undou  ;wdly  of  loftier  height 
previously  to  the  great  outburst  of  79  than  it  is  now.  The  vioinitj  of  Naples  has 
facilitated  u  study  of  the  phenomena  attending  volcanic  eruptions,  and  an 
observatory,  permanently  occupied,  has  been  built  close  to  the  cone  of  eruption. 

The  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  like  that  of  all  other  volcanoes,  abounds 
in  hot  and  gas  springs,  but  there  are  no  subsidiary  craters.     The  nearest  volcano 

Fig.  107 — EHumoN  or  Hovnt  Visutivs,  Arsii.  30t«,  I87S. 


'                                                             ,      ■                14. 

■ 

^5: 

W^ 

~ 

-■**?S|aa!«?  .  '  . 

i>^  ,.  -^fc^* 

1 
1 

is  Monte  Yultur  (4,356  feet),  a  regular  cone  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  peninsula. 
Its  dimensions  are  larger  than  those  of  Vesuvius,  but  no  eruptions  are  on  record, 
though  a  slight  escape  of  carbonic  acid  is  still  going  on  from  the  two  lakes  which 
occupy  the  bottom  of  its  yast  crater.  On  a  line  connecting  Ischia,  Vesuvius,  and 
Monte  VuUur,  and  about  half-way  between  the  two  latter,  we  meet  with  the  most 
abundant  carbonic  acid  spring  of  Italy.  The  gas  escapes  with  a  hissing  noise 
from  the  pond  of  Ansanto,  and  the  ground  around  the  spring  is  covered  with  the 
remains  of  insects,  killed  in  myriads  on  coming  within  the  influence  of  the 
poisonous  air.  Near  it  the  Romans  erected  a  temple  in  honour  of  Juno  the 
Hephitio. 

The  disastera  resulting  firom  yoloanio  eruptions  are  great,  no  doubt,  but  they 


■  ...u-iiJ.jiL-;.u... 


^^m^mm 


80UTHEBN  ITAI.T,  NAPLES. 


n  to  retume  its 
the  •Aventeenth 
.    Each  of  them 

has  undergone 
r  unrln  the   old 

loftier  hoight 
:j  of  Naplea  hoa 
ptions,  and    an 
e  of  emption. 
loanoee,  abounds 

neareat  volcano 


of  the  peninrala. 
as  are  on  record, 

two  lakea  which 
ia,  YeauyiuB,  and 
Bet  with  the  moat 
I  a  hiaaing  noise 

covered  with  the 
influence  of  the 
our  of  Julio  the 

» doubt,  but  they 


are  exceeded  by  thoae  caused  by  earthquakea.  Some  of  thflno  are  unquestion- 
ably caused  by  a  aubterranean  displacement  of  lava,  and  thus,  when  Vesuviua 
begins  to  stir,  Torre  del  Oreco  and  other  towns  u'  ts  foot  incur  the  risk 
of  being  buried  beneath  aahea  or  deatroyed  by  earthquakes.  But  the  Busili> 
oata  and  Calabria — that  is  to  say,  the  two  provinces  lying  between  the  vol- 
oanic  foci  of  Vesuviua  and  Etna — have  many  times  been  shaken  by  earthquakea 
whose  origin  cannot  be  traced  to  volcanic  agenoiea.  Out  of  a  thouHand  earth* 
quakea  recorded  in  Southern  Italy  during  the  last  three  centuries,  nearly  all 
occurred  in  the  provinces  named,  and  they  were  occasionally  attended  by  the  most 
disastrous  results.  The  earthquake  of  1857  cost  the  Hvcm  of  10,000  persons  at 
Potenca  and  its  vicinity,  but  the  moat  diaastrous  of  these  events  happened  in  1785 
in  Southern  Calabria.  The  first  shook,  which  proceeded  from  a  focus  beneath  th« 
town  of  Oppido,  in  the  Aspromonte  Mountains,  only  lasted  a  hundred  seconds,  but 
within  that  short  apace  of  time  109  towns  and  villages  were  overthrown,  and 
32,000  of  their  inhabitanta  buried  beneath  their  ruins.  Crevasses  opened  in  the 
ground  ;  rivers  were  awallowed  up,  to  reappear  again  lower  down  as  lakes  ;  liquid 
clay  flowed  down  the  hill-slopes  like  lava,  converting  fertile  fields  into  unproductive 
wastes.  The  commotion  of  the  sea  added  to  these  horrors.  Many  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Scilla,  aAraid  to  remain  on  the  quaking  land,  fled  to  their  boats,  when  on 
enormous  mass  of  rook  detached  itself  f^m  a  neighbouring  mountain,  and, 
tumbling  into  the  sea,  produced  a  wave  which  upset  the  boats  and  cast  their 
fragments  upon  the  shore.  Want  of  food  brought  on  famine,  and  typhus,  as 
usual,  came  in  its  train. 

We  are  not  yet  able  to  predict  earthquakes,  and  can  only  pro/ide  against  them 
by  a  suitable  construction  of  our  dwellings.  There  exists,  however,  another  cause 
of  misery  and  depopulation  which  the  Neapolitans  might  successfully  combat, 
as  was  done  by  their  ancestors.  In  the  time  of  the  Greeks  the  swamps  along 
the  coast  were  certainly  less  extensive  than  they  are  now.  War,  and  a  return 
towards  barbarism,  have  caused  the  rivers  to  be  neglected,  and  to  produce  a 
deterioration  in  the  climate.  Baia,  a  place  once  famous  on  account  of  its  healthi- 
ness, has  become  the  home  of  malaria.  Sybaris,  the  town  of  luxury  and  pleasure, 
has  been  supplanted  by  a  fever-plain  "  which  eats  more  men  than  it  is  able  to 
nourish."  These  paludial  miasmata,  poverty,  and  ignorance  decimate  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Puglia,  Basilicata,  and  Calabria.  Even  certain  Asiatic  diseases,  such 
as  elephantiasis  and  leprosy,  ravage  the  country,  which,  from  its  rare  fertility 
and  fine  climate,  ought  to  be  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  greatest  prosperity. 

Continental  Sicily  is  indeed  a  favoured  region,  and  its  eastern  slopes  more 
especially  might  be  converted  into  one  liuge  garden,  for  the  rainfall  there  is 
abundant.  Naples  enjoys  a  semi-tropical  climate,  and  its  winter  temperature  is 
hardly  inferior  to  the  annual  mean  of  London.  Snow  very  rarely  falls,  and  only 
remains  on  the  tops  of  the  hills  for  a  few  weeks.*  The  vegetation  along  the  coast 
is  of  tropical  luxuriance.  Oranges  and  lemons  bear  excellent  fruit ;  date-palms 
uplift  their  fan-shaped  leaves,  and  sometimes  bear  fruit ;  the  American  agave 
*  Mesn  snnnal  temptntnre  of  Nsplei,  62*  F. ;  estnnns,  33*  and  104* ;  ninfidl,  87  inohM. 


JBfl^'S;^-'' 


-smmemmiimim 


fiM 


ITALY. 


stretches  forth  its  candalabra-like  branches;  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  other  industrial 
plants,  which  elsewhere  in  Europe  are  scarcely  ever  met  with  outside  hothouses, 
grow  in  the  fields.  In  the  forests  of  Calabria  the  olive-tree  affords  as  much  shade 
as  does  the  beech  with  us.  Even  the  bare  rocks  on  the  coast  yield  excellent 
grapes  and  garden  fruits.  Naples,  Sicily,  Andalusia,  and  certain  districts  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  realise  our  beau  id6al  of  the  sub-tropical  zone,  and  only 
the  heaths  on  the  Adriatic  slope  and  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Apennines  remind 
us  that  we  are  still  in  Central  Europe. 

This  delightful  country  is  inhabited  V^  a  people  haviag  the  most  diverse 
origin.  It  is  now  2,300  years  since  the  Samnites  occupied  the  whole  of  it 
from  sea  to  sea.  They  were  more  numerous  than  the  Bomans,  and  might  have 
conquered  the  whole  of  Italy  had  there  been  more  cohesion  amongst  them,  and 
some  of  that  talent  for  organization  which  constituted  the  strength  of  their 
adversaries.  But  they  were  split  into  five  tribes,  each  speaking  a  di£Perent 
dialect ;  and  whilst  the  Samnites  of  the  hills  quarrelled  with  their  kinsmen  in  the 
plains,  the  latter  were  at  enmity  with  the  Hellenized  Samnites  who  lived  near 
the  Greek  towns  on  the  coast. 

The  whole  of  the  coast  of  Southern  Italy,  &om  Cumsa — founded  more  than  a 
thousand  years  before  our  era — to  Sipuntum,  of  which  some  ruins  remain  near  the 
modern  Manfredonia,  was  dotted  with  Greek  colonies.  In  these  districts  of 
Southern  Italy  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  of  very  different  wigin  from  that 
of  other  parts  of  the  peninsula.  To  the  north  of  Monte  Gargano,  Celtic, 
Etruscan,  and  Latin  elements  preponderate,  whilst  Hellenes,  Pelasgians,  and 
kindred  races  dominate  in  the  south.  Not  only  did  civilised  Greeks  found  their 
colonies  there,  but  the  aboriginal  population,  the  lapygians,  spoke  a  dialect  akin 
to  the  Hellenic,  and  Mommsen  may  be  right  when  he  conjectures  that  these 
lapygians  were  of  the  same  origin  as  the  modem  Albanians. 

At  a  subsequent  date  these  southern  Italians  had  to  bow  down  before  the 
Romans,  who  founded  military  colonies  amongst  them,  but  never  succeeded  in 
completely  Latinising  them.  When  the  Boman  Empire  fell  to  pieces  the  Caesars 
of  Byzantium  still  maintained  themselves  for  a  longtime  in  Southern  Italy,  and  the 
Greek  language  again  preponderated,  but  gradually  Bomance  dialects  gained  the 
upper  hand.  The  inhabitants  returned  to  a  state  of  barbarism,  but  they  retained 
to  a  great  extent  their  language  and  customs,  and  even  now  there  are  districts  in 
the  south  which  are  Italian  in  appearance  rather  than  in  reality,  and  in  eight 
villages  of  the  Terra  d'Otranto  the  Hellenic  dialect  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  still 
spoken.  Towns  like  Naples,  Nicastro,  Tarento,  Gallipoli,  Monopoli,  and  others, 
whilst  preserving  their  sonorous  Greek  names,  have  also  retained  many  features 
which  recall  the  times  of  Major  Greece. 

Beggio — that  is,  the  "  city  of  the  strait " — appears  to  have  retained  the  use  of 
Greek  much  longer  than  any  other  town,  and  its  patricians,  who  boasted  of  being 
pure  lonians,  still  spoke  the  language  of  their  ancestors  towards  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  In  several  remote  towns  of  the  interior  Greek  was  formerly 
in  common  use.    The  old  popular  songs  of  Bovfi,  a  small  town  near  the  southem 


■^T" 


80TJTHEEN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


296 


other  industrial 
tside  hotbooses, 
8  as  much  shade 

yield  excellent 
;ain  districts  of 

zone,  and  only 
)ennine8  remind 

;he  moet  diverse 
;he  whole  of  it 
and  might  have 
ongst  them,  and 
rength  of  their 
cing  a  different 
r  kinsmen  in  the 
who  lived  near 

led  more  than  a 
remain  near  the 
lese  districts  of 
origin  from  that 
Gargano,  Celtic, 
Pelasgians,  and 
eeks  found  their 
ke  a  dialect  akin 
ctures  that  these 

down  hef ore  the 
ver  succeeded  in 
pieces  the  Caesars 
)m  Italy,  and  the 
alects  gained  the 
rat  they  retained 
re  are  districts  in 
ity,  and  in  eight 
oponnesus  is  still 
)poli,  and  others, 
ed  many  features 

Btained  the  use  of 
hoasted  of  being 
is  the  close  of  the 
reek  was  formerly 
near  the  southem 


extremity  of  Italy,  are  in  an  Ionian  dialect  more  like  the  language  of  Xenophon 
than  is  modem  Greek.  Down  to  a  very  recent  date  the  peasants  near  ]  )ccaforte  del 
Greco,  Condofuri,  and  Cardeto  spoke  Greek,  and  when  they  appeared  before  a  magis- 
trate they  required  an  interpreter.  At  the  present  day  all  young  people  speak 
Italian ;  the  old  language  has  been  forgotten,  but  the  Greek  type  remains.  The 
men  and  women  of  Cardeto  are  famous  for  their  beauty,  more  especially  the  latter. 
"  They  are  Minervas,"  we  are  told  by  a  local  historian.  Their  principal  livelihood 
consists  in  acting  as  wet  nurses  to  the  children  of  the  citizens  of  Heggio.  The 
women  of  Bagnara,  between  Scilla  and  Palmi,  are  likewise  of  wondrous  beauty, 
but  theii  features  are  stern,  betraying  Arab  blood,  and  they  are  destitute  of  the 
noble  placidity  of  the  Greek. 

It  is  said  that  the  women  of  the  Hellenic  villages  of  Calabria  are  still  in  the 
habit  of  executing  a  sacred  dance,  which  lasts  for  hours,  and  resembles  the  repre- 
sentations we  meet  with  on  ancient  vases,  only  they  dance  before  the  church 
instead  of  the  temple,  and  their  ceremonies  are  blessed  by  Christian  priests. 
Funerals  are  accompanied  by  weeping  women,  who  collect  their  tears  in  lachry- 
matories. Elsewhere,  as  in  the  environs  of  Tarento,  the  children  consecrate  the 
hair  of  their  head  to  the  -manes  of  their  ancestors.  Old  morals,  no  less  than  old 
customs,  have  been  preserved.  Woman  is  still  looked  upon  as  an  inferior  being, 
and  even  at  Beggio  the  wives  of  citizens  or  noblemen  who  respect  ancient 
tradition  confine  themselves  to  the  gynseoeum.  l^ey  do  not  visit  the  theatre,  go 
out  but  rarely,  and  when  they  walk  abroad  are  attended  by  barefooted  servants, 
and  not  by  their  husbands. 

In  addition  to  Samnites,  lapygians,  and  Greeks,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the 
population  of  Southem  Italy,  we  meet  with  Etruscans  in  the  Campania ;  Saracens 
in  the  peninsula  of  Gargano,  in  the  Campania,  the  marina  of  Beggio,  Bagnara, 
and  other  coast  towns ;  Lombards  in  Benevento,  who  retained  their  language  down 
to  the  eleventh  century ;  Normans,  from  whom  the  shepherds  on  the  hills  are 
supposed  to  be  descended ;  and  Spaniards  in  several  coast  towns,  especially  at 
Barletta,  in  Apulia.  The  Albanians  have  probably  furnished  the  largest  contingent 
of  all  the  strangers  now  domiciled  in  Southem  Italy.  They  are  numerous  on  the 
whole  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  peninsula,  iTrom  the  promontory  of  Gargano  to 
the  southernmost  point  of  Calabria.  One  of  their  clans  came  to  Italy  in  1440, 
but  the  bulk  of  them  only  arrive<'T  during  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
after  the  heroic  resistance  made  by  Scanderbeg  had  been  overcome  by  the  Turks. 
The  conquered  Skipetars  were  then  compelled  to  expatriate  themselves  in  order  to 
escape  the  yoke  of  the  Turks,  and  they  were  received  with  open  arms  by  the  Kings 
of  Naples,  who  granted  them  several  deserted  villages,  which  are  now  amongst 
the  most  flourishing  of  Southem  Italy.  The  descendants  of  these  Skipetars,  who 
are  principally  domiciled  in  the  Basilicata  and  Calabria,  rank  among  the  most 
useful  citizens  of  the  country.  They  take  the  lead  in  the  intellectual  regenera- 
tion of  the  old  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  were  the  first  to  join  the  liberating  army 
of  GaribaldL  Many  have  become  Italianised,  but  there  are  still  over  80,000  who 
have  neither  forgotten  their  origin  nor  their  language. 


ffeaftw 


*  ^*i-iM[ 


296 


ITALY. 


The  Neapolitans  are  undoubtedly  one  of  the  ^nest  races  of  Europe.  The 
Calabrians,  the  mountaineers  of  Moliso,  and  the  peasants  of  the  Basilicata  are  so 
well  proportioned,  erect,  supple  of  limb,  and  agile,  that  their  low  stature,  as  com- 
pared with  the  races  of  the  North,  can  hardlj  be  a  subject  of  reproach  ;  and  the 
nobility  and  expression  of  the  faces  of  Neapolitan  women  fully  compensate  for 
the  irregularity  we  frequently  meet  with.  The  faces  of  the  children,  with  their 
large  black  eyes  and  well>formed  lips,  beam  with  intelligence,  but  the  wretched 
existence  to  which  too  many  of  them  are  condemned  soon  degrades  their  physiog- 
nomy. Supremely  ignorant,  the  Neapolitan  is,  nevertheless,  most  admirably  gifted 
by  nature.  The  country  which  has  produced  so  many  great  men  since  the  days 
of  Pythagoras  is  in  nowise  inferior  to  any  other  ;  its  philosophers,  historians,  and 
lawyers  have  exercised  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  march  of  human  thought ; 
and  the  number  of  great  musicians  which  it  has  produced  is  proportionately  large. 

Still,  in  many  respects,  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Italy  hold  the  lowest 
rank  amongst  the  nations  of  Europe.  Ever  since  the  annihilation  of  the  Greek 
republican  cities  the  country  has  been  subjected  to  foreign  masters,  who  have  either 
devastated  it  or  systematically  oppressed  its  inhabitants.  With  the  exception  of 
Amalfi,  no  other  town  was  granted  the  privilege  of  governing  itself  for  any 
length  of  time.  The  very  position  of  the  country  exposed  it  to  dangers.  Placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  Mediterranean,  it  was  on  the  high-road  of  every  pirate  or 
invader,  whether  Saracen  or  Norman,  Spaniard  or  Frenchman,  and  the  absence 
of  any  natural  cohesion  between  its  various  districts  prevented  its  population  from 
organizing  a  united  resistance  against  the  attacks  of  foreign  invaders.  Southern 
Italy  has  not  the  river  basins  of  Lombardy,  Tuscany,  Umbria,  or  Rome ;  there 
exists  no  centre  of  gravity,  so  to  say,  and  the  country  is  split  up  into  s^Mirate 
sections  having  nothing  in  common. 

The  government  under  which  the  Neapolitans  lived  until  quite  recently  was 
most  humiliating.  "  I  do  not  require  my  people  to  think,"  said  King  Ferdi- 
nand II.  of  Naples.  Ideas  which  did  not  commend  themselves  to  the  authorities 
were  punished  as  crimes,  and  only  mendicity  and  moral  depravity  were  allowed 
to  flourish.  Science  was  compelled  to  live  in  retirement ;  history  to  seek  a  refuge 
in  the  catacombs  of  archsDology ;  and  literature  was  corrupt  or  frivolous.  Of  the 
Neapolitans  who  did  not  expatriate  themselves  only  a  very  small  number  became 
eminent.  Schools  were  hardly  known  outside  the  large  towns,  and  where  they  did 
exist  thoy  were  placed  under  the  su^  .'vision  of  the  police.  Men  able  to  read  and 
write  were  looked  at  askance,  and,  '■'j  escape  being  accused  of  belongiD.g  to  some  secret 
society,  they  were  compelled  to  turn  hypocrites.  Old  superstitions  exist  in  full  force, 
and  the  heathen  hallucinations  of  Greeks  and  lapygians  still  survive.  The  idola- 
trous Neapolitan  casts  himself  down  before  the  statue  of  St.  Januarius,  but  heaps 
imprecations  upon  the  head  of  his  saint  if  his  miraculous  blood  does  not  quickly 
liquefy.  Similar  superstitions  exist  in  nearly  ever/  town  of  Naples.  Every  one 
of  them  has  its  patron  saint  or  deity,  who,  if  he  should  fail  to  protect  his  people, 
is  treated  as  a  common  enemy.  As  recently  as  1858  the  villagers  of  Calabria, 
irritated  by  a  drought*  put  their  venerated  saints  into  prison;  and  Barletta, 


ZZ. ar. 


SOUTHBEN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


297 


Europe.  The 
^asilicata  are  so 
stature,  as  com- 
roach ;  and  the 
compensate  for 
Iren,  with  their 
ut  the  wretehed 
3  their  physiog- 
idmirably  gifted 

since  the  days 

historians,  and 
Luman  thought ; 
rtionately  large, 
hold  the  lowest 
on  of  the  Greek 
who  have  either 
the  exception  of 
g  itself  for  any 
mgers.     Placed 

every  pirate  or 
and  the  absence 
population  from 
ders.  Southern 
or  Borne ;  there 
up  into  s^Mirate 

itite  recently  was 
iid  King  Ferdi- 
0  the  authorities 
ity  were  allowed 

to  seek  a  refuge 
rivolouB.  Of  the 
.  number  became 
d  where  they  did 

able  to  read  and 
ii).g  to  some  secret 
exist  in  ^11  force, 
ive.  The  idola- 
larius,  but  heaps 
does  not  quickly 
pies.  Every  one 
otect  his  people, 
gers  of  Calabria, 
i:  and  Barletta, 


about  the  same  period,  had  the  melancholy  honour  of  being  the  last  town  in 
Europe  in  which  Protestants  were  burned  alive.  Such  is  the  fanaticism  still  met 
with  in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  I  * 

Pig.  108.— EnucATioNAi,  Map  or  Italy. 


R'WTf,,^;   ^      (HUNGARY 


KM  p. 

CZ] 


3<L&op«. 


S0.70PA 


70.80  p«. 


So^go  ju. 


J0.IOOpA 


Bwihierland,     Aiii,I»>re.  Contoa,  ^  4,^"5**!,i 

Doutw,  BaMtandHsntn        Alpes  Miritimea,       CrMtia,  Emilia, 

Jun.  Alpe^  Haute  Saroie,      Llgmia,  Lomtnrdr,  Vt  netia,  Harcfaes, 

Var.  Btyria,  Carlnthla,  Tnacsiir,  Ca>.ipMua, 

Hnngarjr,  Piemont.        Xlmbria.  Baraitia. 


Dalmatia,  Cnmiola,  BoRnia, 
Abnizzoa,  Apulia,  AfHcii, 
Calabria,  Badlioata. 

SioUy. 
Latlum. 


•  In  1868  69  per  cent,  of  the  men  and  88  per  cent,  of  the  wou:en  married  in  the  Campania,  the  moat 
educated  province  of  Naplee,  were  not  ahle  to  sign  their  names.  In  the  BaailicaU  the  proportions  -wen 
85  and  06  per  cent. ! 


X, 


ITALY. 


One  of  the  great  superstitions  of  the  Neapolitans  refers  to  the  "  evil  eye." 
The  unfortunate  heing  who  happens  to  have  a  nose  like  a  battle-axe  and  large 
round  eyes  is  looked  upon  as  aj'ettatore,  and  is  avoided  as  a  fatal  being.  If  by 
any  evil  chance  his  glance  happens  to  fall  upon  any  unfortunate  person,  it  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  counteract  it  by  the  influence  of  an  amulet  resembling  the 
/aacinum  of  the  ancients,  or  by  some  other  means  no  less  potent.  Coral  amulets 
are  looked  upon  as  most  efficient,  and  many  who  pretend  not  to  believe  in 
their  virtues  are  the  first  to  make  use  of  them.  The  peasants  of  Calabria  wear 
an  image  of  their  patron  saint  upon  the  chest,  and  shield  their  cattle  and  houses  by 
means  of  the  images  of  saints  or  household  gods.  At  Reggio  a  cactus  may  be 
seen  near  the  door  or  on  the  balcony  of  every  house,  which  has  been  placed 
there  to  keep  off  evil  influences,  and  is  universally  known  as  Valbero  del  maP  occhio 
(the  tree  of  the  evil  eye). 

Next  to  superstition,  the  great  scourge  of  Southern  Italy  is  brigandage.  The 
very  name  of  Calabria  conjures  up  in  our  imagination  pictiiresque  brigands  armed 
with  carbines.  Unfortunately  this  Calabrian  brigand  is  no  myth,  invented  to  serve 
the  purposes  of  the  stage.  He  really  exists,  and  neither  the  severity  of  the  laws 
put  in  motion  against  him  nor  political  changes  have  brought  about  his  exter- 
mination. On  many  occasions,  after  a  successful  hunt  for  brigands  had  been 
carried  on,  the  authorities  felicitated  themselves  upon  having  rid  the  country  of 
this  scourge,  but  it  regularly  revived. 

In  Sardinia  and  Corsica  the  peasant  takes  up  arms  from  a  desire  for  vengeance, 
but  in  Calabria  from  poverty.  Feudalism,  though  abolished  in  name,  still 
flourishes  in  that  country.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  soil  belongs  to  a  few  great  land- 
owners, and  the  peasant,  or  cafore,  is  condemned  to  a  life  of  ill-remunerated  toU. 
In  years  of  plenty,  when  the  rye,  chestnuts,  and  wine  suffice  for  the  wants  of  bis 
family,  he  works  without  grumbling,  but  in  years  of  dearth  brigandage  flourishes. 
The  brigand,  or  gualano,  looks  upon  the  feudal  ^^rd  as  the  common  enemy,  steals  his 
cattle,  sets  fire  to  his  hou^d,  and  e-  takes  him  prisoner,  releasing  him  only  on 
payment  of  a  heavy  ransom.  Some  of  these  bandits  become  veritable  wild  beasts, 
thirsting  after  blood ;  but,  as  long  as  they  confine  themselves  to  avenging  wrongs, 
they  may  count  upon  the  complicity  of  all  other  peasants.  The  herdsmen  of  the 
mountains  supply  them  with  milk  and  food,  furnish  them  with  information,  and 
mislead  the  oarabiniers  sent  in  pursuit  of  them.  All  the  poor  are  leagued  in 
their  favour,  and  re^se  to  bear  witness  against  them.  Moreover,  most  of  these 
Neapolitan  bandits,  conscientious  in  their  own  way,  are  extremely  pious.  They 
swear  by  the  Virgin  or  some  patron  saint,  to  whom  they  promise  a  portion  of  their 
booty,  and  religiously  place  the  share  promised  upon  the  altar.  Not  content  with 
wearing  amulets  all  over  the  body  to  turn  aside  bullets,  they  are  said  sometimes 
to  place  a  consecrated  wafer  in  an  incision  they  make  in  their  hand,  in  the  belief 
that  this  will  render  deadly  their  own  bullets. 

The  fearful  poverty  of  the  South  Italian  peasantry  has  led  to  another  practice, 
even  worse  than  brigandage.  Foreign  speculators,  Christians  as  well  as  Jews,  travel 
the  country,  and  particularly  the  Basilicata,  iiy  order  to  purchase  children,  whom 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


299 


the  "  evil  eye." 
e-aze  and  large 

being.  If  by 
person,  it  is  con- 
resembling  the 

Coral  amulets 
ot  to  believe  in 
of  Calabria  wear 
le  and  houses  by 
a  cactus  may  be 
has  been  placed 
tro  del  map  occhio 

rigandage.  The 
I  brigands  armed 
invented  to  serve 
erity  of  the  laws 
about  his  exter- 
igands  had  been 
d  the  country  of 

re  for  vengeance, 
in  name,  still 
I  a  few  great  land- 
remunerated  toil, 
the  wants  of  his 
indage  flourishes, 
enemy,  steals  his 
sing  him  only  on 
[table  wild  beasts, 
avenging  wrongs, 
herdsmen  of  the 
information,  and 
r  are  leagued  in 
er,  most  of  these 
ely  pious.  They 
a  portion  of  their 
Not  content  with 
e  said  sometimes 
and,  in  the  belief 

another  practice, 
rell  as  Jews,  travel 
le  children,  whom 


their  poverty-stricken  parents  are  ready  to  part  with  for  a  trifle.  The  more  intel- 
ligent and  prettier  the  child,  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  its  passing  into  the 
hands  of  these  dealers  in  human  flesh.  The  latter  are  threatened  with  the 
penalties  of  the  law,  but  custom  and  ignoble  accomplices  enable  them  to  evade 
them,  and  to  carry  their  living  merchandise  to  France,  England,  Germany,  and 
even  America,  where  the  children  are  converted  into  acrobats,  street  musicians, 
or  simple  mendicants.  The  chances  of  this  shameful  commerce  have  been  carefully 
calculated,  and  the  losses  arising  from  deaths  and  the  cost  of  travelling  are  more 
than  covered  by  the  earnings  of  the  children.  Yigg^ano,  a  small  town  of  the 
Basilicata,  is  more  especially  haunted  by  these  trafiiokers,  for  its  inhabitants 
possoss  a  natural  g^ft  for  music. 

Voluntary  emigration  is  on  the  increase,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  obstructions 
placed  in  the  way  of  young  men  liable  to  the  conscription,  certain  districts  would 
become  rapidly  depopulated  in  favour  of  South  America.  Only  the  poorest  peasants 
remain  behind.  This  emig^tion-  influences  in  a  larg^  measure  the  customs  of  the 
country,  and,  conjointly  with  railways  and  factories,  will  no  doubt  bring  about  an 
assimilation  of  Southern  Italy  to  the  rest  of  the  peninsula.  Brigandage  and  the 
traffic  in  children  will  doubtless  disappear,  but  the  proletarianism  of  manufacturing 
towns  is  likely  to  be  substituted  for  them. 

For  the  present  Naples  is  almost  exclusively  an  agricultural  country.  The 
Tavolieri  of  Fuglia,  and  the  hills  which  command  them,  remain  for  the  most  part 
a  pastoral  country,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  productive  area  of  Naples  is 
under  cultivation.  As  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  cereals,  with  oil  and  wine, 
form  the  principal  produce ;  but,  in  addition  to  these,  tobacco,  cotton,  madder,  and 
several  otiiur  plants  used  in  manufactures,  are  grown.  With  some  care  these  pro- 
ducts might  attain  n  rare  degree  of  excellence.  Even  now  the  oil  of  the  PugUa 
competes  successfully  with  that  of  Nice,  and  the  wines  grown  on  the  scoriee  of  Mount 
Vesuvius  enjoy  their  ancient  celebrity,  the  Falerno  of  Horace,  grown  in  the 
Phlegrean  Fields,  disputing  the  pre-eminence  with  the  Laclrymse  Christi  of 
Ve8uviut3  and  the  white  wiue  of  Capri. 

The  agricultural  products  of  Naples  are  almost  exclusively  derived  from  the  coast 
region,  and  commerce  is  principally  carried  on  in  coasting  vessels.  The  interior  is 
sterile  to  a  great  extent,  and  there  are  no  metalliferous  veins  to  attract  population. 

Southern  Italy  has  no  natural  centre,  and,  as  its  life  has  at  all  times  been 
eccentric  and  maritime,  it  is  but  natural  that  all  the  large  towns  should  have 
sprung  up  on  the  coast.  Two  thousand  years  ago,  when  Greece  was  a  civilised 
country  and  Western  Europe  sunk  in  barbarism,  the  most  important  towns  lay 
on  the  Ionian  Sea  facing  the  east.  >But,  when  Rome  became  the  mistress  of  the 
world.  Greater  Greece  was  forced  to  face  about,  and  Naples  became  the  successor 
of  Sy  baris  and  Tavent.  This  position  of  vantage  it  has  retained  even  to  the  present 
day,  when  Western  Europe  has  become  the  focus  of  civilisation.  The  wave  of 
history  has  passed  over  the  Tarent  and  Sybaris,  and  whilst  the  fine  port  of  the 
former  is  now  deserted,  the  latter,  at  one  time  the  largest  city  of  all  Italy,  is 
nothing  but  a  heup  of  ruins. 


;?«!(f??^; 


mm 


8«'K) 


ITALY. 


Naples,  the  "  new  town  "  of  the  Cumeans,  has  for  centuries  been  the  most 
populous  town  of  Italy,  and  even  now  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  double 
that  of  Home.  In  the  days  of  Strabo  Naples  was  a  large  town.  Greeks  who 
had  made  money  by  teaching  or  oth(  rwise,  and  who  desired  to  end  their  diiyb  in 
peaceful  repose,  used  to  retire  to  that  beautiful  town,  where  Greek  manners  pre- 
dominated, and  the  climate  resembled  that  of  their  native  country.  Many  Romans 
followed  this  example,  and  Naples,  together  with  the  numerous  smaller  towns 
dotting  the  shores  of  its  magnificent  bay,  thus  became  a  place  of  repose  and 
pleasure.  At  the  present  day  it  attracts  men  of  leisure  from  every  part  of  the 
world,  who  revel  in  its  beauties  and  enjoy  the  noisy  gaiety  of  its  inhabitants — 
"  masters  in  the  art  of  shouting,"  as  Alfieri  called  them.  The  prospect  from  the 
heights  of  Capodimonte  and  the  other  hills  surrounding  the  immense  city  is  full 
of  beauty  :  promontories  jut  out  into  the  blu6  waters,  islands  of  the  most  varied 
colours  are  scattered  over  the  bay,  shining  towns  strstch  along  the  foot  of  ver- 
dant hills,  and  vessels  ride  upon  the  waves.  Looking  inland,  we  behold  the 
grey  summit  of  Vesuvius,  which,  lurid  at  night,  and  always  threatening,  imparts  a 
modicum  of  danger  to  the  voluptuous  picture. 

The  Neapolitans  are  indeed  a  happy  people,  if'  such  a  term  may  be  applied  to  any 
fraction  of  mankind.  They  know  how  to  enjoy  the  giiti^  of  nature,  and  are  conten. . 
if  need  be,  with  very  little.  Naturally  intelligent,  they  are  equal  to  any  enter 
prise ;  but,  as  they  hate  work,  they  soon  give  up  what  they  have  begim,  and  make 
sport  of  their  want  of  success.  Travellers  were  formerly  fond  of  describing  that 
ourious  type,  the  lazzarone,  the  idle  man  of  pleasure,  who,  enveloped  in  a  rag,  slept 
on  the  beach  or  in  the  porr'u  of  a  church,  and  disdained  to  work  after  he  had 
earned  the  pittance  sufficing  for  his  simple  wants.  There  still  remain  a  few  repre- 
sentatives of  this  type,  but  the  material  exigencies  of  our  time  have  absorbed  the 
majority  of  those  idle  tatterdemalions,  and  converted  them  into  labourers.  Others 
have  succumbed  to  disease,  for  they  knew  nothing  of  sanitary  laws,  and  dwelt  in 
damp  cellars,  or  bam,  beneath  the  palaces  of  the  wealthy.  Naples  contributes  her 
fair  share  towards  the  industrial  products  of  the  peninsula.  The  principal  articles 
manufactured  are  macaroni  and  other  farinaceous  pastes,  cloth,  silks  known  as 
gros  df.  Naples,  glass,  china,  mvsical  instruments,  artificial  flowers,  ornaments, 
and  everything  entering  into  the  dail}'  consumption  of  a  large  city.  Its  workers 
iv.  coral  are  famous  for  their  skill ;  and  Sorrento,  near  Naples,  supplies  the  muoh- 
piised  workboxes,  jewel  cases,  and  other  articles  carved  in  palm-wood.  The  ship- 
yards of  CasteUr^uare  ('.i  Stabia  are  more  busy  than  any  others  in  Italy,  those  of 
Genoa  and  Spezii  ttlone  excepted  The  sailors  of  the  bay  are  equal  ft  the  Ligurians 
in  seamanship,  nnd  surpass  them  a,^  T.^hermen. ,  The  inhabitants  of  Torre  del  Greco, 
who  engage  in  corul-fishing,  are  well  acquainted  with  the  submarine  topography 
of  the  coasts  of  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  Barbary,  and  the  least  movement  of  the  air 
or  water  reveals  phenomena  to  them  which  remain  hidden  to  all  other  eyes.  They 
own  about  400  fishing-boats,  which  depart  in  a  body,  and  their  return  after  a  suc- 
cessful season  presents  a  spectacle  which  even  Italy  but  rarely  afEords.* 

•  In  1878  there  weie  363  fishiiig-bMta,  and  90,000  Uw.  of  coral,  valued  at  ^£92,000.  were  obtained. 


been  the  most 
itanta  is  double 
a.  Greeks  who 
d  their  dnyb  iu 
t  manners  pre- 
Many  Romans 
9  smaller  towns 
I  of  repose  and 
irery  part  of  the 
ts  inhabitants — 
ospect  from  the 
ense  city  is  full 
the  most  varied 
the  foot  of  ver- 
,  we  behold  the 
ening,  imparts  a 

)6  applied  to  any 
and  are  content . 
al  to  any  enter 
)egim,  and  make 

describing  that 
>d  in  a  rag,  slept 
rk  after  he  had 
aaina  few  repre- 
ive  absorbed  the 
bourers.  Others 
vs,  and  dwelt  in 
8  contributes  her 
principal  articles 

silks  known  as 
vers,  ornaments, 
ty.  Its  workers 
pplies  the  muct- 
vood.  The  ship- 
in  Italy,  those  of 
I  f-i  the  Ligurians 
'  Torre  del  Greco, 
arine  topography 
rement  of  the  air 
ther  eyes.  They 
etum  after  a  suc- 
ords.* 
00,  were  obtained. 


.„_..-.^-.    -A* 


r 


,4 


'^m^' 


..^^l 


*lir 


■wn-iim  ^■■».a»»w«i»i"iMW»wi"  ' 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


801 


Naples,  with  its  magnificent  bay,  and  the  fertile  tracts  of  the  Campania  and 
the  Terra  di  Lavoro  n^ar  it,  could  hardly  fail  to  become  a  great  commercial  city, 
and  if  it  holds  an  inferior  rank  in  that  respect  to  Genoa,  this  is  owing  to  its  not 
being  placed  upon  a  great  high-road  of  international  commerce.  The  country 
depending  upon  it  is  of  comparatively  small  extent ;  only  a  single  line  of  rails 


Fig.  109.— PoMriii. 
From  the  XeapoUtM  Staff  Map.    Soale  1  :  8^000. 


SHUw. 


crosses  the  Apennines ;  and  travellers  who  follow  the  mountain  road  to  Tarent  are 
not,  even  now,  quite  safe  from  brigands.  The  foreign  commerce  of  the  city  is 
carried  on  principally  with  England  and  France,  and  the  coasting  trade  is 
comparatively  of  great  importance.* 

The  university  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Naples.     Founded  in  the  first  half  of 

*  In  1864  10,694  Te^selg,  of  1,496,600  tons  burdea,  entered  and  cleared  the  port  of  Naples ;  in  1876 
11,288  vessels,  of  2,928,922  tons. 


22 


V; 


J 


ITALY.* 


the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  Ti<i.ly,  hut  has  had  its  periods  of 
disgraceful  decay.  Up  to  a  recent  period,  when  archoiology  and  numismatics  wero 
the  only  sciences  not  suspected  of  revolutionary  tendencies,  it  was  a  place  of  intbl- 
luotual  corruption,  but  its  regeneration  has  been  brought  about  with  marvellous 
rapidity.  The  young  Neapolitans  now  study  science  w^th  a  zest  sharpened  by 
abstinence ;  and,  if  the  rather  gushing  eloquence  of  the  South  could  be  trusted, 
Naples  has  become  the  greatest  seat  of  learning  in  the  world.  Thus  much  in 
certain,  that  the  2,000  students  of  the  university  will  give  a  great  impulse  to  the 
"  march  of  ideas." 

Naples  possesses  an  admirable  museum  of  autiquities,  open  to  all  the  world, 
and,  more  precious  still,  the  ruins  of  Fozzuoli,  fiaite,  and  Oumea,  catacombs  no  less 
interesting  than  are  those  of  Rome ;  and,  above  everything  else,  the  Roman  city  of 
Pompeii,  which  has  been  excavated  from  the  ashes  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  beneath 
which  it  lay  buried  for  seventeen  centuries.  It  is  not  merely  a  City  of  the  Dead, 
with  its  streets  and  tombs,  temples,  markets,  and  amphitheatres,  which  these 
excavations  have  restored  to  us,  but  they  have  likewise  given  us  an  insight  into 
the  life  of  a  provincial  Roman  city.  When  we  gaze  upon  inscriptions  on  walls 
and  waxed  tablets,  at  work  interrupted,  at  mummified  corpses  in  the  attitude 
of  flight,  we  almost  feel  as  if  we  had  been  present  at  the  catastrophe  which 
overwhelmed  the  town.  No  other  buried  city  ever  presented  us  with  st>  striking  a 
contrast  between  the  tumult  of  life  and  the  stillness  of  death.  In  spite  of  a  hundred 
years  of  excavation,  only  one-half  of  the  city  has  yet  been  revealed  to  us.  Hercu- 
laneum  is  buried  beneath  a  layer  of  lava  sixty  feet  in  thickness,  upon  which  the 
houses  of  Resina,  Portici,  and  other  suburbs  of  Naples  have  been  built,  and  but 
very  few  of  its  mysteries  have  been  revealed  to  us.  Of  Stabia,  which  lies  hidden 
beneath  the  town  of  Gastellamare,  close  to  the  beach,  we  know  hardly  anything. 

Numerous  jjopulous  towns  cluster  around  Naples,  rivalling  it  in  beauty.  To 
the  eolith,  oo  the  shores  of  the  bay,  are  Portici,  Resina,  Torre  del  Greco,  Torre 
deir  Annuuziata,  Gastellamare,  and  sweet  Sorrento,  with  its  delicious  climate,  its 
delightful  villas  and  olive  groves.  Off  Cape  Campanella,  facing  the  volcanic 
islands  of  Ischia  and  Procida,  at  the  other  oxtremity  of  the  bay,  rise  the  bold  cliffs 
of  Capri,  full  of  the  mem  i  of  hideous  Tiberius,  the  Timberio  of  the  natives. 
Another  bay  opens  to  the  south  of  that  barren  mass  of  limestone,  its  entrance 
guarded  by  the  islets  of  the  Syrens,  who  sought  in  vain  to  cast  their  spell  over 
sage  Ulysses.  This  bay  is  hardly  inferior  in  beauty  to  that  of  Naples ;  its  shores 
are  equally  fertile,  but  neither  of  the  three  cities,  Peestum,  Amalfi,  or  Salerno, 
which  successively  gave  a  r<.ame  to  it,  has  retained  its  importance  for  any  length  of 
time.  Amalfi,  the  powerful  commercial  republic  of  the  Middle  Ages,  whose  code 
was  accepted  "by  all  maritime  nations,  is  almost  deserted  now,  and  only  shelters  a 
few  fishing-smacks  within  its  rocky  creek.  In  a  delightful  valley  near  it  stands 
the  old  Moorish  city  of  Ravello,  almost  as  rich  as  Palermo  in  architectural 
monumenisi  Salerno  is  much  more  favourably  situated  than  Amalfi,  for  the  road 
of  the  Campania  debouches  upon  it.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
son  of  Noah,  and  when  the  Normans  occupied  the  country  in  the  eleventh  century 


tad  its  periods  of 
luminnatics  were 
B  a  place  of  intbl- 
with  marvellous 
Bst  sharpened  by 
could  be  trusted, 
.  Thus  much  is 
%t  impulse  to  the 

to  all  the  world, 
catacombs  no  less 
bhe  Roman  city  of 
Vesuvius,  beneath 
City  of  the  Dead, 
tres,  which  these 
IS  an  insight  into 
icriptions  on  walls 
QB  in  the  attitude 
catastrophe  which 

with  so  striking  a 
spite  of  a  hundred 
led  to  us.  Hercu- 
18,  upon  which  the 
jen  built,  and  but 

which  lies  hidden 
lardly  anything, 
it  in  beauty.  To 
)  del  Greco,  Torre 
ilicious  climate,  its 
icing  the  volcanic 

rise  the  bold  cliffs 
rio  of  the  natives, 
istone,  its  entrance 
at  their  spell  over 
N'aples;  its  shores 
Lmalfi,  or  Salerno, 
30  for  any  length  of 
e  Ages,  whose  code 
md  only  shelters  a 
,lley  near  it  stands 
lO  in  architectural 
Lmalfi,  for  the  road 

been  founded  by  a 
le  eleventh  century 


>4lM.'At.— 


.^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


I.I 


U    116 


«': 


Hiotographic 

ScMices 

Corpciralion 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRIIT 

WnSTIR.N.Y.  14510 

(71«)t7a-4S03 


■Wlltll^l  ^■M>^^^..■  ■■»...4.....^.,   , 


«' 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
m 


Canadian  Inatituta  for  Hiatorical  IMicroraproductions  /  Inatitut  Canadian  da  microraproductiona  hiatoriquaa 


im 


V 


-^ 


./ 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


808 


they  made  it  their  capital.  But  its  ancient  splendours  have  gone.  Its  university, 
at  one  time  the  representative  of  Arab  science,  and  the  most  famous  in  Europe  for 
its  medical  faculty,  has  made  no  sign  for  ages,  and  Salerno  has  now  no  claim 
whatever  to  the  title  of  "  Hippocratic  town."  It  aspires,  however,  to  rise  into 
importance  through  commerce  and  industry,  and  a  breakwater  and  piers  might 
convert  it  into  a  formidable  rival  of  Naples.  The  inhabitants  are  fond  of  repeating 
a  local  proverb  — 

"  When  Salerno  a  port  doth  obtain 
That  of  Naples  will  be  inane." 

Faestum,  or  Posidonio,  the  ancient  mistress  of  the  bay,  stood  to  the  south-east 
of  Salerno.  It  was  founded  by  the  Sybarites  on  the  ruins  of  a  more  ancient  town 
of  the  Tyrrhenians.  The  Roman  poets  sang  this  "  city  of  roses  "  on  account  of 
its  cool  springs,  shady  walks,  and  mild  climate.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  915,  and  its  ruins,  though  amongst  the  most  interesting  of  all  Italy,  dating 
as  they  do  from  a  period  anterior-  to  that  of  Rome,  were  known  only  to  shepherds 
and  brigands  up  to  the  middle  of  last  century.  Its  three  temples,  the  most 
important  of  which  was  dedicated  to  Neptune,  or  Poseidon,  are  amongst  the  most 
imposing  of  continental  Italy,  their  effect  being  heightened  by  the  solitude  which 
surrounds  them  and  the  waves  which  wash  their  foundations.  The  traveller, 
however,  cannot  afford  to  remain  for  any  length  of  time  within  their  vicinity,  for 
the  site  of  the  ruins  is  surrounded  by  marshes,  the  exhalations  from  which  sadly 
interfere  with  the  excavations  going  on. 

Numerous  towns  and  villages  are  dotted  over  the  champaign  country  separating 
Mount  Vesuvius  from  the  foot-hills  of  the  Apennines.  Starting  from  Yietri,  a 
suburb  of  Salerno  on  the  banks  of  a  narrow  ravine,  we  ascend  to  Cara,  a  favourite 
summer  retreat,  abounding  in  shade-trees.  Near  it  is  a  monastery  famous 
amongst  antiquaries  on  account  of  its  ancient  parchments  and  diplomas.  On 
descending  to  the  plain  of  the  Samo  we  pass  Nocera,  a  country  residence  of  the 
ancient  Romans ;  Pagani,  still  situated  within  the  region  of  woods ;  Angri,  which 
manufactures  yams  from  cotton  g^own  in  its  environs';  and  Scafati,  more  indus- 
trious still.  Near  it  may  be  seen  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  the  town  of  Torre  dell' 
Annunziata,  and,  on  the  southern  slope  of  Yesuvius,  the  houses  of  Bosco  Tre  Case 
and  Bosco  Reale.  There  are  savants  who  believe  they  can  trace  in  the  veins  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Nocera  and  the  neighbourhood  the  Arab  and  Berber  blood  of 
the  20,000  Saracens  who  were  settled  here  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 

The  vaUey  of  the  Samo,  above  Nocera,  is  densely  peopled  as  far  as  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  and  another  chain  of  villages  extends  northwards  to  the  town  of 
Avellino,  the  fields  of  which  are  enclosed  by  hedges  of  filbert-trees  {avellana  in 
Italian),  and  which  is  important  on  account  of  its  intermediary  position  between 
the  mountains  and  the  plain.  The  population,  however,  is  densest  in  that  portion 
of  the  Campagna  known  as  the  ''Happy"  (Felice),  which  extends  between 
Yesuvius  and  Mont«  Yergine.  Samo,  named  after  the  river,  though  far  away 
from  it,  abounds  in  cereals,  vines,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  manu&ctures  cotton 
stuffs  and  raw  silk.     Falma  stands  in  the  midst  of  fertile  fields ;  Ottajano,  the 


/ 


ITALY. 


town  of  Ootaviua,  on  the  lower  slope  of  the  Somma  of  Vesuvius,  is  famous  for  its 
wines  ;  Nola,  where  Augustus  died,  and  which  gave  birth  to  Giordano  Bruno,  has 
fertile  fields,  but  is  better  known  through  the  fine  Greek  vases  found  in  its  ruins, 
and  on  account  of  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre  built  of  marble,  and  of  greater 
size  than  that  of  Oapua. 

Famous  Capua,  the  ancient  metropolis  of  the  Campania,  at  one  time  the  rival 
of  Rome,  with  half  a  million  inhabitants  dwelling  within  its  walls,  has  been  com> 
pletely  stripped  of  its  former  splendours.  Its  name  is  applied  now  to  a  sullen 
fortress  on  the  Yoltumo,  the  Casilinum  of  the  Romans  ;  and  Santa  Maria,  which  is 
the  representative  of  the  veritable  Capua,  offers  no  "  delights  "  other  than  those  of  a 
large  village.  In  its  environs,  however,  may  still  be  seen  the  ruins  of  a  fine  amphi- 
theatre, a  triumphal  arch,  and  other  remains  of  a  vast  city.  Caserta,  the  "  town  of 
pleasure  "  of  the  modem  Campania,  lies  farther  to  the  south.  It  boasts  of  a  large 
palace,  shady  parks,  and  vast  gardens  ornamented  with  statues  and  fountains,  and 
was  the  Versailles  of  the  Neapolitan  Bourbons.  An  aqueduct  supplies  it  with 
water  from  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles,  and  crosses  the  valley  near  Maddaloni 
by  means  of  a  magnificent  bridge,  built  about  the  middle  of  last  century  by  Vanvi- 
telli,  and  one  of  the  ma'-terpieceb  of  modern  architecture. 

The  great  Roman  highway  bifurcates  to  the  north  of  Capua  and  the  Voltumo. 
One  branch  turns  towards  the  coast ;  the  other,  along  which  a  railway  has  been 
built,  skirts  the  volcano  of  Rocca  Monfino,  follows  the  valley  of  the  Garigliano 
and  of  its  tributary  the  Sacco  as  far  as  the  eastern  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Latium, 
and  then  descends  into  the  Campania  of  Rome.  Historically  the  coast  road  is  the 
more  famous  of  the  two.  It  first  passes  close  to  Sessa,  the  ancient  city  of  the 
Auronci,  whose  acropolis  stood  in  the  crater  of  the  Rocca  Monfino.  It  then  turns 
towards  the  coast,  and  having  crossed  the  Garigliano  near  its  mouth,  where  it 
is  bounded  by  insalubrious  marshes,  it  penetrates  the  defile  of  Mola  di  Gaeta, 
o£Bcially  called  Formia,  in  memory  of  ancient  Formise,  where  Cicero  lived  and 
died.  Travellers  coming  from  Rome  first  look  down  from  this  spot  upon  the 
beauties  of  the  Campania,  and  see  stretched  out  before  them  the  Bay  of  Gaeta,  with 
the  volcanic  islands  of  Ponza,  Ventotene,  and  Ischia  in  the  distance.  Gtaeta,  a 
fortress  which  guards  this  gateway  to  the  Neapolitan  paradise,  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  Monte  Orlando,  occupying  a  small  peninsula  attached  to  the  mainl^d 
by  an  isthmus  only  300  yards  in  width.  The  port  of  Ghteta  is  well  sheltered 
against  westerly  and  northerly  winds,  and  is  much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels 
and  fishing-smacks ;  but  Gaeta  itself  is  better  known  as  a  fortress.  It  was  here 
the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  abdication  of  Francis  n< 
in  1861. 

Towns  of  some  importance  are  likewise  met  with  on  following  the  eastern  road 
from  Naples  to  Rome.  The  most  considerable  amongst  them  is  San  Germano,  the 
name  of  which  has  recently  been  changed  into  Casino,  in  honour  of  the  famous 
monastery  of  that  name  occupying  a  terrace  to  the  west  of  the  town,  and  affording  a 
glorious  prospect  of  hills  and  valleys.  This  monastery  was  founded  in  the  sixth 
century  by  St.  Bennet,  or  Benedict,  and  its  rules  have  been  accepted  throughout 


8,  ia  famous  for  its 
iordano  Bruno,  has 
I  found  in  its  ruins, 
\>le,  and  of  greater 

;  one  time  the  rival 
Edis,  has  been  com- 
k1  now  to  a  sullen 
ata  Maria,  which  is 
ither  than  those  of  a 
ins  of  a  fine  amphi- 
[serta,  the  "  town  of 
It  boasts  of  a  large 
and  fountains,  and 
Lct  supplies  it  with 
ley  near  Maddaloni 
t  century  by  Vanvi- 

a  and  the  Yoltumo. 

a  railway  has  been 
y  of  the  Qarigliano 

volcano  of  Latium, 
the  coast  road  is  the 

ancient  city  of  the 
fino.  It  then  turns 
its  mouth,  where  it 

of  Mola  di  Gaeta, 
re  Cicero  lived  and 

this  spot  upon  the 
e  Bay  of  Gaeta,  with 

distance.  Gaeta,  a 
iise,  is  built  on  the 
iied  to  the  mainj^d 
eta  is  well  sheltered 
i  by  coasting  vessels 
>rtre88.  It  was  here 
[cation  of  Francis  !!• 

iring  the  eastern  road 
is  San  Germane,  the 
liononr  of  the  famous 
town,  and  affording  a 
founded  in  the  sixth 
accepted  throughout 


m,mitat.«-i^n  wi  mn  i»ilifc'T»»'i»ff»!ii'>jn'i4[*aigyi» 


iliUiiilllUl  .  HJW— <WPI">» 


HIHIi|iii»ill.ll      Dlllll 


ilk 


mmmm^ 


I;- 


k. 


y>  Wl  IkLMi,L^i^^Mt.-M 


SOUTHEEN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


80S 


the  Eaatern  Church.  No  body  of  men  has  ever  exercised  a  greater  influence  upon 
the  history  of  Oatholioism  than  these  Benedictine  monks  of  Monte  Oasino,  At  the 
height  of  its  power  the  order  held  vast  estates  throughout  Italy,  and  many  popes 
and  thousands  of  Ohurch  dignitaries  have  been  furnished  from  its  ranks.  The 
library  of  Monte  Oasino  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  Europe,  and  the  services 
formerly  rendered  to  science  by  the  Benedictines  have  saved  this  monastery  from 
disestablishment,  a  favour  likewise  extended  to  the  monastery  of  La  Cava  and  the 
Charter-house  of  Pavia. 

There  are  b^t  few  towns  of  importance  in  the  mountain  region  of  Naples. 
Arpino,  the  ancient  Arpinum,  the  birthplace  of  Cicero  and  Marius,  with  cydopean 

Fig.  110.— Ths  Mar8HR8  or  Salpi. 
Scale  1  :  2SS,0OO. 


nil    ifMt,  in'  p^V""' 

.  —————  8  Miln. 

walls  built  by  Saturn,  is  the  most  populous  place  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Liri, 
to  the  south  of  the  mountains  of  Mantese.  Benevento  occupies  a  central  position 
on  the  Galore,  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Volturno,  and  several  roads  diverge 
from  it.  The  ancient  name  of  this  place  was  Maleventum,  but  in  spite  of  its  change 
of  name  the  town  has  frequently  suffered  from  sieges  and  earthquakes,  and  of  all 
the  great  edifices  of  its  past  there  now  remains  only  a  fine  triumphal  arch  erected 
in  honour  of  Trajan,  llie  city  walls,  nearly  four  miles  in  circumference,  have  for 
the  most  part  been  constructed  from  the  fragments  of  ancient  monuments. 

Ariano,  to  the  east  of  Benevento,  and  also  in  the  basin  of  the  Yoltumo,  is 
built  upon  three  hills  commanding  a  magnificent  prospect,  extending  from  the 


wmmmm^^^mm^'^ 


T  >ifi&  c   t^^~iA  <S"  rtioT^wfiu'  t. 


806 


ITALY. 


often  snow-clad  Matese  Mountaios  to  the  cone  of  the  Yultur.  It  lies  on  the  nil- 
road  connecting  Naples  with  Foggia  and  the  Adriatic,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade.  Campobasso,  the  capital  of  Molise,  is  likewise  an  important  commercial 
intermediary,  though  still  without  a  railway. 

The  commercial  towns  on  the  Adriatic  slope  of  the  Apennines  are  of  greater 
importance  than  those  to  the  east.  Foggia,  on  the  Tavoglieri  di  Puglia,  upon 
which  converge  four  railways  and  several  high-roads,  is  a  great  mart  for  provisions, 
and  in  importance  and  wealth,  though  not  in  population,  is  the  second  city  of 
Naples.  Several  smaller  towns  surround  it  like  satellites,  such  as  San  Severo, 
Cerignola,  and  Lucera,  which  became  wealthy  in  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the 
Saracens,  exiled  from  Sicily  by  Frederick  II.,  settled  here.  Foggia,  however,  and 
its  sister  cities,  in  spite  of  the  proximity  of  the  Bay  of  Manfredonia,  have  no  direct 
outlet  to  the  sea,  for  the  coast  for  a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  from  Manfredonia  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Otranto,  is  fringed  by  insalubrious  lagoons  and  marshes.  The 
reclamation  of  thetie  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  Southern  Italy  to  develop 
its  great  natural  resources.  The  largest  of  these  lagoons  or  marshes,  that  of 
Salpi,  has  been  reduced  to  the  extent  of  one-half  by  the  alluvium  conveyed  into  it 
by  the  rivers  Carapella  and  Ofanto,  but  as  long  as  the  new  land  remains  unculti- 
vated deadly  miasmata  will  not  cease.  At  the  eastern  extremity  of  this  marsh 
stood  the  ancient  city  of  Salapia. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Gargano,  to  the  north  of  these  marshes, 
are  the  harbours  of  Manfredonia  and  Yieste,  very  favourably  situated  for  sailing 
vessels  compelled  by  stress  of  weather  to  put  into  port.  The  first  harbour  to  the 
south  of  the  marshes  is  Barletta,  near  which  is  the  "  Field  of  Blood,"  recalling  the 
battle  of  Oannse.  Barletta  exports  cereals,  wines,  oil,  and  fruit,  partly  grown  on 
the  old  feudal  estates  near  the  inland  towns  of  Andria,  Oorata,  and  Ruvo.  The 
latter,  the  ancient  Rubi,  has  yielded  a  rich  hardest  of  antiquities  of  every  kind. 
The  other  coast  towns  to  the  south-east  of  Barletta  are — ^Trani,  which  carried  on 
a  considerable  Levant  trade  towards  the  dose  of  the  Middle  Ages;  Bisceglia; 
Molfetta ;  Bari,  the  most  populous  town  on  the  Adriatic  slope  of  Naples ;  and 
Monopoli,  all  of  which  are  much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels.  Tasano,  near 
Monopoli,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  port  of  Gnatia,  and,  like  Rubi,  has 
well  repaid  the  search  for  archaeological  remains. 

Brindisi,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Otranto,  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans  and  during  the  Orusades,  was  one  of  the  great  stations  on  the 
route  from  Western  Europe  to  the  East,  and  is  likely  again  to  occupy  that 
position.  It  lies  at  the  very  entrance  to  the  Adriatic.  Its  roadstead  is  excellent, 
and  its  harbour  one  of  the  best  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  entrance  is  narrow, 
and  was  formerly  choked  up  with  the  remains  of  wrecks  and  mud,  but  is  now 
practicable  for  steamers  of  the  largest  sice.  The  two  arms  of  the  harbour  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  antlers  of  a  stag,  and  to  this  circumstance  the  town  is 
indebted  for  its  name,  which  is  of  Mesapian  origin,  and  means  "  antler-shaped." 
Brindisi  has  recently  become  the  European  terminus  of  the  overland  route  to 
India,  and  many  new  buildings  have  risen  in  honour  of  this  event,  which  it 


» 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


807 


It  lies  on  the  rail- 
s  on  a  considerable 
K>rtant  commercial 

ines  are  of  greater 
ri  di  Puglia,  upon 
mart  for  provisions, 
the  second  city  of 
loh  as  San  Severe, 
century,  when  the 
ggia,  however,  and 
}nia,  have  no  direct 
om  Manfredonia  to 
and  marshes.  The 
m  Italy  to  develop 
)r  marshes,  that  of 
im  conveyed  into  it 
id  remains  unculti- 
mity  of  this  marsh 

th  of  these  marshes, 
situated  for  sailing 
first  harbour  to  the 
Uood,"  recalling  the 
lit,  partly  grown  on 
i,  and  Ruvo.  The 
ities  of  every  kind, 
li,  which  carried  on 
ie  Ages;  Bisoeglia; 
Dpe  of  Naples ;  and 
isels.  Tasano,  near 
and,  like  Bubi,  has 

)traiito,  in  the  time 
reat  stations  on  the 
;ain  to  occupy  that 
adstead  is  excellent, 
entrance  is  narrow, 
Ld  mud,  but  is  now 
of  the  harbour  bear 
Distance  the  town  is 
ms  "  antler-shaped." 
le  overland  route  to 
bhis  event,  which  it 


was  expected  would  convert  the  town  into  an  emporium  of  Eastern  trade.  These 
expectations  have  not  been  realised.  Several  thousand  hurried  travellers  pasa 
that  way  every  year,  but  Marseilles,  Genoa,  and  Trieste  have  lost  none  of  their 
importance  as  commercial  ports  in  consequence.  Moreover,  v.'hen  the  Turkish 
railways  are  completed,  the  position  now  held  by  Brindisi  will  most  likoly  be 
transferred  to  Saloniki  or  Constantinople.* 

Taranto,  or  Tarent,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  is  making  an  effort,  like 
Brindisi,  to  revive  its  nncient  commercial  activity.  Its  harbour,  the  Piccolo  Mare, 
or  "  little  sea,"  is  deep  and  perfectly  sheltered,  and  its  roadstead,  or  Mare  Qrande, 
is  fairly  protected  by  two  outlying  islands  against  the  surge.    As  at  Spezia,  springs 

Fig.  Ul.-Tui  Harbouh  or  Brwdiu  in  1871. 
Soala  1 :  86,000. 


—  M—  tf  '»J3Att. 


of  fresh  water,  known  as  Oitro  and  Gitrello,  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  harbour 
as  well  as  in  the  roadstead.  The  geographical  position  of  Tarent  enables  it  suc- 
cessfully to  compete  with  Bari  and  the  ether  ports  of  the  Adriatic  for  the  com- 
merce of  inland  towns  like  Matera,  Oravina,  and  Altamura,  and  it  appears  to  be 
destined  to  become  the  g^reat  emporium  for  the  Ionian  trade.  No  other  town  of 
Italy  offers  equal  facilities  for  the  construction  of  a  port,  but  the  two  channels,  one 
natural  and  the  other  artificial,  which  join  the  two  "  seas "  have  become  choked, 
and  only  small  craft  are  now  able  to  reach  the  harbour.  Modem  Tarent  is  a  small 
town,  with  narrow  streets,  built  to  the  east  of  the  Greek  city  of  that  name,  on  the 

*  In  1863  1,100  veaaeli,  of  76,000  torn,  eaterad  and  cleared  at  Brindiai;  in  1875  1,342  ymuJB, 
inotniive  of  896  ■teamen,  of  771,096  tons,  in  the  foreign  trade. 


-2&.. 


h 


806 


ITALY. 


'■■ 


limeitone  rock  bounded  by  the  two  channels.  Its  commerce  has  been  slowly 
increasing  since  the  opening  of  tho  railway,  its  industry  being  limited  to  fishing, 
oyster-drodging,  and  the  manufacture  of.  bay-salt;  and  tho  Taranteso  enjoy  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  indolent  people  in  Italy.  The  heaps  of  shells  on  the 
beach  no  longer  supply  the  purple  for  which  the  town  was  formerly  famous ;  but 
tho  inhabitants  still  make  use  of  the  byssus  of  a  bivalve  in  the  manufacture  of 
very  strong  gloves. 

The  only  towns  of  any  importance  in  the  peninsula  stretching  southwards 
from  Brindisi  and  Tarent  are  Lecco  and  Gallipoli,  the  former  surrounded  by 
cotton  plantations,  the  latter — the  Eallipolis,  or  "  beautiful  city,"  of  the  Greeks — 
picturesquely  perched  on  an  islet  attached  by  a  bridge  to  the  mainland.  The 
surrounding  country,  owing  to  the  want  of  moisture,  is  comparatively  barren. 

Fig.  lis.— Thb  Hauboi'u  or  lAaANio. 
B«>1«  1  !  *os,ooo. 


'8  HUM 


The  western  peninsula  of  Naples  is  far  better  irrigated  than  that  of  Otranto, 
but  this  advantage  is  counterbalanced  to  a  large  extent  by  the  mountainous 
nature  of  the  country,  and  by  its  frequent  earthquakes.  Fotenza,  a  town  at  the 
very  neck  of  this  peninsula,  half-way  between  the  Ghilf  of  Tarent  and  the  Bay 
of  Salerno,  most  happily  situated  as  a  place  of  commerce,  has  repeatedly  been 
destroyed  by  earthquakes,  and  its  inhabitants  have  only  ventured  to  rebuild  it  in 
a  temporary  manner. 

The  famous  old  cities  of  Calabria,  such  as  Metapontum  and  Heraolea,  have 
ceased  to  exist.  Sybaris  the  powerful,  with  walls  six  miles  in  circumference,  and 
suburbs  extending  for  eight  miles  along  the  Grati,  is  now  covered  with  alluvium 
and  shrubs — "  its  very  ruins  have  perished."  The  city  of  the  Loori,  to  the  aoutii 
of  Gerace,  which  existed  until  the  tenth  eentury,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens,  has  at  least  retained  ruins  of  its  walls,  temples,  and  other  buildings. 


mm»_<iM.f,^^gm 


-t- 


le  hu«  been  slowly 
i^  limited  to  fishing, 
Daranteso  enjoy  the 
aps  of  shells  on  the 
rmerly  famous ;  but 
the  manufacture  of 

etching  southwards 
mer  surrounded  by 
y,"  of  the  Greeks— 
the  mainland.  The 
ratively  barren. 


han  that  of  Otranto, 
by  the  mountainous 
ttenza,  a  town  at  the 
Tarent  and  the  Bay 
has  repeatedly  been 
tured  to  rebuild  it  in 

I  and  Heradea,  have 
in  circumference,  and 
jvered  with  alluviiim 
le  Loori,  to  the  south 
Kras  destroyed  by  the 
and  other  buildingik 


SICILY. 

The  only  one  of  these  old  cities  still  in  existence  is  Gotrone,  the  ancient  Oro- 
to.  .,  the  "  gateway  to  the  granary  of  Calabria."  In  travelling  olong  the  coasts 
of  Greater  Greece  we  feel  astonished  at  the  few  ruins  of  a  past  which  exercised  so 
powerful  an  influence  upon  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  existing  towns  of  Oalabria  cannot  compare  in  importance  with  those  of  a 
past  age.  Rossano,  near  the  ruins  of  Sybaris,  is  the  small  capital  of  a  district,  and 
if«  visited  only  by  coasters.  Oosenza,  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  Orati,  at  the  foot 
of  the  wooded  Sila,  keeps  up  its  communications  with  Naples  and  Messina  through 
the  harbour  of  Paola.  Oatanzaro  exports  its  oil,  silk,  and  fVuit  either  by  way 
of  the  Bay  of  Squillace,  on  the  shores  of  which  Hannibal  had  pitched  his  camp, 
or  through  Pizzo,  a  small  port  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Bay  of  Santa 
Eufemia.  Reggio,  nestling  in  groves  of  lemon  and  orange  trees  at  the  foot  of  the 
Aspromonte,  is  the  most  important  town  of  Calabria.  It  stands  on  the  narrow 
strait  separating  the  mainland  from  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  could  not  fail  to 
absorb  some  of  the  commerce  passing  through  that  central  gateway  of  the  Medi* 
terranean.  Messina  and  Reggio  mutually  complement  each  other,  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  one  must  result  in  that  of  the  sister  city.* 


VII. — Sicily. 

The  Trinaoarda  of  the  ancients,  the  island  with  tae  "  three  promontories,"  is 
clearly  a  dependency  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea.  The  Strait  of  Messina,  where  narrowest,  is  not  quite  two 
miles  in  width.  It  can  be  easily  crossed  in  barges,  and,  with  the  resources  at  our 
command,  a  bridge  might  easily  be  thrown  across  it,  similar  enterprises  having 
succeeded  elsewhere.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  before  the  close  of  this 
century  either  a  tunnel  or  a  bridge  will  join  Sicily  to  the  mainland,  and  human 
industry  will  thus  restore  in  some  way  the  isthmus  which  formerly  joined  the 
Cape  of  Faro  to  the  Italian  Aspromonte.  We  know  nothing  about  the  period  when 
this  rupture  took  place,  but  to  judge  from  the  ancient  name  of  the  strait — 
Heptastadion — it  must  have  been  much  narrower  in  former  times,  t 

*  Towna  of  Kaplet  hsTing  over  10,000  inhabitanU  (in  1870):— Naples  (Napoli),  421,803;  Bari, 
40,423;  Foggia,  84,181;  Andria,  33,67.8;  Reggio,  20,864;  Barletta,  27,444;  Molfetto,  26,616;  Oorata, 
26,018;  Tnoti,  24,026 :  Bitonto,  28,087 ;  Taranto,  22,868;  CaiteUamute  di  Stabia,  22,037  ;  Cerignola, 
21,739 ;  Lecoe,  21,081 ;  8aIerno,  30,611 ;  Avena,  19,734  ;  Biaceglia,  19,007  ;  Toire  del  Greco,  18,060  ; 
Catanaaro,  18,781 ;  Potenaa,  18,613;  Gaeta,  18,386;  Avellino,  18,260;  Gerliaai,  18,176;  Maddaloni, 
17,578;  Afragola,  17,641;  FrancaTilla  Fontaoa,  17,467;  BeneTento,  17,370;  Altamura,  17,004;  Santa 
Maria  Capua  Vetere,  16,786 ;  San  Severo,  16,646 ;  Torre  Annnnaiata,  16,321 ;  Ravo  di  Puglia,  16,066 ; 
Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  14,003 ;  Roaaano,  14,818 ;  San  Maroo  in  Lamia,  14,640 ;  Coienaa,  14,622 ;  Caaerta 
14,678;  Ganoaa  di  Puglia,  14,468;  Oatuni,  14,422;  Ariano  di  Poglia,  14,847;  Matera,  14,262; 
Monopoli,  13,800 ;  Hinenrino  lluige,  13,630 ;  Martina  Franoa,  13,440  ;  Campobaaao,  13,346 ;  Brindiii, 
13,194  ;  Luoera,  13,064 ;  Acerra,  12,868 ;  Ceglia  Meaaaoapio,  .12,682 ;  Gioja  del  Oolla,  12,442 ;  Pagani, 
12,208;  Fasano,  12,190;  Capua,  12,174 ;  Oittanova,  12,137  ;  Palo  di  Colla,  11,887;  Moladi  Bari,  11,776; 
Pozauoli,  11,761;  Rionent  in  Voltara,  11,620;  MalS,  11.326;  Reaina,  11,133;  Samo,  10,933;  San 
Giovanni  del  Teduccio,  10,898 ;  Nola,  10,771 ;  Gingliano  in  Campania,  10,761 ;  Lauria,  10,609 ; 
Frattamaggiore,  10,486 ;  Corigliano  Oalabro.  10,481 ;  Kioastxo,  10,418;  Gairaao,  10,081 ;  Honteoorvo, 
10,020 ;  Gonvenano,  10,012. 

t  Minimum  width  of  the  Strait  of  Maiiina,  10,330  feet;  maximum  depth,  1,090  feet ;  average  depth, 
246  feet. 


!^:.'.       ! 


810 


ITALY. 


From  un  bistoriottl  point  of  viow  Sicily  may  ■till  be  looked  upon  m  a  portion 
of  the  muinlund,  for  the  atruit  can  be  oroMed  almost  aa  easily  aa  a  wide  river.  On 
the  other  band,  it  enjoy*  all  the  advantages  of  u  maritime  position.     Situate  in  thu 


Fig.  113.— Tiia  Htmit  op  Mbmina. 


SMllM. 


▼ery  centre  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  Tyrrhenian  and  the  eastern  basin, 
it  commands  all  the  commercial  high-roads  which  lead  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
East.     Its  excellent  harbours  invite  navigators  to  stay  on  its  coasts ;  its  soil  ia 


i«»iiin  I'llllBlBm'I.WIiri  li|--  »«n.l>,;»;i-.. 


SiOILY. 


811 


upon  M  a  portion 
I  a  wide  river.     On 
Situate  in  tho 


ion 


NUN 


and  tlie  eastern  basin, 
)m  the  Atlantic  to  the 
1  its  coasts ;  its  soil  is 


uxoeedingly  fertile ;  the  most  varied  natural  resourcea  inrure  the  oxistonoe  of  its 
inhabitants ;  and  a  genial  climate  promotes  tho  dovolopmont  of  life.  Hardly  a 
district  of  Europe  appears  to  bo  in  a  more  favourable  position  for  supporting  a 
dense  population  in  comfort.  Sicily,  indeed,  is  more  densely  populated  and 
wealthier  than  the  neighbouring  island  of  Sardinia  or  cither  of  tlio  Neapolitan 
provinces,  the  Campania  alone  excepted,  and  rivals  in  importance  tho  provinces 
of  Northern  Italy.* 

Sicily,  whenever  it  has  been  allowed  to  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  peace  and 
froodom,  has  always  recovered  with  wonderful  rapidity ;  and  it  would  certainly 
now  be  one  of  the  most  prosperous  countries  if  wars  had  not  so  frequently  devas- 
tated it,  and  the  yoke  of  foreign  oppressors  had  not  weighed  so  heavily  upon  it. 

The  triangular  island  of  Sicily  would  possess  great  regularity  of  structure 
if  it  were  not  for  the  bold  mass  of  Mount  Etna,  which  rises  above  the  shores  of  the 
Ionian  Sea  at  the  entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Messina.  From  its  base  to  the  summit 
of  its  crater,  that  huge  protuberance  forms  a  region  apart,  differing  from  the  rest 
of  Sicily  not  only  geologically,  but  also  with  respect  to  its  products,  cultivation, 
and  inhabitants. 

Ancient  mariners  mostly  looked  upon  the  Sicilian  volcano  as  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world ;  nor  did  they  err  much  as  respects  the  world  known  to 


Fig.  114.— Phohlr  dp  Mount  Etna. 


"tk. 


them,  for  only  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Spain  and  Syria,  do 
we  meet  with  mountains  exceeding  this  one  in  height ;  and  Mount  Etna  is  not  only 
remarkable  from  its  isolated  position,  but  likewise  by  the  beauty  of  its  contours,  the 
lurid  Rheen  of  its  incandescent  lavas,  and  the  column  of  smoke  rising  from  its 
summit.  From  whatever  side  we  approach  Sicily,  its  snowy  head  is  seen  rising 
high  above  all  the  surrounding  mountains.  Its  position  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
Mediterranean  contributed  in  no  small  measure  to  secure  to  it  a  pre-eminence 
amongst  mountains.  It  was  looked  upon  as  the  "  pillar  of  the  heavens,"  and  at  a 
later  epoch  the  Arabs  only 'spoke  of  it  as  el  Jebel,  "  the  mountain,"  which  has 
been  corrupted  by  the  people  dwelling  near  it  into  "  Mon  gi  hello." 

The  mean  slopes  of  Mount  Etna,  prolonged  as  they  are  by  streams  of  lavas 
extending  in  every  direction,  are  very  gentle,  and  on  looking  at  a  profile  of  this 
mountain  it  will  hardly  be  believed  that  its  aspect  is  so  majestic.  It  occupies, 
in  fact,  an  area  of  no  less  than  460  square  miles,  and  its  base  has  a  develop* 
ment  of  about  80  miles.  The  whole  of  this  space  is  bounded  by  the  sea,  and  by 
the  valleys  of  the  Alcantara  and  Simeto.  A  saddle,  only  2,820  feet  in  height, 
connects  it  in  the  north-west  with  the  mountain  system  of  the  remainder  of  Italy. 
Small  cones  of  eruption  are  met  with  beyond  the  mass  of  the  volcano  to  the  north 

•  Area  of  Rioily,  11,290  iquare  miles ;  population  in  1870,  2,66fi,800  sou^ ;  density,  227. 


8ia 


ITALY. 


I 


! 


of  the  Alcantara,  and  streams  of  lava  having  filled  up  the  ancient  valley  of  the 
Simeto,  that  river  was  forced  to  excavate  itself  another  bed  through  rooks  of 
basalt,  and  now  descends  to  the  sea  in  rapids  and  cascades. 

An  enormous  hollow,  covering  an  area  of  ten  square  miles,  and  more  than  3,000 
feet  in  depth,  occupies  a  portion  of  the  western  slopo  of  the  volcano.  This  is  the 
Yal  di  Bove,  a  vast  amphitheatre  of  explosion,  the  bottom  of  which  is  dotted  over 
with  subsidiary  craters,  and  which  rises  in  gigantic  steps,  over  which,  when  the 
mountain  is  in  a  state  of  eruption,  pour  fiery  cascades  of  lava.  Lyell  has  shown 
that  this  Yal  di  Bove  is  the  ancient  crater  of  Mount  Etna,  but  that,  at  some 
period  not  known  to  us,  the  existing  terminal  vent  opened  a  couple  of  miles  farther 
west.  The  steep  sides  of  the  Yal  di  Bove  enable  us  to  gain  a  considerable  insight 
into  the  history  of  the  volcano,  for  the  various  layers  of  lava  may  be  studied  there 
at  leisure.  The  cliffs  upon  which  stands  the  town  of  ^ai  Beale  afford  a  similar 
opportunity  for  embracing  at  one  glance  a  long  period  of  its  history.  These  cliffs, 
over  300  feet  in  height,  consist  of  seven  distinct  layers  of  lava,  successively  poured 
forth  from  the  bowels  of  Mount  Etna.  Each  layer  consists  nearly  throughout 
of  a  compact  mass,  affording  no  hold  for  the  roots  of  plants,  but  their  surfaces 
have  invariably  been  converted  into  tufa,  or  even  mould,  owing  to  atmospheric 
agencies  which  operated  for  centuries  after  each  eruption.  It  has  likewise  been 
proved  that  these  clifEs  not  only  increased  in  height  in  consequence  of  successive 
eruptions,  but  that  they  were  also  repeatedly  upheaved  from  below.  Lines  of 
erosion  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  waves  can  be  distinctly  traced  at  various 
elevations  above  the  present  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  lavas,  too,  have 
undergone  a  change  of  structure  since  they  were  poured  forth,  as  is  proved  by 
beautiful  caverns  enclosed  by  prismatic  columns  of  basalt,  and  by  the  islet  of  the 
Cyclops,  near  Aci  Trezza. 

During  the  last  two  thousand  years  Mount  Etna  has  had  more  than  a 
hundred  eruptions,  some  of  them  continuing  for  a  number  of  yearq.  Hitherto  it 
has  not  been  possible  to  trace  any  regularity  in  these  eruptions.  They  appear  to 
occur  at  irregular  intervals,  and  the  quantity  of  lava  poured  forth  from  the  prin- 
cipal or  any  subsidiary  cone  varies  exceedingly.  The  most  considerable  stream 
of  lava  of  which  we  have  any  record  was  that  which  overwhelmed  the  city  of 
Catania  in  1669.  It  first  converted  the  fields  of  Nicolosi  intb  a  fiery  lake,  then 
enveloped  a  portion  of  the  hill  of  Monpilieri,  which  for  a  time  arrested  its  progress, 
and  finally  divided  into  three  separate  streams,  the  principal  of  which  descended 
upon  Catania.  It  swept  away  a  part  of  that  town,  filled  up  its  port,  and  formed  a 
promontory  in  its  stead.  The  quantity  of  lava  poured  forth  on  that  occasion  has 
been  estimated  at  3,532  millions  of  cubic  feet ;  and  nearly  40  square  miles  of 
fertile  land,  supporting  a  population  of  20,000  souls,  were  converted  into  a  stony 
waste.  The  double  cone  of  Monti  Rossi,  with  its  beautiful  crater  now  grown  over 
with  golden-flowered  b^oom,  was  formed  by  the  ashes  ejected  during  that  great 
eruption.  More  than  700  subsidiary  oones,  similar  to  the  Monti  Rossi,  are 
scattered  over  the  exterior  slopes  of  Mount  Etna,  and  bear  witness  to  as  many 
eruptions.     The  most  ancient  amongst  them  have  been  nearly  obliterated  in  the 


SICILY. 


818 


cient  valley  of  tlie 
I  through  rocks  of 

nd  more  than  3,000 
Icano.     This  is  the 
vhich  is  dotted  over 
er  which,  when  the 
,    Lyell  has  shown 
,  but  that,  at  some 
uple  of  miles  farther 
considerable  insight 
nay  be  studied  there 
Leale  afford  a  similar 
istory.    These  cliffs, 
,,  successively  poured 
s  nearly  throughout 
8,  but  their  surfaces 
wing  to  atmospheric 
It  has  likewise  been 
squenoe  of  successive 
)m  below.    lines  of 
tly  traced  at  various 
The  lavas,  too,  have 
jrth,  as  is  proved  by 
,d  by  the  islet  of  the 

IS  had  more  than  a 
►f  yearq.     Hitherto  it 
ans.     They  appear  to 
forth  from  the  prin- 
t  considerable  stream 
rwhelmed  the  city  of 
intb  a  fiery  lake,  then 
le  arrested  its  progress, 
il  of  which  descended 
I  its  port,  and  formed  a 
h  on  that  occasion  has 
•ly  40  square  miles  of 
jonverted  into  a  stony 
crater  now  grown  over 
ted  during  that  great 
the  Monti  Bossi,  are 
ir  witness  to  as  many 
early  obliterated  in  the 


course  of  ages,  or  buried  beneath  streams  of  lava,  but  the  others  still  retain  their 
conical  shape,  and  rise  to  a  height  of  many  hundred  feet.  Several  amongst  them 
are  now  covered  with  forests,  and  the  craters  of  others  have  been  converted  into 
gardens — delightful  cup-shaped  hollows,  where  villas  shine  like  gems  set  in 
verdure. 

Most  of  these  subsidiary  cones  lie  at  an  elevation  of  between  3,300  and  6,600 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  there  the  internal  forces  make  themselves  most  strongly 
felt.  As  a  rule  the  subterranean  activity  is  less  violent  near  the  summit,  and 
during  most  of  the  eruptions  the  great  terminal  crater  merely  serves  as  a  vent, 

Fig.  116.— Tub  Lata  Stkbam  of  Catamia. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


ll.*i|E.orr.r. 


■SHllM. 


through  which  the  aqueous  vapours  and  gases  make  their  escape.  Fumaroles 
surrounding  it  convert  the  soil  into  a  kind  of  pap,  and  the  substances  which  escape 
froih  them  streak  the  soori89  with  brilliant  colours— scarlet,  yellow,  and  emerald 
green.  The  internal  heat  makes  itself  felt  on  many  parts  of  the  exterior  slopes. 
It  converts  loose  rocks  into  a  compact  mass,  far  less  difficult  to  climb  than  are 
the  loose  cinders  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  Travellers  ascending  the  mountain  need 
fear  nothing  from  volcanic  bombs.  Showers  of  stone  are  occasionally  ejected  from 
the  principal  vent,  but  this  is  quite  an  exceptional  occurrence.  If  it  were  not  so, 
the  smaU  structure  above  the  precipices  of  the  Val  di  Bove,  which  dates  from  the 


r 


814 


ITALY. 


time  of  the  Romans,  and  is  known  as  the  "  Philosopher's  Tower,"  would  long  ago 
have  been  buried  bsneath  debris.  A  meteorological  observatory  might  therefore  be 
established  with  safety  on  the  summit  of  this  mountain,  and  no  better  station  could 
be  found  for  giving  warning  of  approaching  storms. 

The  summit  of  Mount  Etna,  10,866  feet  in  height,  does  not  penetrate  the  zone 
of  perennial  snow,  and  the  heat  emitted  from  the  subterranean  focus  soon  melts 
the  incipient  glaciers  which  accumulate  in  hollows.  Nevertheless  the. upper  half 
of  the  mountain  is  covered  with  a  shroud  of  white  during  a  great  part  of  the  year. 
It  might  be  imagined  that  the  tmow  and  copious  rains  woidd  give  birth  to  numerous 
rivulets  descending  from  the  slopes  of  the  volcano;  but  the  small  stones  and 
cinders  which  cover  the  solid  beds  of  lava  promptly  absorb  all  moisture,  and 
springs  are  met  with  only  in   a  few  favoured  spots.     They  are  abundant  on 

Fig.  11 B. — 8l7B8IDIART  CONBB  OF  MoVNT  EtNA. 


llWSi'i" 


the  lower  slopes,  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea.  One  of  these  is  the 
fountain  of  Acis,  which  issues  from  the  chaos  of  rooks  which  Polyphemus  is 
said  to  have  hurled  at  the  ships  of  sage  Ulysses.  Another  gives  birth  to  the 
river  Amenano,  which  rises  in  the  town  of  Catania,  and  hastens  in  silvery  cascades 
towards  its  port.  When  we  look  at  these  clear  springs  in  the  midst  of  black  sands 
and  burnt  rocks  we  are  able  to  comprehend  the  fancy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  who 
regarded  them  as  divine  beings,  in  whose  honour  they  struck  medals  and  raised 
statues. 

Though  running  streams  are  scarcely  met  with  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Etna, 
its  cinders  retain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  moisture  to  support  a  luxuriant  vegetation. 
The  mountain  is  clad  with  verdure  except  where  the  surface  of  the  lava  is  too 
conlpact  to  be  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Only  the  highest  regions,  which 
are  covered  with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  are  barren.    It  is 


iimiiHMi<w:r.wi<Hi».. — 


liOKB!^«— -~ 


SICILY. 


816 


ir,"  would  long  ago 

might  therefore  be 

better  station  could 

penetrate  the  zone 
a  focus  soon  melts 
jless  the  upper  half 
eat  part  of  the  year, 
f  e  birth  to  numerous 
le  small  stones  and 
b  all  moisture,  and 
y  are  abundant  on 


',"E«fCp 


^U 


One  of  these  is  the 
prhich  Polyphemus  is 
ler  gives  birth  to  the 
ens  in  silvery  cascades 
e  midst  of  black  sands 
e  ancient  Greeks,  who 
ok  medals  and  raised 

slopes  of  Mount  Etna, 
a  luxuriant  vegetation, 
face  of  the  lava  is  too 
highest  regions,  which 
rear,  are  barren.    It  is 


a  remarkable  fact  that  the  flora  of  the  Alps  should  not  be  met  with  on  Mount  Etna, 
although  the  temperature  suits  it  exactly. 

Formerly  the  volcano  was  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  forests  occupying  the  zone 
between  the  cultivated  lands  and  the  region  of  snow  and  cinders.  Such  is  the 
case  no  longer.  On  the  southern  slope,  which  is  that  usually  ascendea  by  tourists, 
there  are  no  forests  at  all,  and  only  the  trunk  of  some  ancient  oak  if,  occasionally 
met  with.  On  the  other  slopes  groves  of  trees  are  more  frequent,  particularly  in 
the  north,  where  there  remain  a  few  lofty  trees,  which  impart  quite  an  alpine 
character  to  the  scenery.  But  the  wood-cutters  prosecute  their  work  of  exter- 
mination without  mercy,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  time  is  not  very  distant 
when  even  the  last  vestiges  of  the  ancient  forests  will  have  disappeared.  The 
magnificent  chestnuts  on  the  western  slopes,  amongst  which  could  be  admired  until 
recently  the  "  tree  of  the  hundred  horses,"  bear  witness  to  the  astonishing  fertility 
of  the  lava.  If  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  only  desired  it,  a  few  years  would 
suffice  to  restore  to  Mount  Etna  its  ancient  covering  of  foliage. 

The  cultivated  zone  occupying  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  presents  in 
many  places  the  appearance  of  a  beautiful  garden.  There  are  groves  of  olive, 
orange,  lemon,  and  other  fruit  trees,  in  the  midst  of  which  rise  clumps  of  palms, 
and  villas,  churches,  and  monasteries  peep  out  from  this  mass  of  verdure.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  so  great  that  it  supports  a  population  three  or  four  times  more 
numerous  than  that  in  any  other  part  of  Italy.  More  than  300,000  inhabitants 
dwell  on  the  slopes  of  a  mountain  which  might  be  supposed  to  inspire  terror,  and 
whjch  actually  bursts  at  intervals,  burying  fertile  fields  beneath  a  fiery  deluge. 
Town  succeeds  town  along  its  base  like  pearls  in  a  necklace,  and  when  a  stream 
of  lava  effects  a  breach  in  this  chain  of  human  habitations  it  is  closed  up  again  as 
soon  as  the  lava  has  had  time  to  cool.  From  the  rim  of  the  crater  the  mountain 
climber  looks  down  with  astonishment  upon  these  human  ant-hills.  The  con- 
centric zones  of  houses  and  verdure  contrast  curiously  with  the  snows  and  ashes 
occupying  the  centre  of  the  picture,  and  with  the  barren  limestone  rocks  beyond 
the  Simeto.  And  this  is  only  a  small  portion  of  the  vast  and  marvellous  prospect, 
embracing  a  radius  of  134  miles.  Well  may  the  beholder  be  enchanted  by  the 
unrivalled  spectacle  of  three  seas,  of  a  deeper  blue  than  the  skies,  washing  the 
shores  of  Sicily,  of  Calabria,  and  of  the  islands  of  .i^olia. 

Mount  Pelorus,  which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  chain  of  the  Aspromonte  of 
Calabria,  is  of  very  inferior  height  to  Mount  Etna,  but  it  had  existed  for  ages 
when  the  space  now  occupied  by  the  volcano  was  only  a  bay  of  the  sea.  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  &  crater  existed  on  the  highest  summit  of  Pelorus 
dedicated  to  Neptune,  and  now  to  the  "Mother  of  God,"  or  Dinna  Mare 
(3,600  feet),  but  such  is  not  the  case.  These  mountains  consist  of  primitive  and 
transition  rocks,  with  beds  of  limestone  and  marble  on  their  flanks.  They  first 
follow  the  coast  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  where  they  form  numerous  steep  promontories, 
and  tiien,  turning  abruptly  towards  the  west,  run  parallel  with  that  of  the  .^lian 
Sea.  Their  culminating  point,  near  the  centre,  is  known  as  Madonia  (6,336  feet), 
and  the  magnificent  forests  which  still  clothe  it  impart  to  that  part  of  the  island 


fir* 


W»i     i.1|  liflt^  ?.^  ^^ffl,^ 


^<   -t.  t  ^  tO*  ' 


816 


ITALY. 


"if 


quite  a  northern  aspect,  and  we  might  almost  fancy  ourselves  in  the  Apenni^ies  or 
Maritime  Alps.  Limestone  promontories  of  the  most  varied  profile  advance  into 
the  blue  waters  of  the  sea,  and  render  this  coast  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
Mediterranean.  We  are  seized  with  admiration  when  we  behold  the  enormous 
quadrangular  block  of  Oefalu,  the  more  undulating  hill  of  Termini,  the  vertical 
masses  of  Coltafano,  and  above  all,  near  Palermo,  the  natural  fortress  of  Monte 
Pellegrino  (1,970  feet),  an  almost  inaccessible  rock,  upon  which  Hamilcar  Barca 
resisted  for  three  years  the  efforts  of  a  Roman  army  to  dislodge  him.  Monte  San 
Giuliano  (2,300  feet),  an  almost  isolated  limestone  summit,  terminates  this  chain 
in  the  west.    It  is  the  Eryx  of  the  ancients,  who  dedicated  it  to  Venus. 

The  mountains  which  branch  off  from  this  main  chain  towards  the  south  gra- 
dually decrease  in  height  as  they  approach  the  sea.  The  principal  slopes  of  the 
island  descend  towards  the  Ionian  and  Sicilian  Seas,  and  all  its  perennial  rivers — 
the  Flatani,  Salso,  and  Simeto — flow  in  these  directions.  The  rivers  on  the 
northern  slope  are  mere  fiumare,  formidable  after  heavy  rains,  but  lost  in  beds  of 
shingle  during  the  dry  season.  The  lakes  and  swamps  of  the  island  are  likewise 
confined  to  the  southern  slope  of  the  mountains.  Amongst  them  are  the  pantani, 
and  the  Lake,  or  biviere,  of  Lentini,  which  is  the  most  extensive  sheet  of  water  in 
Sicily ;  the  Lake  of  Pergusa,  or  Enna,  formerly  surrounded  by  flowery  meadows  in 
which  Proserpine  was  seized  by  Pluto ;  the  biviere  of  Terranova ;  and  several 
marshy  tracts,  the  remains  of  ancient  bays  of  the  sea.  This  southern  coast  of  the 
island  contrasts  most  imfavourably  with  the  northern,  for,  in  the  place  of  pic- 
turesque promontories  of  the  most  varied  outline,  we  meet  with  a  monotonous  si^dy 
shore,  devoid  of  all  shade.  Natural  harbours  are  scarce  there,  and  during  the 
winter  storms  vessels  frequenting  it  are  exposed  to  much  danger. 

The  southern  slope  of  Sicily,  to  the  south  of  the  Madonia,  consists  of  tertiary 
and  more  recent  rooks,  abounding  in  fossil  shells  mostly  belonging  to  species  still 
living  in  the  neighbouring  sea.  In  the  hills  to  the  south  of  Catania  these  tertiary 
rooks  alternate  with  strata  of  volca&io  origin,  which  are  evidently  derived  froqi 
submarine  eruptions.  This  process  is  still  going  on  between  Girgenti  and  the 
island  of  Pantellariti,  where  the  submarine  volcano  of  Giulia  or  Ferdinandea  occa- 
sionally rises  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It  was  seen  in  1801,  and  thirty  years 
later  it  had  another  eruption,  residting  in  the  formation  of  an  island  four  miles  in 
circumference,  which  was  examined  by  Jussieu  and  Constant  Provost.  In  1863  it 
appeared  for  the  third  time.  But  the  waves  of  the  sea  have  always  washed  away 
the  ashes  and  cinders  ejected  on  these  occasions,  spreading  them  in  regular  layers 
over  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  thus  producing  an  alternation  of  strata  similar  to 
that  observed  at  Catania.  In  1840  the  summit  of  this  submarine  volcano  was 
covered  with  only  six  feet  of  water,  but  recently  no  soundings  were  obtained  at  a 
depth  of  fifty  &thoms.  ' 

This  submarine  volcano  is  not  the  only  witness  to  the  activity  of  subter- 
ranean forces  in  Southern  Italy.  We  meet  there  with  mineral  springs  discharging 
carbonic  acid  and  other  gases,  which  prove  fatal  to  the  smaller  animals  venturing 
within  their  influence,  and  with  a  naphtha  lake  near  Palagonia,  from  which  escape, 


SICILY. 


817 


in  tlie  Apennines  or 
profile  advance  into 
LOst  beautiful  of  tbe 
>ehold  the  enormous 
Termini,  the  vertical 
al  fortress  of  Monte 
lich  Hamilcar  Barca 
[ge  him.  Monte  San 
erminates  this  chain 
to  Venus. 

)wards  the  south  gra- 
rinoipal  slopes  of  the 
its  perennial  rivers — 
The  rivers  on  the 
IS,  but  lost  in  beds  of 
;he  island  are  likewise 
bhem  are  the  pantani, 
sive  sheet  of  water  in 
w  flowery  meadows  in 
rranova;  and  several 
s  southern  coast  of  the 
,  in  the  place  of  pic- 
;h  a  monotonous  se^idy 
there,  and  during  the 
nger. 

lia,  consists  of  tertiary 
ilonging  to  species  still 
;  Catania  these  tertiary 
jvidently  derived  froqa 
^een  GUrgenti  and  the 
la  or  Ferdinandea  occa- 
1801,  and  thirty  years 
an  island  four  miles  in 
at  Provost.     In  1863  it 
ve  idways  washed  away 
them  in  regular  layers 
ion  of  strata  similar  to 
submarine  volcano  ytaa 
lings  were  obtained  at  a 

the  activity  of  subter- 
eral  springs  discharging 
laller  animals  venturing 
onia,  from  which  escape, 


likewise,  irrespirable  gases.  A  similar  phenomenon  may  be  witnessed  in 
connection  with  the  Lake  of  Fergpuw,  which  occupies  an  ancient  crater  about  four 
miles  in  circumference,  and  usually  abounds  in  tench  and  eels.    From  time  to 


Fig.  117.— Thi  Macoalvbas  and  Gibouiti. 
SoiJ«l  :  100,000. 


Miss'ivrcr 


S        ■     "<^    "'•i 


'S-^'"'  tk:.. 


rS 


m 


a' 


■^liswi*;;; 


B"ie 


time,  however,  an  escape  of  poisonous  gases  appears  to  take  place  from  the  bottom 
of  the  lake,  which  kills  the  fish,  whose  carcasses  rise  to  the  sur&oe.    Another 
of  these  aabes  has  made  its  appearance  farther  west,  near  th«  Palazzo  Adriano^ 
23 


'^S^f^l^'^raf^^w 


Wt?f&pa^  -It*-  •- 


-??*'V.  ^■^.' 


818 


ITALY. 


and,  indeed,  tho  whole  of  underground  Sioily  appears  to  be  in  a  state  of  chemical 
effervescence. 

Next  to  Mount  Etna  the  great  centre  of  volcanic  activity  in  Sicily  appears  to 
be  near  Qirgenti,  at  a  place  known  as  the  Maccalubas.  The  aspect  of  this  spot 
changes  with  the  seasons.  In  summer  bubbles  of  gas  escape  from  small 
craters  filled  with  liquid  mud,  which  occasionally  overflows,  and  runs  down  the 
exterior  slopes.  The  rains  of  winter  almost  obliterate  these  miniature  volcanoes, 
and  the  plain  is  then  converted  into  one  mass  of  mud,  from  which  the  g^ases  escape. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  soil  was  occasionally  shaken  by  earthquakes, 
and  on  these  occasions  jets  of  mud  and  stones  were  ejected  to  a  height  of  ten  or 
twenty  yards.  The  Maccalubas  appear  now  to  be  in  a  state  of  quiescence,  for 
these  mud  volcanoes  also  seem  to  have  their  regular  periods  of  rest  and  activity. 

The  deposits  of  sulphur,  which  constitute  one  of  the  riches  of  Sicily,  undoubt- 
edly owe  their  existence  to  these  subterranean  lakes  of  seething  lava.  These 
sulphur  beds  are  met  with  in  the  tertiary  strata  extending  from  Oentorbi  to 
Cattolica,  in  the  province  of  GKrgenti.  They  date  from  the  epoch  of  the  Upper 
Miocene,  and  are  deposited  upon  layers  of  fossil  infusoria  exhaling  a  bituminous 
odour.  Geologists  are  not  yet  agreed  on  the  origin  of  these  sulphur  beds,  but  it 
is  most  likely  that  they  are  derived  firom  sulphate  of  lime  carried  to  the  surface 
by  hot  springs.  In  the  same  formation  beds  of  gypsum  and  of  rock-salt  are 
met  with,  and  the  latter  may  frequently  be  traced  from  a  saline  effervescence 
known  as  occhi  di  aak  ("  eyes  of  salt "). 

Sicily,  like  Gbeece,  enjoys  one  of  the  happiest  climates.  The  heat  of  summer 
is  tempered  by  sea  breezes  which  blow  regularly  during  the  hottest  part  of  each 
day.  The  cold  of  winter  would  not  be  felt  at  all  if  it  were  not  for  the  total 
absence  of  every  comfort  in  the  houses,  for  ice  is  not  known,  and  snow  exceedingly 
rare.  The  autumn  rains  are  abundant,  but  there  are  many  fine  days  even  during 
that  season.  The  prevailing  winds  firom  the  north  and  wcbi  are  salubrious,  but 
the  sirocco,  which  usually  blows  towards  the  south-east,  is  deadly,  especially  when  it 
reaches  the  northern  coast.  It  generally  blows  for  three  or  four  days,  and  during 
that  time  no  one  thinks  of  clarifying  wine,  salting  meat,  or  painting  houses  or 
furniture.  This  wind  is  the  great  drawback  to  the  climate^  In  some  parts  of 
Sioily  the  exhalations  from  the  swamps  are  dangerous,  but  thia  is  entirely  the  &ult 
of  man.  It  is  owing  to  his  neglect  that  Agosta  and  Syracuse  suffer  firom  fevers, 
and  that  death  forbids  the  stranger  to  approach  the  ruins  of  ancient  Himera.* 

Temperature  and  moisture  impart  to  the  vegetation  of  the  plains  and  lower 
valleys  a  semi-tropical  aspect.  Many  plants  of  Asia  and  Afirioa  have  become 
acclimatized  in  Sicily.  (Groups  of  date-palms  are  seen  in  the  gardens,  and  the 
plains  around  Sciacca,  almost  African  in  their  appearance,  abound  in  groves  of  dwarf 
palms,  or  giummare,  to  which  ancient  Selinonte  is  indebted  for  its  epithet  of 
Palmoaa.  Cotton  grows  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  up  to  a  height  of  600  feet  above 
the  sea ;  bananas,  sugar-cane,  and  bamboos  do  not  require  the  shelter  of  green- 

*  Mean  uiniul  temp«ntnre  »t  Palermo  and  Hesaiiia,  04°  F. ;  at  Catania  aod  Oirgenti,  48*  F. ;  rajo&ll 
at  Palermo,  26  inohea. 


iriti^iir'iir'iiiihi 


'^"'''^'*~'''''i«>ji*i'''>mn*WiLm<miMmtMmu,m^ 


SICILY. 


819 


1  a  state  of  oliemioal 

in  Sicily  appears  to 
e  aspect  of  this  spot 

escape   from  small 
;,  and  runs  down  the 
I  miniature  volcanoes, 
hich  the  gases  escape, 
aken  by  earthquakes, 
to  a  height  of  ten  or 
ate  of  quiescence,  for 
of  rest  and  activity, 
es  of  Sicily,  undoubt- 
Bcthing  lava.      These 
ing  from  Oentorbi  to 
le  epoch  of  the  Upper 
jxhaling  a  bituminous 
le  sulphur  beds,  but  it 

carried  to  the  surface 
I  and  of  rock-salt  are 

a  saline  effervescence 

The  heat  of  summer 
he  hottest  part  of  each 
were  not  for  the  total 
i,  and  snow  exceedingly 
y  fine  days  even  during 
^est  are  salubrious,  but 
eadly,  especially  when  it 
»r  four  days,  and  during 
t,  or  painting  houses  or 
nate.    In  some  parts  of 
this  is  entirely  the  fault 
acuse  suffer  from  fevers, 
of  ancient  Himera.* 
of  the  plains  and  lower 
<ai  Africa  have  become 
in  the  gardens,  and  the 
ibound  in  groves  of  dwarf 
lebted  for  its  epithet  of 
,  height  of  600  feet  above 
lire  the  shelter  of  green- 

ik  and  Oi^entl,  68°  F. ;  rwn&tt 


houses ;  the  Victoria  regia  covers  the  ponds  with  its  huge  leaves  and  flowers ;  the 
papyrus  of  the  Nile,  which  is  not  known  anywhere  else  in  Europe,  chokes  up  the 
bed  of  the  Anapus,  near  Syracuse :  formerly  it  grew  also  in  the  Oreto,  near  Palermo, 
but  it  does  so  no  longer.  The  cactus  of  Barbary  (Cactus  opuntia)  has  become  the 
most  characteristic  plant  of  the  coast  districts  of  Sicily,  and  is  rapidly  covering  the 
most  unpromising  beds  of  lava.  These  and  other  plants  flourish  most  luxuriantly  on 
the  southern  slopes  of  Moimt  Etna,  where  the  orange-tree  bears  fruit  at  a  height 
of  1,700  feet,  and  the  larch  ascends  even  to  7,400  feet.  These  slopes  facing 
the  African  sun  are  the  hottest  spots  in  Europe,  for  the  volcano  shelters  them 
from  the  winds  of  the  north,  whilst  its  dexk-coloured  scorise  and  cinders  absorb 
the  rays  of  the  mid-day  sun. 

Those  portions  of  Sicily  which  are  clothed  with  trees  or  shrubs  are  always 
green,  for  orange-trees,  olive-trees,  carob-trees,  laurels,  mastic-trees,  tamarisks, 
cypresses,  and  pines  retain  their  verdure  even  in  winter,  when  nature  wears  a 
desolate  aspect  in  our  own  latitudes.  There  is  no  "  season,"  so  to  say,  for  with  a 
little  care  all  kinds  of  vegetables  can  be  had  throughout  the  year.  The  gardens 
around  Syracuse  are  famous  above  all  others,  because  of  the  striking  manner  in 
which  they  contrast  with  the  naked  rocks  surrounding  them.  The  most  delightful 
amongst  them  is  the  Intagliatella,  or  Latomia  de'  Qreci,  which  occupies  an  old  quarry 
where  Ghreek  slaves  dressed  the  stones  used  in  erecting  the  palaces  of  Syracuse. 
The  vegetation  there  is  most  luxuriant ;  the  trunks  of  the  trees  rise  above  masses 
of  shrubs,  their  branches  are  covered  with  creeping  plants,  flowers  and  ripening 
fruit  cover  the  paths,  and  birds  without  number  sing  in  the  foliage.  This  earthly 
paradise  is  surrounded  by  precipitous  walls  of  rook  covered  with  ivy,  or  bare  and 
white  as  on  the  day  when  Athenian  slaves  were  at  work  there. 

Sicily  lies  on  the  high-road  of  all  the  nations  who  ever  disputed  the  command  of 
the  Mediterranean,  *and  its  population  consequently  consists  of  a  mixture  of  the 
most  heterogeneous  elements.  Trrespeotively  of  Sicani,  Siculi,  and  other  aboriginal 
nations,  whose  position  amongst  the  European  family  is  uncertain,  but  who 
probably  spoke  a  language  akin  to  that  of  tiie  Latins,  we  know  that  Phoenicians 
and  Oarthaginians  successively  settled  on  its  shores,  and  that  the  Chreeks  were 
almost  as  numerous  there  as  in  their  native  country.  Twenty-five  centuries  have 
passed  since  the  Greeks  founded  their  first  colony,  Naxos,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Etna.  Soon  afterwards  Syracuse,  Lentini,  Catuiia,  Megara  Hyblsea,  Messina,  and 
other  colonies  sprang  into  existence,  until  the  whole  of  the  littoral  region  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  the  native  populations  being  pushed  back  into  the  interior. 
In  Sicily  the  Greek  met  with  the  same  climate,  and  with  rocks  and  mountains 
similar  in  aspect  to  those  of  his  native  home.  The  "  Marmorean  "  port  and  the 
wide  bay  of  Syracuse,  the  acropolis  and  Mount  Hybla,  do  they  not  recall  Attica  or 
the  Peloponnesus  P  The  fountain  of  Arethusa,  on  the  island  of  Ortygia,  which  is 
supplied  through  underground.channels,  reminds  us  of  the  fountain  of  Erasinos  and 
of  many  others  in  Hellas,  which  find  Hieir  way  through  fissures  in  the  limestone 
rocks  to  the  seashorei    The  Syraousans  said  that  the  river  Alpheus,  enamoured  of 


r^^-'^^^W^^'^^^^y^y^^^ 


mm^B^smm; 


880 


ITALY. 


the  nymph  Arethuaa,  did  not  mingle  ita  waters  with  thow  of  the  Ionian,  but  found 
its  way  through  subterranean  channels  to  the  coast  of  Sicily,  where  i'  rrtie  again 
at  the  side  of  the  fountain  dedicated  to  the  object  of  his  adoration,  bringing 
the  flowers  and  firuits  of  beloved  Qreeoe.  This  legend  bears  testimony  to  the 
great  love  which  the  Greek  bore  his  native  land,  whose  very  fountains  and 
plants  were  supposed  to  follow  him  into  his  new  home. 

If  we  may  judge  from  the  number  of  inhabitants  with  which  the  principal 
towns  were  credited  at  that  time,  Sicily  must  have  had  a  population  of  several 
millions  of  Greeks.  The  Carthaginian  merchants  and  soldiers,  on  the  other  hand, 
though  they  were  the  masters  of  portions  of  the  island  for  two  or  three  centuries, 
never  settled  upon  it,  and  only  a  few  walls,  coins,  and  inscriptions  bear  witness  now 
of  their  ever  having  been  present.  It  has  been  very  judiciously  remarked  by 
M.  Dennis  that  the  most  striking  evidence  of  their  reign  is  presented  in  the 
desolate  sites  of  the  cities  of  Himera  and  Selinus.  At  the  same  time  we  must  not 
forget  that  the  Oarthaginians,  by  intermingling  with  the  existing  populiation, 
materially  affected  the  ulterior  destinies  of  the  island.  The  Romans,  who  held 
Sicily  for  nearly  seven  centuries,  did  so  in  a  still  higher  degree.  Vandals  and 
Goths  likewise  left  traces  behind  them.  The  Saracens,  themselves  a  mixed  race, 
imparted  their  Southern  impetuosity  to  the  Sicilians,  whilst  their  conquerors,  the 
Normans,  endowed  them  with  the  daring  and  indomitable  courage  which  at  that 
period  animated  these  sons  of  the  North.  In  1071,  when  the  Normans  laid  siege 
to  Palermo,  no  less  than  five  languages  were  spoken  on  the  island,  viz.  Arabic, 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  vulgar  Sicilian.  But  Arabic  was  the  tongue  of  the 
civilised  inhabitants,  and  even  during  the  dominion  of  the  Normans  inscriptions 
upon  palaces  and  churches  were  inscribed  in  it.  It  was  at  the  court  of  King 
Roger  that  Edrisi  wrote  his  "  Geog^phy,"  one  of  the  g^reat  monuments  of  science. 
In  1223  the  last  Arabs  were  made  to  emigrate  to  Naples,  but  by  that  time  much 
Arab  blood  already  flowed  through  the  veins  of  the  inhabitants. 

Later  on,  the  character  of  the  population  was  still  further  modified  by  French, 
Germans,  Spaniards,  and  Aragonese,  and  all  this  helped  to  make  them  a  people 
differing  in  appearance,  manners,  habits,  and  feelings  from  their  Italian  neigh- 
bours. These  islanders  look  upon  every  inhabitant  of  the  mainland  as  a  foreigner. 
The  absence  of  roads  on  the  island  enabled  the  different  groups  of  its  population 
to  maintain  their  distinct  idioms  and  character  during  a  very  long  period.  The 
Lombards  whom  thfi  Romans  transplanted  to  Benevento  and  Palermo  spoke  their 
native  dialect  long  after  it  had  become  extinct  in  Lombardy.  Even  now  there 
are  about  60,000  Sicilians  who  speak  this  ancient  Lombard  tongue.  At  San 
Fratello,  oxi  a  steep  hill  on  the  northern  coast,  this  idiom  is  spoken  with  the 
greatest  purity.  Nor  has  the  Italian  wholly  supplanted  the  vulgar  Sicilian  in  the 
interior  of  the  island.  We  meet  with  many  Greek  and  Arab  words.  One  of  the 
most  curiuuB  vronjt'  19  that  of  vol,  which  is  applied  to  various  districts  of  Sicily, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  firom  vali,  the  Arab  term  for  "  governor." 
The  Sicilian  idiom  is  less  sonorous  than  the  Italian.  Towels  standing  between 
consonants  are  frequently  suppressed,  and  the  0,  and  even  the  a  and « (ee),  are 


^^■^-'y«i=»«^aei>M>r?!jwit«:i.iW.ij^v^ 


t 


SICILY. 


821 


ihe  Ionian,  bat  found 
,  where  i*  rnie  again 
I  adoration,  bringing 
ars  testimony  to  the 
yery  fountains  and 

I  which  ihe  principal 
population  of  several 
rs,  on  the  other  hand, 
wo  or  three  centuries, 
bions  bear  witness  now 
ioiously  remarked  by 
1  is  presented  in  the 
ame  time  we  must  not 
)  existing  population, 
he  Romans,  who  held 
degree.    Vandals  and 
Bmselves  a  mixed  race, 
t  their  conquerors,  the 
courage  which  at  that 
he  Normans  laid  siege 
the  island,  viz.  Arabic, 
was  the  tongue  of  the 
B  Normans  inscriptions 
I  at  the  court  of  King 
t  monuments  of  science, 
but  by  that  time  much 

»nt8. 

ler  modified  by  French, 
»  make  them  a  people 
»m  their  Italian  neigh- 
mainland  as  a  foreigner, 
^ups  of  its  population 
very  long  period.     The 
md  Palermo  spoke  their 
jardy.    Even  now  there 
ibard  tongue.     At  San 
iom  is  spoken  with  the 
ihe  vulgar  Sicilian  in  the 
Lrab  words.    One  of  the 
arious  districts  of  Sicily, 
ab  term  for  "  governor." 
roweb  standing  between 
veri  the  a  and  i  (ee),  are 


changed  into  oo,  which  renders  the  speech  hard  and  indistinct.  The  language 
lends  itself,  however,  admirably  to  poetry,  and  the  Sicilian  popular  songs  are  quite 
equal  in  natural  grace  and  delicacy  to  the  much-admired  rispetti  of  Tuscany. 

Of  all  the  emigrants  who  have  settled  on  the  island  the  Albanians  alone  have 
not  become  merged  in  the  general  population.  Locally  known  as  Oreoi,  they  still 
form  separate  communities,  speaking  their  own  language  and  observing  special 
religious  rites,  in  several  of  the  towns  of  the  interior,  and  more  especially  at 
Piana  de'  Greet,  which  occupies  a  commanding  hill  to  the  south  of  Palermo. 
Nor  is  the  fusion  amongst  the  other  races  as  complete  as  it  appears  to  be  at  the 
first  glance.  The  population  around  Mount  Etna,  who  are,  perhaps,  more  purely 
Qreek  in  blood  than  the  Greeks  themselves,  are  noted  for  their  grace,  gaiety,  and 
sweetness  of  disposition.  They  are  the  most  intelligent  portion  of  the  population 
of  Sicily.  Those  of  Trapani  and  San  Giuliani  are  said  to  be  the  best-looking,  and 
'  their  women  delight  the  stranger  by  the  regularity  and  beauty  of  their  features. 
The  Palermitans,  on  the  other  hand,  in  whose  veins  flows  much  Arab  blood,  are 
for  the  most  part  unprepossessing  in  their  appearance.  They  open  their  house  but 
rarely  to  strangers,  and  jealously  shut  up  their  women  in  its  most  retired  part. 

The  most  ferocious  usages  of  war,  piracy,  and  brigandage  have  kept  their 
ground  longer  at  Palermo  and  its  environs  than  anywhere  else.  The  laws  of  the 
omerta,  or  "  men  of  heart,"  make  veng^eanco  a  duty.  A  chi  ti  toglie  il  pane,  e  tu 
toglili  la  vita  !  ("  Take  the  life  of  him  who  has  taken  your  bread ! ")  is  its  funda- 
mental principle ;  but  in  practice  Palermitan  vengeance  is  far  from  possessing  the 
simplicity  of  the  Corsican  vendetta,  for  it  is  complicated  by  the  most  atrocious 
cruelties.  No  less  than  four  or  five  thousand  Palermitans  are  said  to  be  affiliated 
to  the  secret  league  of  the  tnaffia,  whose  members  subsist  upon  every  kind  of 
roguery.  Up  to  1865  the  brigands  were  mastera  in  the  environs  of  that  town. 
They  virtually  laid  siege  to  the  town,  separating  it  from  its  more  distant  suburbs. 
Strangers  were  afraid  to  leave  lest  they  should  be  murdered  or  captured  by 
bandits ;  and  no  farmer  could  harvest  his  com  or  olives,  or  shear  his  sheep, 
without  paying  toll  to  these  highwaymen.  More  than  ten  years  have  passed 
since  then,  but  in  spite  of  measures  of  exceptional  severity  the  maffia  still  exists. 

The  history  of  this  association,  which  dates  its  origin  back  to  the  time  of  the 
Norman  kings,  remains  yet  to  be  written.  It  has  always  flourished  most,  in  time 
of  political  troubles,  and  consequent  misery.  No  doubt  things  have  grown  worse 
in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years ;  taxes  have  been  increased,  the  conscrip- 
tion established,  and  many  abrupt  changes,  such  as  are  inseparable  from  a  new 
political  regimen,  have  been  introduced.  The  people,  accustomed  to  put  up  with 
ancient  abuses,  have  not  yet  learnt  to  bear  the  burdens  imposed  in  connection 
with  the  annexation  of  the  island  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Nevertheless  the 
Sicilians  grow  more  Italian  from  day  to  day.  Community  of  language  and  of 
interests  attaches  the  island  to  the  peninsula,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when 
both  countries  will  gravitate  in  the  same  orbit.  Italy  is  most  highly  interested  in 
establishing  feelings  of  friendship  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  island,  and  in  deve- 
loping its  resources.    The  rapid  increase  of  tiie  population,  which  is  sud  to  have 


ITALY. 


tripled  since  1734,  bears  witness  to  the  great  natural  riches  of  the  country ;  and 
what  might  not  be  achieved  if  the  barbarous  processes  now  in  force  there  were 
superseded  by  the  scientific  methods  of  our  own  time  f 

Sicily  was  the  favourite  haunt  of  Geres,  and  in  the  plain  of  Catania  thin 
beneficent  goddess  taught  man  the  art  of  cultivating  the  soil.  The  Sicilians  havo 
not  forgotten  this  teaching,  for  nearly  half  the  area  is  covered  with  com-fielda ; 
but  they  have  not  improved  their  system  of  cultivation  since  those  fabulous  times, 
and  improvements  can  hardly  be  effected  as  long  as  the  restrictions  imposed  by 
the  feudal  tenure  introduced  by  the  Normans  are  allowed  to  exist.  The  agricul- 
tural implements  are  of  a  primitive  kind,  manure  is  hardly  known,  and  the 
fate  of  the  crops  depends  entirely  upon  nature.  When  travelling  through  the 
country  districts  of  Sicily,  we  are  struck  by  not  meeting  with  isolated  houses. 
There  are  no  villages,  for  all  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  live  in  towns,  and  are 
content  to  travel  daily  to  their  fields,  which  are  occasionally  at  a  distance  of  six 
miles.  Sometimes  they  pass  the  night  there,  in  a  cavern  or  a  ditch  covered 
with  boughs,  and  at  harvest-time  the  labourers  sleep  in  improvised  sheds.  This 
absence  of  human  habitations  imparts  an  air  of  solemn  sadness  to  vast  corn-fields 
covering  valleys  and  slopes,  and  we  almost  fancy  we  are  wandering  through  a 
deserted  country,  and  wonder  for  whose  benefit  the  crops  are  ripening. 

Oom-fijBlds  cover  a  greater  area  than  that  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  all 
other  objects  put  together;  nevertheless  the  latter  articles  represent  a  higher 
pecuniary  value.  The  orchards,  vineyards,  and  gardens  near  the  towns  are  a 
far  greater  source  of  wealth  than  the  distant  corn-fields.  In  former  times  wheat 
was  the  principal  article  of  export ;  now  Sicily  is  no  longer  a  granary,  but  promises 
to  become  a  vast  emporium  of  firuit.  Even  now  the  crop  of  oranges  grown  there, 
which  consists  of  seven  kinds,  subdivided  into  four  hundred  varieties,  represents  a 
value  of  £2,000,000  a  year.  The  marvellous  gardens  which  surround  Palermo  are 
steadily  increasing  at  the  expense  of  the  ancient  plantations  of  ash,  and  ascend 
the  hills  to  a  height  of  1,160  feet.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  oranges  are  exported 
annually  to  C!ontinental  Europe,  England,  and  America,  and  the  inferior  sorts  are 
converted  into  essoitial  oils,  citric  acid,  or  citrate  of  lime.  The  last  is  used  in 
printing  stuffii,  and  Sicily  enjoys  a  monopoly  in  its  manufaotnre. 

Sicily  likewise  occupies  a  foremost  place  as  a  vine-growing  country,  and 
supplies  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  wine  produced  throughout  Italy.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine,  which  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  by  foreigners,  is  much  better 
understood  there  than  on  the  neighbouring  peninsula,  and  the  wines  exported 
from  Marsala,  Syracuse,  Uloamo,  and  Milaszo  are  justly  held  in  high  estimation. 
An  excellent  wine  is  also  grown  on  the  south  and  western  slopes  of  Mount  Etna, 
to  which  the  heat  of  the  sun  imparts  much  fire.  England  and  non-Italian  Europe 
are  the  great  consumers  of  ike  wines  of  Sicily,  as  they  are  of  its  oils,  almonds, 
cotton,  saffron,  sumach,  and  manna,  extracted,  like  that  of  the  Oalabrias,  from  a 
kind  of  ash.  Baw  silk,  which  Sicily  was  the  first  to  produce  in  Europe,  is  like- 
wise exported  in  considerable  quantities. 

Sulphur  is  the  great  mineral  product  of  the  island.    The  beds  vary  muoh  in 


--^ 1^'"  'lili>ill>lnlll«|M»-<|fc|,||,||'|||- 


SICILY. 


>f  the  oountry ;  and 
in  force  there  won; 

ain  of  Catania  thin 
The  Sioiliana  hav«< 
ed  with  oom.fiolds ; 
hoM  fabulous  times, 
■trictions  impowd  by 
exist.    The  agrioul- 
dly  known,  and  the 
ftvelling  through  the 
with  isolated  houses.   . 
e  in  towns,  and  are 
at  a  distance  of  six 
I  or  a  ditch  covered 
rovised  sheds.     This 
ess  to  vast  corn-fields 
wandering  through  a 
I  ripening. 

the  cultivation  of  all 
IS  represent  a  higher 
near  the  towns  are  a 
[n  former  times  wheat 
,  granary,  but  promises 
r  oranges  grown  there, 
I  varieties,  represents  a 
I  surround  Palermo  are 
ions  of  ash,  and  ascend 
I  oranges  are  exported 
d  the  inferior  sorts  are 
I.  The  last  is  used  in 
tnre. 

growing  oountry,  and 
ut  Italy.  The  oultiva- 
•eignen,  is  much  better 
nd  the  wines  exported 
aid  in  high  estimation, 
slopes  of  Mount  Etna, 
and  non-Italian  Europe 
ire  of  its  oils,  almonds, 
I  the  Oalabrias,  from  a 
duce  in  Europe,  is  like- 

The  beds  vary  much  in 


richness,  but  even  where  they  contain  only  five  or  six  per  cent,  a  light  brought  to  the 
walls  of  the  mine  will  cause  the  sulphur  to  boil  like  pitch.  The  blocks  extracted 
from  the  mine  are  piled  up  in  the  open  air,  where  they  remain  exposed  to  the 
destructive  action  of  the  atmosphere.  The  fragments  are  then  heaped  up  over  the 
flame  of  a  furnace,  which  causes  the  stones  to  split,  the  melted  sulphur  flowing 
into  moulds  placed  beneath.  By  this  primitive  process  only  two-thirds  of  the 
sulphur  contained  in  the  rook  are  extracted,  but  it  proves  nevertheless  most 
remunerative.  About  200,000  tons  of  sulphur,  or  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
sulphur  required  for  manufacturing  purposes  throughout  Europe,  are  annually 
exported  from  Sicily,  and  the  known  deposits  of  the  islands  have  been  computed 
to  contain  from  40,000,000  to  60,000,000  tons.  To  the  north  of  Girgenti  and 
in  other  parts  of  Sicily  sulphureous  plaster  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  houses,  and  the  atmosphere  there  is  at  all  times  impregnated  with  an  odour 
of  sulphur. 

Kock-salt  is  met  with  in  the  same  formations  as  the  sulphur,  and  in 
quantities  almost  inexhaustible,  but  salt  is  not  a  rare  article,  and  even  the  Sicilians 
prefer  to  gather  it  from  the  salt  swamps  extending  along  the  coast,  the  most 
productive  of  which  are  near  Trapani,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  island.  At 
the  same  spot  the  sea  yields  the  best  coral  of  Sicily.  The  tunny  fishery  is  carried 
on  mostly  in  the  great  bays  between  Trapani  and  Palermo,  while  most  of  the  sword- 
fish  are  captured  in  the  Strait  of  Messina.  The  seas  of  Sicily  abound  in  fish, 
and  the  islanders  boast  of  being  the  most  expert  fishermen  of  the  Western 
Mediterranean. 

Until  recently  communications  in  Sicily  were  kept  up  almost  exclusively  by  sea. 
In  1866  the  only  carriage  road  of  the  island,  which  connects  Messina  with 
Palermo,  was  hardly  made  use  of  by  travellers,  and  even  now  the  most  important 
mines  of  sulphur  and  salt  communicate  with  the  seashore  only  by  mule-paths ; 
and  the  inhabitants  are  actdally  opposed  to  the  construction  of  roads,  from  fear  uf 
their  interfering  with  the  existing  mode  of  transports.  The  road  which  connects 
the  harbour  of  Terranova  with  Oaltanissetta  has  been  under  construction  for 
twenty  years,  although  it  is  the  only  one  which  joins  the  interior  of  the  country 
to  the  sea-coast.  Railways  to  some  extent  supply  this  deficiency  of  roads,  but  are 
being  built  very  slowly,  hardly  more  than  250  miles  being  at  present  open  for 
traffic. 

Palermo  the  "hapi^,"  the  capital  of  Sicily,  is  one  of  the  great  towns  of  Italy. 
At  the  time  of  the  Arabs  it  surpassed  all  towns  of  the  peninsula  in  population,  but 
at  present,  though  increasing  rapidly,  it  yields  to  Naples,  Milan,  and  Rome.  No 
other  town  of  Europe  can  boast  of  an  equally  delicious  climate,  nor  is  any  fairer  to 
look  upfm  from  a  distance.  Bold  barren  motmtains  enclose  a  marvellous  garden, 
the  famous  "  shdl  of  gold "  {eonea  tfora),  £roi&  the  midst  of  which  rise  towers 
and  domes,  palms  with  &n-shaped  leaves,  and  pines,  commanded  in  the  south  by 
the  huge  eoolesiasticil  edifices  of  Monreale.  Termini  is  the  only  city  of  Sicily 
which  rivals  Palmero  in  the  beauty  of  its  site,  and  which  truly  merits  its  epithet 


m 


^M 


jm^. 


884 


ITALT. 


But  the  beauty  of  the  country  oontnita  moat  pftinftilly  with  the  miaery  and 
filth  reigning  in  moit  of  the  quarters  of  the  capital.  Palermo  haa  ita  aumptuoua 
ediflcea.  It  boaats  of  a  cathedral  laviahly  decorated ;  ita  royal  palace  and  pala- 
tino  chapel,  covered  with  moaaioa,  and  harmonioualy  combining  the  beautiea  of 
Byzantine,  Mooriah,  and  Roman  art,  are  unique  of  their  kind ;  the  church  of 
Monreale,  in  one  of  ita  mburba,  may  challenge  Ravenna  by  the  number  of  iu 

Fif.  118.— PALimno  AND  MoNn  Pulbomixo. 


moaaica.  There  are  Moorish  palaces,  a  few  modem  monuments,  and  two  broad 
streets,  which  a  Spanish  governor  had  made  in  the  shape  of  a  cross.  But,  besides 
these,  we  only  meet  with  dark  and  narrow,  streets  and  wretched  tenements,  the 
windows  of  which  are  stuffed  with  rags.  Down  to  a  recent  period  Palermo  was  unde- 
serving its  Greek  name  of  "Port  of  all  Nations."  Enclosed  within  mountains,  and 
having  no  communications  with  the  interior,  its  commerce  was  merely  local,  and 
its  exports  were  limited  to  the  produce  of  its  fisheries  and  of  its  gardens.    Though 


'--iTr(fii-"iiiiiri  iiiiBiiiliffir 


SICILY. 


826 


ith  the  mitery  and 
I  has  its  •umptuous 
ftl  palace  and  pala- 
ing  the  beauties  of 
ad ;  the  church  of 
the  number  of  iU 


S3Plfc 


:-«5»^' 


ments,  and  two  broad 
across.  But,  besides 
retched  tenements,  the 
iod  Palermo  wasunde- 
within  motmtains,  and 
was  merely  local,  and 
'its  gardens.    Though 


far  more  populous  than  Oenoa,  its  commerce  is  only  half  that  of  the  Ligurian  city, 
bu^.  it  is  rapidly  on  the  increase. 

Trapani,  a  colony  of  the  Carthaginians  like  Palermo,  and  MarsaUi,  ao  famous  for 
its  wines,  at  the  weatem  extremity  of  the  island,  are  proportionately  far  busier 
thaoi  the  capital.  Trapani,  built  on  a  sickle- shaped  promontory,  carries  on  a  lively 
trade.  Th«  salt  marshes  near  it  are  amongst  the  most  productive  in  all  Italy ;  * 
tunny,  oral,  and  :  ponge  fishing  is  carried  on ;  and  the  artisans  of  the  town  are 
^killed  m  wen  vers,  masons,  and  jewellers.  The  harbour  is  one  of  the  best  in  Italy ; 
thu  roadstead  is  well  sheltered  by  the  outlying  jiEgadian  Islands ;  and  the  ambition 
of  the  inbttbitants,  who  desire  to  look  forward  to  a  time  when  Trapani  will  be  the 
principal  emporium  for  the  trade  with  Tunis,  is  likely  to  be  realised  on  the  comple- 
tion of  a  railway  to  M«saina.  The  harbour  of  Mazzaro,  the  outlet  for  the  produce 
of  the  inland  towns  of  Oastelvetrano  and  Salemi,  lies  closer  to  Tunis,  but  its  shelter 
is  indifferent.  As  to  Marsala — the  "Mars  ed  Allah,"  or  Qod's  haven,  of  the  Arabs 
—its  port  was  filled  up  by  Ohai:les  V.,  and  has  only  recently  been  reconstructed. 
It  is,  however,  not  of  sufficient  depth  for  large  vessels,  and  only  salt  and  wine  are 
exported  from  it  to  France  and  England.  Marsala  occupies  the,  site  of  tho  ancient 
city  of  Lilybeeum,  which  had  a  population  of  900,000  soub  when  Diodorus  Siculus 
wrote  his  Geography.  It  has  recently  become  famous  in  consequence  of  the 
landing  there  of  Ghiribaldi  and  his  thousand  followers  in  1860,  and  its  being 
the  spot  from  which  they  entered  upon  the  triumphant  march  which  ended  in  the 
battle  of  the  Voltumo  and  the  capture  of  Oaeta. 

Messina  the  "  noble "  is  the  great  commercial  centre  of  Sicily,  and  the  only 
port  of  that  island  where  vessels  of  all  nations  meet.  Messina  is  a  stage  on  the 
ocean  high-roads  which  join  or  connect  Western  Europe  and  the  Levant.  Its 
roadstead  is  one  of  the  safest,  and  vessels  in  distress  are  certain  to  find  protection 
there.  Moreover,  vessels  ooming  from  the  Tyrrhenian,  and  fearful  of  encounter- 
ing the  dangerous  currents  of  the  strait  during  a  storm,  may  easily  find  shelter  at 
MilazTO,  to  the  north  of  it.  The  port  of  Messina  is  formed  by  a  sickle-shaped 
tongue  of  land,  making  a  natural  breakwater,  t  There  are  few  cities  in  Europe 
which  are  more  exposed  to  the  destructive  action  of  earthquakes  than  Messina, 
and  the  traces  of  the  great  shock  of  1783,  which  swamped  the  vessels  in  the 
harbour,  undermined  the  palaces  along  the  seashore,  and  caused  the  d^ath  of 
more  than  a  thousand  persons,  have  not  yet  entirely  disappeared. 

Oatania,  the  sub-Etnean,  as  its  Greek  name  implies,  is  menaced  not  only  by 
earthquakes,  but  olso  by  volcanic  eruptions.  It,  too,  enjoys  a  high  amount  of 
commercial  prosperity,  and  exports  the  surplus  produce  of  the  towns  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  volcano,  among  which  are  Acireale,  with  its  orange  groves;  Giarre, 
with  its  dusty  streets ;  Patemo,  abounding  in  thormal  springs ;  Ademo,  on  the 

*  Th«  nit  manhM  of  fhe  proviuce  of  Trspani  oover  an  area  of  2,100  acres,  and  yielded,  in  1866, 
66.000  toni  oi  salt,  valned  at  £24,200. 

t  In  1862  27,006  Tenels,  of  1,82(,232  tons  burden,  entered  and  cleared  from  Sicilian  porta ;  in  1869 
34,980  veaaels,  of  3,869,337  tons;  in  1873  70,974  vetMli,  of  6,942,700  tons.  In  1876  the  number  of 
vesaela  aad  tonnage  which  entered  and  cleared  was— at  Beaeina,  9,218  veaaels,  of  2,386,144  tona;  at 
Palermo,  11,692  veaaels,  of  1,812,196  tona;  at  CSatania,  6,187  veaaela,  of  629,630  tona;  and  at  Trapani, 
M07  veaaela,  of  288,476  tona. 


tI' 


^  1 


I 


si*>a»»--i'-s««» 


^mmtm 


826 


ITALY. 


summit  of  a  rock  of  lava ;  Bronte,  at  the  junction  of  two  streams  of  scoriae  ;  and 
Bandazza,  commanded  by  an  ancient  Norman  castle.  Oatania  also  monopolizes 
the  export  of  the  produce  of  the  inland  districts  of  Eastern  Si<Hly ;  it  is  the  great 
railway  centre  of  the  island,  and  several  caniag^  roads  converge  upon  it.  Its  port 
has  g*-own  too  small  for  the  business  carried  on  there,  and  it  is  proposed  to  enlarge 
it  by  means  of  piers  and  breakwaters. 

It  is  quite  natural  that  on  en  island,  no  locality  of  which  is  more  than  forty  miles 


Fig.  119.— Trafaki  and  Mahsala. 
SMle  1 :  970,000. 


SUflMk 


from  the  sea,  all  great  towns  should  be  met  with  on  the  coast,  where  there  are 
greater  facilities  for  commerce.  Still  a  few  centres  of  population  sprang  up  in  the 
interior,  either  in  the  imidst  of  the  most  fertile  districts  or  at  the  crossings  of  the 
most-frequented  lines  of  communication.  Nicosia,  the  Liombard  city,  is  thus  a 
natural  place  of  passage  between  Catania  and  the  northern  coast  of  the  island. 
Corleone  occupies  a  similar  position  with  respect  to  Palermo  and  the  AfrioJin  dope 


~^*9»tt!P<»^ 


t- 


SICILY. 


827 


earns  of  scorisB  ;  and 
aia  also  monopolizes 
Uoily ;  it  is  the  great 
rge  upon  it.  Its  port 
is  proposed  to  enlarge 

more  than  forty  miles 


coast,  where  there  are 
Illation  sprang  up  in  the 
at  the  crossings  of  the 
.(Omhard  city,  is  thus  a 
em  coast  of  the  island. 
10  and  the  African  slope 


of  the  island,  Oastro  Giovanni,  the  ancient  Enna,  likewise  occupies  a  privileged 
position,  for  it  stands  on  an  elevated  plateau  in  the  very  centre  of  the  island :  a  large 
stone  near  it  is  said  by  the  inhabitants  to  be  an  ancient  altar  of  Ceres.  Piazza 
Armerina  Populentmime,  and  Oaltag^rone,  surnamed  la  gratissima  on  account  of 
the  fertility  of  its  fields,  are  both  populous  towns,  which  carry  on  a  considerable 
commerce  through  Terranova,  in  the  building  of  which  the  stones  of  the  old  temples 
of  Gela  have  been  utilised.  Oaltanisetta,  farther  to  the  west,  and  its  neighbour 
Canicatti,  export  their  produce  through  the  port  of  Licata. 

In  the  south-eastern  comer  of  Sicily  there  are  likewise  several  inland  towns  of 
some  importance,  amongst  which  Eagusa  and  Modica  are  the  most  considerable. 
Comiso,  an  industrious  place,  lies  farther  to  the  west,  and  is  surrounded  by  cotton 
plantations.  The  valley  of  the  Hipparis,  sung  by  Pindar,  separates  it  from 
Yittoria,  the  saline  plains  of  which  furnish  much  of  the  soda  exported  to 
Marseilles.  Noto,  like  most  towns  in  that  part  of  Sicily,  is  at  some  distance  from 
the  coast,  but  its  twin  city,  Avojia,  stands  upon  the  shore  of  the  Ionian  Sea.  Noto 
and  Avola  were  both  overthrown  by  the  earthquake  of  1693,  and  have  been 
rebuilt  with  geometrical  regularity  near  their  former  sites.  The  fields  of  Avola, 
though  not  very  fertile  by  nature,  are  amongst  the  best  cultivated  of  the  island, 
and  it  is  there  only  that  the  production  of  the  sugar-cane  has  attained  to  any 
importance. 

On  the  northern  slope  of  the  hills  forming  the  back-bone  of  the  island  there 
are  several  other  towns  inhabited  by  the  agricultural  population.  Lentini,  the 
ancient  Leontium,  which  boasts  of  being  the  oldest  city  in  the  island,  is  at  pre- 
sent only  a  poor  place,  having  been  wholly  rebuilt  since  the  earthquake  of  1693.  ' 
Militello  has  been  restored  since  the  same  epoch,  and  Grammicheli  was  founded  in 
the  eighteenth  century  to  afford  a  shelter  for  the  inhabitants  of  Oochiala,  which  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Yizzini  and  Licodia  di  Yizzini  are  renmrkable  on 
account  of  the  beds  of  lava  near  them,  which  alternate  with  layers  of  marine  fossils, 
and  Mineo  stands  near  a  small  crater  of  the  swamp  of  Falici.  The  popular  songs 
of  Mineo  are  famous  throughout  Sicily.  The  marvellous  "  stone  of  poetry  "  is 
shown  near  it,  and  all  those  who  kiss  it  are  said  to  become  poets. 

Southern  Sicily  is  poor  in  natural  ports,  and  formerly,  along  the  whole  of  that 
part  of  the  coast  which  &ces  Africa,  there  were  only  open  roadstdads  and  beaches. 
On  the  Ionian  coast,  however,  two  excellent  harbours  are  met  with,  viz.  those  of 
Agosta  and  Syntouse,  which  are  very  much  like  each  other  in  outline  and  general 
features.  Agosta,  or  Augusta,  the  successor  of  the  Ghreek  dty  of  Megara  Hybitsa, 
is  now  nothing  more  than  a  fortress  besieged  by  fever.  Syracuse,  the  ancient 
city  of  the,  Dorians,  and  at  one  time  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  city  of 
the  Mediterranean,  has  been  reduced  to  a  simple  provincial  capital.  That 
city,  whose  inhabitants  even  during  the  last  century  celebrated  their  great 
victory  over  the  Athenians,  is  now  hardly  more  than  a  heap  of  ruins.  Its 
"  marble  port,"  formerly  surrounded  by  statues,  is  now  frequented  only  by  small 
boats,  and  its  great  harbour,  large  enough  for  contending  squadrons,  lies 
deserted.     All  that  remains  of  it  is  contained  in  the  small  island  of  Ortygia, 


liwawtiiwni 


mmmmmmi'mmtm 


828 


ITALY. 


separated  from  the  mainland  by  fortifioationB,  a  ditch,  and  the  swamps  of 
Syraca.  The  vast  peninsula  of  limestone  fonnerly  occupied  by  the  city  is  at  pre- 
sent inhabited  only  by  a  few  farmers,  whose  houses  stand  near  the  canals  of  irri- 
gation.   The  grand  edifices  erected  by  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Syracuse  are 


Fig.  120.— Stbaousb. 
Sadet:10(MXIO. 


Sllilwk 


now  represented  by  the  ruins  of  columns  on  the  banks  of  the  Anapo  rising  ftom 
the  "  azure"  fountain  of  Oyane ;  by  the  fortifications  of  the  Epipolse  and  Bnryelum 
erected  by  Archimedei,  and  now  known  as  Belvedere ;  by  the  remains  of  bathi,  an 
enormous  altar  large  enough  for  hecatombs  of  sacrifices,  an  amphitheatre,  and  an 
admirable  theatre  for  25,000  spectators,  who  were  able  to  see  at  a  glance  from  their 


^'-ii''''r'Wiiiii 


Hii 


mmmi 


HiM 


SIOILT. 


829 


md  the  swamps  of 
by  the  city  is  at  pre- 
Etr  the  canals  of  irri- 
ncient  Sjrraouse  are 


scats  the  whole  of  the  ancient  city,  with  its  temples  and  fleets  of  merchantmen. 
Nothing,  however,  is  hotter  calculated  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  ancient  grandeur 
of  the  city  than  the  vast  quarries  of  lautumue  and  the  subterranean  catacombs, 
more  extensive  than  those  of  Naples,  and  not  yet  wholly  explored.  In  former 
times  the  summit  of  the  island  of  Ortygia  was  oocuined  by  an  acropolis,  in  which 
stood  a  temple  of  Minerva,  a  rival  of  the  Parthenon  of  Athens.    Sailors,  on  leaving 


le  Anapo  rising  £rom 
ilpipoleB  and  Enryelum 
e  remains  of  baths,  an 
amphitheatre,  and  an 
at  a  glance  from  their 


Fig.  131.— Tjiiiplb  or  Comcobd  at  Oibobmti. 


Ei-iacJ^saa:^, 


■tT-!*'s?*»iias. 


I?s: 


the  port,  were  bound  to  look  towards  this  temple,  holding  in  their  hands  a  vase  of 
burning  charcoal  taken  fixmi  the  altar  of  Juno,  which  they  flung  into  the  sea 
when  they  lost  sight  of  it.  *  Portions  of  the  temple  still  exist,  but  its  beautifiil 
columns  have  been  covered  with  plaster  and  incorporated  in  an  ugly  church. 

There  kre  other  HeUenic  ruins  in  Sicily,  which,  in  the  eyes  of  artists,  make  that 
island  a  worthy  rival  of  Greece  itself.     Girgenti,  the  ancient  Acragas,  or  Agri- 


ITALY. 


\'; 


*'^, 


S^ 


gente,  which  numbered  its  inhahitante  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  but  is  now  a 
poor  place  like  Syracuse,  possesses  ruins  of  at  least  ten  temples  or  religious  edifices, 
of  which  that  dedicated  to  Olympian  Jupiter  was  the  largest  in  all  Italy,  and 
has  been  made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  the  present  mole.  Another,  that 
dedicated  to  Concord,  is  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  than  any  other  Greek 
temple  outside  the  limits  of  Hellas.  The  modem  city  occupies  merely  the  site  of 
the  ancient  acropolis,  and  is  built  upon  a  layer  of  shelly  sandstone,  which  descends 
in  steps  towards  the  sea.  The  cathedral  has  been  built  from  materiaLs  taken  from 
a  temple  of  Jupiter  Atabyrios,  and  its  baptismal  font  is  an  ancient  sarcophagus 
upon  which  are  represented  the  loves  of  Pheedra  and'  Hippoly  tus.  In  former  times 
Agrigente  reached  to  with' a  a  couple  of  miles  from  the  sea.  The  modem  port, 
named  in  honour  of  one  of  the  most  famous  sons  of  the  city,  lies  to  the  west  of  the 
ancient  Hellenic  Emporium,  at  a  distance  of  four  miles  from  the  city.  It  is  the 
busiest  harbour  on  the  southern  coast,  and  larg^  quantities  of  sulphur  arc  exported 
from  it  (see  Fig.  117,  p.  317). 

Soiacca,  another  seaside  town  farther  to  the  west,  in  one  of  those  localities  of 
the  island  most  exposed  to  earthquakes,  boasts  of  being  the  modem  representative 
of  SeUnus,  though  that  Greek  city  was  situated  about  fourteen  miles  farther  west, 
to  the  south  of  Castelvetrano.  Its  seven  temples  have  been  overthrown  by  earth- 
quakes, but  they  still  present  us  with  remains  of  the  purest  Doric  style.  The 
metopes  of  three  of  them  have  been  conveyed  to  Palermo,  where  they  form  the 
most  precious  ornaments  of  the  museum. 

Segesta,  on  the  north  coast,,  no  longer  exists,  but  there  still  remain  the  ruins  of 
a  magnificent  temple.  Other  remains  of  Greek  art  abound  in  all  parts  of  the 
islands,  and  there  are  also  monuments  erected  by  the  Romans.  If  we  contrast 
these  ancieat  edifices  with  those  raised  since  by  Byzantines,  Moors,  Normans, 
Spaniards,  and  Neapolitans,  we  are  bound  to  admit  that  they  exhibit  no  progress, 
but  decadoice.  Alas !  how  very  much  inferior  are  the  inhabitants  of  modem 
Syracuse  in  comparison  with  the  fellow-oitizens  of  an  Archimedes  ! 

Sicily  offers  most  striking  examples  of  towns  changing  their  positions  in  con- 
sequence of  political  disturbances.  When  the  ancient  Greek  cities  wero  s*  the 
height  of  their  power  they  bo\dIy  descended  to  the  very  coast ;  but  when  war  and 
rapine  got  the  upper  hand — ^when  Moorish  pirates  scoured  the  Sea,  and  brigandage 
reigned  in  the  interior — ^then  it  was  that  most  of  the  cities  of  Sicily  took  refuge  on 
the  summits  of  the  hills,  abandoning  their  low-lying  suburbs  to  decay,  and 
allowing  them  finally  to  disappear.  Girgenti  is  a  case  in  point.  Some  of  the 
towns  occupy  sites  of  much  natural  strraigth,  and  are  almost  inaccessible.  Such 
are  Oentnripe,  or  Centorbi,  which  stretches  along  the  edge  of  a  rock  to  the  west  of 
the  Simeto,  and  San  GKuliano,  the  town  of  Astarte,  which  stands  on  the  summit  of 
a  pyramidal  rock  1,200  feet  in  height  above  Trapani.  But,  on  the  retum  of 
peace,  the  inhabitants  abandoned  their  eyries  and  c^une  bock  to  the  plain  or  coast. 
All  along  the  northem  coast,  from  Palermo  to  Messina,  the  towns  on  the  marina, 
or  beach,  kept  increasing  at  the  expense  of  the  borgos  occupying  the  summits  of  the 
mountains,  and  in  many  instances  the  latter  were  deserted  oltogethw.    Oeftthi 


iiiHiii 


iMHM 


THE  ^ffiOLIAN  OB  LIPABIO  ISLANDS. 


sn 


uands,  but  is  now  a 
>B  or  religious  edifices, 
^t  in  all  Italy,  and 
mole.  Another,  that 
lan  any  other  Greek 
ies  merely  the  site  of 
stone,  which  descends 
I  materials  taken  from 
ancient  sarcophagus 
rtus.  In  former  times 
The  modem  port, 
lies  to  the  west  of  the 
n  the  oity.  It  is  the 
i  sulphur  arc  exported 

e  of  those  localities  of 
modem  representative 
sen  miles  farther  west, 
.  overthrown  by  earth- 
■est  Doric  style.  The 
,  where  they  form  the 

till  remain  the  ruins  of 
id  in  all  parts  of  the 
oans.  If  we  contrast 
ines,  Moors,  Normans, 
ey  exhibit  no  progress, 
inhabitants  of  modem 
imedes! 

their  positions  in  con- 
reek  oities  weiTO  at  the 
Bst ;  but  when  war  and 
the  sea,  and  brigandage 
>f  Sicily  took  refuge  on 
raburbs  to  decay,  and 
In  point.     Some  of  the 
loet  inaccessible.    Such 
at  a  rock  to  the  west  of 
itands  on  the  summit  of 
But,  on  the  return  of 
ok  to  the  plain  or  coast. 
le  towns  on  the  marina, 
jring  the  summits  of  the 
ted  altogether.    Oefak 


affords  a  striking  illustration  of  this  change.  The  modem  city  nestled  at  the  foot 
of  a  bold  promontory,  upon  the  summit  of  which  may  still  be  seen  the  crenellated 
walls  of  the  old  town,  within  which  nothing  now  remains  excepting  a  small 
cydopean  temple,  the  most  venerable  ruin  of  all  Sicily,  which  has  resisted  the 
ravages  of  thirty  centuries.* 

The  .^olian  or  Liparic  Islands. 

The  ^olian  or  Liparic  Islands,  though  separated  from  Sicily  by  a  strait  more 
than  300  fathoms  in  depth,  may  nevertheless  be  looked  upon  as  a  dependency  of 
the  larger  island.  Some  of  these  volcanic  islands,  "  bom  in  the  shadow  of  Mount 
Etna,"  lie  on  a  line  connecting  that  volcano  with  Mount  Vesuvius,  and  they 
originated  probably  during  the  same  convulsion  of  nature.  They  all  consist  of 
lavas,  cinders,  or  pumice,  ejected  from  volcanoes.  Two  amongst  them,  Yulcano  and 
Stromboli,  are  still  active  volcanoes,  and  the  flames  and  undulating  columns  of 
smoke  rising  from  them  enable  mariners  and  fishermen  to  foretell  changes  of 
temperature  or  wind.  It  is  probable  that  this  intelligent  interpretation  of  volcanic 
phenomena  was  the  reason  why  these  islands  were  dedicated  to  JBolus,  the  god  of 
the  winds,  who  there  revealed  himself  to  mariners. 

Lipari,  the  largest  and  most  central  of  these  islands,  is  at  the  same  time  the 
most  populous.  A  considerable  town,  commanded  by  an  ancient  castle,  rises  like 
an  amphitheatre  on  its  northern  shore.  A  well-cultivated  plain,  abounding  in 
olive-trees,  orange-trees,  and  vines,  surrounds  the  town,  and  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
are  cultivated  almost  to  their  very  summits.  The  population,  as  in  Sicily,  has 
been  recraited  from  the  most  diverse  elements  since  the  time  that  Greek  colonists 
from  Rhodes,  Onidus,  and  Selinus  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  aboriginal  inha- 
bitants. This  intermixture  of  races  is  proceeding  now  as  much  as  ever,  for  commerce 
continually  introduces  fresh  blood,  and  many  Galabrian  brigands  have  been  con- 
veyed to  the  island,  where  they  have  become  peaceable  citizens.  The  population 
is  now  permitted  to  multiply  in  peace,  for  the  volcanoes  of  Lipari  have  been 
quiescent  for  centuries.  The  Lipariotes  have  a  legend  according  to  which  St. 
Calogero  chased  the  devils  from  the  islands,  and  shut  them  up  in  the  furnaces  of 
Yulcano,  and  we  may  infer  from  this  that  the  last  volcanic  eruption  took  place  soon 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity ;  that  is  jo  say,  about  the  sixth  century.  The 
existence  of  subterranean  forces  manifests  itself  now  only  in  thermal  springs  and 

•  TowBiof  Bioily  faav&ig  mon  tiutn  10,000  iulubitenti  (in  1871) :— Palermo,  186,406 ;  Meidiik,  71,021 ; 
Cntenik,  84,397;  Matnk,  84,202;  Modics,  83,169;  Tnpuii,  28,062;  AdrMde,  26,692;  Caltogironet 
2«,978;  BHrnaaSnperiora,  21.494;  CkltaniiMtta.  21,464;  Canicatti,  20,908;  Alcamo,  20,890 ;  Caatdve- 
tiano,  20,420;  Pattinko,  20,008;  Syraouae  (Sixaonaa),  20,086;  Tenniai  Imanae,  19,646;  Oirgenti, 
10,603;  Sdaoea,  18,896;  Piaaaa  Amerina,  18,262;  Vittoria,  17.628;  Oiarre,  17.414;  Comiao,  16.694; 
Corleona.  16,160.;  Lioata,  16,966;  FaTaia,  16,233;  Vuvni,  14,042;  TenanoTa  di  Sioilia,  14,911; 
Patettio,  14,790;  Noto,  14.767;  Aderno.  14,673;  Bronte,  14,689;  Niooala,  14.644;  Castrogiovanni. 
14,611 ;  BartMllona  Poaao  di  Ootto,  U.471 ;  Salami.  14,096;  Palma  di  Montechiaro,  13,497 ;  Monreale, 
13,496;  Qangi,  13,067;  San  Cataldo,  12,899;  Bianoavilla,  12.681 ;  Partana,  12,467 ;  Haaaata  del  VaUo, 
12,166;  Leonforta,  12,010 ;  Maaiarino,  11,961 ;  Arola,  11,912;  Agin,  11.876 ;  Bagheria,  11.661 ;  Bieai. 
11.648;  AgoaU,  11.882;  Gaatellamara  dal  Golfo,  11,280;  HiatreUa,  11,218;  Bacalmnto.  11,012; 
Niacemi,  10,760;  Sdecli,  10,724 ;  Lentini,  10.678 ;  Oaftlii,  10,194 ;  Froina.  10,198;  Qrammioheli,  10.192 ; 
Pietraponia,  10,149 ;  Palaoolo  Aureide,  10,182. 


^ 


itijiii   llip 


ITALY. 


steam  jets,  which  have  been  visited  from  the  most  ancient  times  for  the  cure  of 
diseases.  Earthquakes,  however,  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  that  of  1780  bo 
much  frightened  the  inhabitants  that  with  one  aceord  they  dedicated  themselves  to 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Dolomieu,  who  visited  Lipari  in  the  year  following,  found  them 
wearing  a  small  chain  on  the  arm,  by  means  of  which  they  desired  to  show  that 
they  had  become  the  slaves  of  the  "  Liberating  Virgin." 

Lipari  is  a  land  of  promise  to  the  geologist,  on  account  of  the  great  variety  of 
its  lavas.  Monte  della  Oastagna  is  wholly  composed  of  obsidian.  Another  hill,  Monte 
Bianco,  consists  of  pumice,  and,  when  seen  from  a  distance,  has  the  appearance  of 

Sig.  132.— Thi  CmTEAL  Poetion  op  tmi  .Solian  Iblanub. 


being  covered  with  snow.  The  streams  of  pumice  which  fill  every  ravine  extend 
down  to  the  sea,  and  the  water  is  covered  with  this  buoyant  stone,  which  drifts 
sometimes  as  far  as  Corsica.  Lipari  supplies  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  with 
pumice.* 

Vuicano,  to  the  south  of  Lipari,  £rom  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  less  than 
a  mile  across,  contrasts  strangely  with  its  smiling  neighbour.  Vuicano,  witii  the 
exception  of  a  few  olives  and  vines  growing  on  the  southern  slopes,  consists  wholly 
of  naked  scoriee,  and  this  ciniumstnuoe  probably  led  to  its  being  dedicated  to 
Vulcan.    Most  of  its  rocks  are  black  >t  oi  a  reddish  hue  like  iron,  but  there  are 


*  Ana  and  popnlation  oKtbe  lipurio  Islands  f— lipari,  12-4  ■qnan  milea.  U,000  in&aUtante;  Vol- 
cano, 9-7  iqnaie  miles,  100  inhabitenta ;  Fanaria  and  n«>ighboiiring  islets,  7*7  square  miles,  SOO  inhaUt- 
ants;  Stromboli,  7*7  square  miles,  600  inhabitaata ;  Salina,  10-8  sqnaxe  miles, 4,600  inhabitants;  FelioacB, 
6-9  square  miles,  800  inhabitants ;  Alicudi,  3  square  miles,  SOO  inhabitants.  Total,  67'2  square  ndles,' 
18,400  inhabitants. 


dZ££^ESitnH8iilti 


iMJiWiillil 


iiiiiiiiiiifttiiMiiMlili 


rar 


THB  JSOLIAN  OB  LIPABIO  ISLANDS. 


888 


times  for  the  cure  of 
,  and  that  of  1780  so 
idioated  themselves  to 
following,  found  them 
J  desired  to  show  that 

)f  the  great  variety  of 
.  Another  hill,  Monte 
has  the  appearance  of 

ILANUS. 


fill  every  ravine  extend 
ant' stone,  whichi  drifts 
whole  of  Europe  with 

,ted  by  a  strait  less  than 
ur.  Vuloano,  with  tlie 
u  slopes,  consists  wholly 
its  being  dedicated  to 
like  iron,  but  tbere  are 

lilM,  14,000  in&aUUntB;  Vnl- 

7-7  Bqoue  nilM,  800  {nhAbit- 

IM,  i,600  inhabitants ;  Falion^, 

its.    Total,  fi7'2  •q««  n«Jl«». 


others  which  are  scarlet,  yellow,  or  white.  At  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
island  rises  the  Yulcanello,  a  small  cone  which  appeared  above  the  surface  of  the 
sea  nobody  knows  when,  and  which  an  isthmus  of  reddish  cinders  united  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  the  principal  volcano  of  the  island.  This 
central  mountain  of  the  island  has  a  crater  about  1,800  yards  in  circumference, 
from  which  steam  continually  escapes.  The  atmosphere  is  charged  with  sul- 
phurous vapours  di£B.cult  to  breathe.  From  hundreds  of  small  orifices  jets  of 
steam  make  their  escape  with  a  throbbing  and  hissing  noise.  Some  of  these 
fumaroles  have  a  temperature  of  610°  F.  Jets  of  a  lower  temperature  are 
met  with  in  other  parts  of  the  island,  and  even  at  the  bottom  of  the  bay.  Violent 
eruptions  are  rare,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  only  three  occurred.  The  last 
eruption  took  place  in  1873,  after  a  repose  of  a  hundred  years.  Until  recently  the 
only  inhabitants  of  Yul"*!-  .  were  a  few  convicts,  who  collected  sulphur  and 
boraoio  acid,  and  manufactured  a  little  alum.  But  an  enterprising  Scotchman  has 
now  taken  possession  of  this  grand  chemical  laboratory.  He  has  built  a  large 
manufactory  near  the  port,  and  a  few  trees  planted  around  his  Moorish  residence 
have  somewhat  improved  the  repulsive  aspect  of  the  country. 

Stromboli,  though  smaller  than  either  Lipari  or  Vulcano,  is  nevertheless 
more  celebrated,  on  account  of  its  frequent  eruptions.  For  ages  back  scarcely 
any  mariners  have  passed  this  island  without  seeing  its  sununit  in  a  state  of 
illumination.  At  intervals  of  five  minutes,  or  less,  the  seething  lava  filling  its 
caldron  bubbles  up,  explosions  occur,  and  steam  and  stones  are  ejected,  lliese 
rhythmical  eruptions  form  a  most  agreeable  sight,  for  there  is  no  danger  about 
them,  and  the  olive  groves  of  the  Stromboliotes  have  never  been  injured  by  a 
stream  of  lava.  The  volcano,  however,  has  its  moments  of  exasperation,  and 
its  ashes  have  frequently  been  carried  to  the  coast  of  Oalabria,  which  is  more 
than  thirty  miles  off. 

Fanaria  and  the  surrounding  group  of  islands  between  Stromboli  and  Lipari 
have  undergone  many  changes,  if  Dolomieu  and  Spallanzani  are  correct  in 
saying  that  they  ozigjuQally  formed  only  a  single  island,  which  was  blown  into 
fragments  by  an  eruption  having  its  centre  near  the  present  island  of  Dattilo. 
A  hot  spring  and  an  occasional  bubbling  up  of  the  sea-water  prove  that  the 
Toloanic  forces  are  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

As  regards  the  small  eastern  islands  of  the  archipelago,  Salina,  Felicudi,  and 
Alicudi,  the  last  of  which  resembles  a  tent  ]^tched  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water,  history  furnishes  no  records  of  their  ever  having  been  in  any  other  than  a 
quiescent  state.  The  island  of  IJstica,  about  thirty  rules  to  the  north  of  Palermo, 
is  likewise  of  volcanic  origin,  but  is  not  known  ever  to  have  had  an  eruption.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  dreaded  places  of  exile  in  Italy.  Near  it  is  the  iminhabited 
island  of  Medico,  the  ancient  Osteodes,  where  the  mercenaries  deserted  by  the 
Carthaginians  were  left  to  die  of  starvation. 

24 


884 


ITALY. 


Thb  MoAviAK  Island*. 

Off  the  western  extremity  of  Sicily  lie  shallows,  sand-banks,  and  calcareous 
islauds  (if  the  same  composition  as  the  adjoining  mainland.  These  are  the  Ayades, 
or  Goat  Islands,  named  after  the  animals  which  climb  their  steep  escarpments. 
Favignana,  near  which  the  Romans  won  the  naval  victory  which  terminated  the 
first  Punic  war,  is  the  largest  of  these  islands.  Its  steep  cliffs  abound  in  caverns, 
in  which  heaps  of  shells,  gnawed  bones,  and  stone  implements  have  been  found, 
dating  back  to  the  contemporaries  of  the  mammoth  and  the  antediluvian  bear. 
Gonflicts  between  contrary  winds  are  frequent  in  this  labyrinth  of  rocks  and 
shoals,  and  the  power  of  the  waves  is  much  dreaded.    The  tides  are  most  irregular, 

Fig.  133. — ^ThI  MlDITMKAltlAN  TO  Tm  SoUTM  OF  81OII.Y. 
Soiaa  1:4,0001000. 


DO 


and  give  rise  to  dangerous  eddies.    The  sudden  ebb,  locally  known  as  marubia,  or 
"  tipsy  sea  "  (mare  ubbriaeo  f),  has  been  the  cause  of  many  shipwrecks. 

Pantbllaria. 

Pantellaria   rises  in  the  very  centre  of  the  strait  which  unites  the  Western 
Mediterranean  with  ^e  Eastern.    The  island  is  of  volcanio  origin,  abounds  in 
thermal  springs,  and,  above  all,  in  steam  jets.    Placed  on  a  great  line  of  navigation, 
Pantellaria  might  have  become  of  importance  if  it  had  possessed  a  good  harbour  c 
like  Malta.    To  judge  from  certain  ruins,  the  population  was  more  considerable 


•¥,i^i>i^jms 


banks,  and  calcareous 
These  are  the  Ayades, 
leir  steep  escarpments, 
which  terminated  the 
iffs  ahound  in  caverns, 
ents  have  been  found, 
the  antediluvian  bear, 
abyrinth  of  rocks  and 
ides  are  most  irregular, 

Sicily. 


lUy  known  as  tnarubia,  or 
ly  shipwrecks. 


hich  unites  the  "Western 
Icanio  origin,  aboands  in 
a  great  line  of  navigation, 
possessed  a  good  harbour  c 
m  was  more  considerable 


MALTA  AND  QOZZO. 

formerly  than  it  is  now.  There  exist  about  a  thousand  odd  edifices,  called  teat  by 
the  inhabitants,  which  are  supposed  to  be  ancient  dwellings.  Like  the  nuraghi  of 
Sardinia,  they  have  the  shape  of  hives,  and  are  built  of  huge  blocks  of  rook 
without  mortar.  Some  of  them  are  twenty-five  feet  high  and  forty-five  feet  wide  i 
and  Bossa,  the  archaeologist,  thinks  thnt  they  date  back  to  the  stone  age,  for  pieces 
of  worked  obsidian  have  been  found  i^      em. 

From  the  top  of  Pantellaria  we  are  able  to  distinguish  a  promontory  on  the 
Sicilian  coast,  but,  though  it  is  nearer  to  Africa  than  to  Europe,  the  island 
uevertheleia  belongs  to  the  latter  continent,  as  is  proved  by  the  configuration  of  the 
sea-bottom.  This  cannot  be  said  of  Linosa,  an  island  with  four  volcanic  peaks 
to  the  west  of  Malta,  and  still  less  of  the  Pelagian  Islands.  The  latter,  consisting 
of  Lampedusa  and  a  satellite  rock  called  Lampion,  owe  their  name  (Lamp-bearer 
and  Lamp)  to  the  light  which,  legends  tell  us,  was  kept  burning  by  a  hermit  or 
angel  for  the  benefit  of  marines.  In  our  own  days  this  legendary  lamp  has  been 
superseded  by  a  small  lighthouse  marking  the  entrance  to  the  port  of  Lampedusa, 
where  vessels  of  three  or  four  hundred  tons  find  a  safe  shelter. 

About  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Russians  proposed  to  establish 
a  military  station  on  Lampedusa  to  rival  that  of  Malta,  but  this  project  was  never 
carried  out,  and  has  not  been  taken  up  by  the  Italian  Government.  The  popu- 
lation consists  of  soldiers,  political  exiles,  criminals,  and  a  few  settlers,  who  speak 
Maltese.* 


Malta  and  Gozzo. 

Malta,  though  a  political  dependency  of  Great  Britain,  belonga  geographically  to 
Italy,  for  it  rises  from  the  same  submarine  plateau  as  Sicily.  About  fifty  miles  to 
the  east  of  the  island  the  depth  of  the  sea  exceeds  1,600  fathoms,  but  in  the  north, 
in  the  direction  of  Sicily,  it  har^y  amounts  to  eighty,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  an  isthmus  formerly  united  Malta  to  continental  Europe.  Geologists  are  agreed 
that  the  land  of  which  Malta  and  Gozzo  are  now  the  only  remains  must  formerly 
have  been  of  great  extent,  for  amongst  the  fossils  of  its  most  recent  limestcne 
rooks  have  been  found  the  bones  of  elephants  and  other  animals  which  only 
inhabit  continents.  Even  now  the  island  is  slowly  wasting  away,  and  its  steep 
cliffs,  pierced  by  numerous  grottoes,  locally  known  as  ghar,  are  gradually  crumbling 
into  dust. 

Placed  in  the  very  centre  of  the  Meditenanean,  and  possessed  of  an  excellent 
port,  Malta  has  at  all  times  been  a  oommeroial  station  of  much  importance.  It 
has  been  occupied  by  all  the  nations  who  succeeded  each  other  in  the  possession 
of  the  Mediterranean — ^Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  and  Greeks.  But  long 
before  that  time  the  island  must  have  been  inhabited,  for  we  meet  with  grottoes 
excavated  in  the  rocks,  and  with  curious  edifices  resembling  the  nuraghi  of 
Sardinia,  and  it  is  just  possible  that  the  descendants  of  these  aborigines  still 

*  Ftmtellaria,  39-7  ■qnare  milM,  6,000  inhabifamts ;  Unoia,  4*6  iqBue  milat,  900  inhatntanta; 
Lampedtua,  S  aquare  milM,  600  inluiWitaata. 


■*iSf?W^ 


WALT. 


constitute  the  principal  element  of  the  existing  population,  which,  at  all  events, 
is  very  mixed,  and  during  the  domination  of  the  Saracens  almost  became  Arab. 
The  language  spoken  is  a  very  corrupt  Italian,  containing  many  Arabic  words. 
The  great  military  part  played  by  Malta  began  when  the  Knights  of  St.  John, 


Fif.  121.— Thi  Pout  or  Malta. 
B«da  1:40,000. 


iv*3ri&'T..iirOr 


4 


^-  '<^ 


U»M'I5- 


tlOki. 


after  their  expulsion' i^m  Rhodes  in  1522,  installed  tbemselvet  upon  the  island, 
and  converted  it  into  the  bulwark  of  the  Christian  world.  In  the  beginning  of  ihis 
century  Malta  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  English,  who  may  sorvey  thence, 
as  from  a  watch-tower,  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean,  frmn  Gilwaltar  to  Smyrna 


rs®fe*^'*""' 


which,  at  all  events, 
almost  became  Arab, 
any  Arabic  worda. 
Knighta  of  St.  John, 


••-, 


'^■•^ — 


nselTes  upon  the  islancl, 
In  the  beginning  of  this 
who  may  aurvey  thence, 
mm  Gibraltar  to  Smyrna 


nMMto 


mil  iimiiii 


'■*'es*5_-fn' 


MALTA  AND  QOZZO. 


tnd  Port  Said.  The  excellent  port  of  1m  Vuletta  singularly  facilitate!  the  mili- 
tary and  commercial  part  which  Malta  ia  called  upon  to  play  in  the  world  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  ii  auffioiently  apaoious  to  shelter  two  entire  fleeta,  and  its 
approaches  are  defended  by  fortifications  rendered  impregnable  by  the  successive 
work  of  three  centuries.  There  are,  besides,  all  the  facilities  required  by  merchant- 
men, including  a  careening  dock  larger  than  any  other  in  the  world.  The 
commerce  of  the  island  is  rapidly  increasing ;  it  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
steamboat  navigation,  and  submarine  telegraphs  connect  it  with  all  parts  of  the 
world.* 

The  city  of  La  Valetta  has  retained  all  its  ancient  picturesqueness,  in  spite 
of  its  straight  streets  and  the  walls  which  surround  it.  Its  high  white  houses, 
ornamented  with  balconies  and  conservatories,  rise  amphitheatre-like  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill ;  stairs  lead  fVom  landing-place  to  landin/  place  to  the  summit  of  this 
hill ;  and  from  every  street  we  behold  the  blue  sea,  with  its  large  merchantmen  and 
crowds  of  smaller  vessels.  Gondolas,  having  two  huge  eyes  painted  upon  the  prow, 
glide  noiselessly  over  the  waters,  and  curious  vehicles  roll  heavily  along  the 
quays.  Maltese,  English  soldiers,  and  sailors  of  every  nation  crowd  the  streets. 
Now  and  then  a  woman  glides  rapidly  along  the  walls.  Like  all  Ohristian  women 
of  the  East,  she  wears  the /aldeita,  a  sort  of  black  silk  domino,  which  hides  her 
somptuottS  dress,  and  coquettishly  conceals  her  features. 

Malta  beyond  the  walls  of  the  town  is  but  a  dreary  place  of  abode.  The 
country  rises  gently  towards  the  south,  in  the  direction  of  Oitta  Yecchia  and  the 
hills  of  Ben  Gemma.  Grey  rooks  abound,  a  fine  dust  covers  the  vegetation,  and 
the  white  waUs  of  the  village  glisten  in  the  sun.  There  are  no  trees,  except  in  a 
few  solitary  gardens,  where  the  famous  mandarin  oranges  grow.  Nor  are  there 
any  rivers.  The  soil  is  scorched,  and  it  is  matter  for  astonishment  that  it  should 
yield  such  abnndant  harvests  of  cereals,  and  clover  (sulki)  growing  to  the  height 
of  a  man.  Oamation  tints  delight  the  eye  during  the  season  of  flowers.  The 
Maltese  peasants,  small,  wiry,  and  muscular,  are  wonderfully  industrious.  They 
have  brought  the  whole  island  under  cultivation,  the  olifb  alone  excepted,  and, 
where  yegetable  soil  is  wanting,  they  produce  it  artificially  by  triturating  the  rocks. 
In  former  times  vessels  coming  from  Sicily  were  bound  to  bring  a  certain  quantity 
of  soil  as  ballast  But  in  spite  of  their  careful  cultivation,  the  inhabitants  of 
Malta,  Gozso,  and  Comino'  (thus  named  from  cumin,  which,  with  cotton,  is  the 
principal  crop  of  the  island),  the  produce  hardly  suffices  for  six  months'  consump- 
tion, and  the  islanders  are  largely  dependent  upon  Sicily  for  their  food.  Navi- 
gation and  the  fisheries  contribute  likewise  towards  the  means  of  subsistnnoe,  but 
the  Maltese  would  nevertheless  perish  on  their  idand  if  the  surplus  population 
did  not  emigrate  to  all  the  coast  lands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  especially  to 
Algeria,  where  the  Maltese,  as  everywhere  else,  are  distinguished  for  thrift  and 
industry. 

*  The  tonnage  of  veaaela  which  enter  and  clear  snnaally  ttam  foreign  ports  amounta  to  4,800,000 
toni;  the  valae  of  dntiable  artidea  imported  ia  nearly  £9,000,000  sterling,  and  the  Talne  of  the  ezpoita 
about  the  i 


.-i^mmmm 


iL.].ii|iiMJaLtolJliil.'J<aiiiMMBt 


888 


ITALY. 


In  winter  this  exodus  is  in  some  measure  compensated  for  by  the  arrival  of 
many  English  families,  who  visit  the  island  for  the  sake  of  its  dry  and  mild 
climate.  February  is  the  finest  month,  and  the  island  is  then  resplendent  with 
verdure,  but  the  scorching  heat  of  summer  soon  dries  up  the  vegetation. 

A  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown  exercises  executive  functions,  and  enjoys 
the  privilege  of  mercy.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Council  of  seven  members,  by  whom 
all  laws  are  discussed  and  voted.  The  lord-lieutenant  of  each  district  is  chosen 
amongst  the  Maltese  nobles,  and  deputies  appointed  by  the  governor  manage 
the  affairs  of  the  villages.  Italian  is  the  language  used  in  the  courts,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Supreme  Court,  into  which  English  was  introduced  in  1823. 

The  revenues  of  the  island,  about  £170,000  annually,  are  not  sufficient  to  cover 
the  military  expenses,  and  the  deficiency  is  made  up  by  the  imperial  treasury. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Boman  Oatholics.  The  bishop  is  appointed  by  the 
Pope,  and  enjoys  an  income  of  £4,000.* 


VIII. — Sardinia. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  an  island  so  fertile  as  Sardinia,  so  rich  in  metals,  and  so 
favourably  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  should  have  lagged 
behind  in  the  race  of  progress  as  it  has.  When  the  Carthaginians  held  that 
island  its  population  was  certainly  more  numerous  than  it  is  now,  and  the  fearful 
massacres  placed  on  record  by  the  historians  of  Rome  testify  to  this  &ct.  Its 
decadence  was  sudden  and  thorough.  In  part  it  may  be  accounted  fcnr  by  the 
configuration  of  the  island,  which  presents  steep  cliffs  towards  Italy,  whence 
emigrants  might  have  arrived,  whilst  its  western  coast  is  bounded  by  marshes 
and  insalubrious  swamps.  But  the  principal  cause  of  this  torpor,  which  endured 
for  centuries,  is  traceable  to  the  actions  of  man.  The  conquerors  who  succeeded 
the  Romans  and  Byzantines  in  the  possession  of  the  island,  whether  Saivoens, 
Pisans,  Genoese,  or  Aragonese,  monopolized  its  produce  solely  with  a  view  to 
their  own  profit,  ai^d  further  mischief  was  wrought  by  the  pirates  of  Barbary,  who 
frequently  descended  upon  its  coasts.  As  recently  as  1815  the  Tunisians  landed 
upon  Sant'  Antioco,  massacring  the  inhabitants,  or  carrying  ihem  into  slavery. 
The  coast  districts  became  depopulated,  and  the  inhabitants  retired  to  the  interior, 
where,  oppressed  by  their  feudal  lords,  they  led  a  life  of  isolati<m  from  the  rest  cf 
Europe.  It  is  hardly  a  generation  since  Sardinia  began  to  participate  in  the 
general  progress  made  throughout  Italy. 

Sardinia  is  nearly  as  large  as  Sicily,  but  has  only  a  fourth  of  its  population.f 
Geographically  it  is  more  independent  of  Italy  than  the  southern  island,  and  a 
profound  sea,  more  than  1,000  fathoms  in  depth,  divides  it  from  the  Afrioan 
continent.  Sardinia  with  Corsica  forms  a  group  of  twin  islands,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  Tuscait  archipelago  by  a  narrow  strait  only  170  fathoms  in  depth. 

*  Axaa  of  Malta,  GKnno,  and  Oomino,  146  iqiui*  milM ;  popnlation  140,084,  inolaaive  of  7,S00  militaiy 
and  their  fiuntliea. 

t  Area,  0,440  aquavo  milea ;  popnlation  (1871),  636,£00. 


^tssitmwM 


.  for  by  the  arrival  of 
of  its  dry  and  nuld 
then  resplendent  with 
vegetation, 
functions,  and  enjoys 
en  members,  by  whom 
each  district  is  chosen 
the  governor  manage 
n  the  courts,  with  the 
troduoed  in  1823. 
3  not  sufficient  to  cover 
imperial  treasury, 
lop  is  appointed  by  the 


0  rich  in  metals,  and  so 
a,  should  have  lagged 
larthaginians  held  that 
is  now,  and  the  fearful 
»tify  to  this  fact.  Its 
»e  accounted  for  by  the 

towards  Italy,  whence 
is  bounded  by  marshes 
s  torpor,  which  endured 
nquerors  who  succeeded 
land,  whether  Saracens, 

solely  with  a  view  to 
pirates  of  Barbary,  who 
L6  the  Tunisians  bnded 
^ing  them  into  slavery, 
bs  retired  to  the  interior, 
isolation  from  the  rest  cf 
m  to  participate  va.  the 

ourth  of  its  population-t 
e  southern  island,  and  a 
les  it  from  the  African 
n  islands,  which  is  sepa- 
ly  170  fethoms  in  depth. 

0,084,  inoluHve  of  7,809  mflitary 


MM 


840 


ITALY. 


of  the  mountains  of  Cornoa,  whilst  the  smaller  ones  lay  to  the  west.  Alluvial 
deposits,  voloanic  eruptions,  and  perhaps,  also,  an  upheaval  of  the  soil,  have 
converted  the  shallow  straits  which  separated  them  into  dry  land. 

The  mountains  of  Sardinia  may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  islands  of  Maddalena 
and  Caprera,  in  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  and  in  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Oallura 
they  attain  already  a  considerable  height.  A  depression  separates  these  from  the 
southern  portion  of  the  great  back-bone  of  the  island,  which  stretches  along  the 
whole  of  the  eastern  coast,  and  terminates  abruptly  at  Cape  Oarbonaro.  These 
mountains,  like  those  of  Corsica,  consist  of  crystalline  rooks  and  schists;  but 
whilst  the  slope  on  the  latter  island  is  steepest  towards  the  west,  the  reverse  is  the 
case  on  Sardinia,  and  that  island  may  almost  h^  said  to  turn  its  back  upon  Italy. 


Fig.  120. — Tan  Strait  op  Bomifaciu. 
Btwle  1 :  800,006. 


IK 


lEorCr 


y 


/ 


M, 


lOHilM. 


The  general  slope  of  the  island  is  towards  the  west,  and  its  oooupation  by  Spain 
could  therefore  be  justified  by  purely  geographical  arguments. 

The  highest  summits  of  the  island  are  found  in  the  central  portion  of  this 
crystalline  oliain,  where  the  Gennargentu,  or  "  silver  mountain,"  rises  to  a  height  of 
6,116  feet.  A  little  snow  remains  in  the  crevices  of  this  mountain  throughout  the 
summer.  The  inhabitants  of  Northern  Sardinia  formerly  imagined  that  their  own 
GKgantinu,  or  "  giant,"  in  the  mountains  of  Limbarra,  constituted  the  culminating 
point  of  the  island,  but^  careful  measurements  have  shown  that  that  superb  peak 
only  attains  an  elevation  of  4,397  feet. 

Hie  secondary  mountain  groups  in  the  western  portion  of  the  island  are 
separated  from  the  main  chain  by  recent  geological  formations.     The  granitio 


mi^ 


SABDINIA. 


m 


>  the  west.  AUuvial 
ral  of  the  soil,  have 
land. 

islands  of  Maddalena 
1  mass  of  the  Gallura 
arates  these  from  the 
1  stretches  along  the 
le  Oarbonaro.  These 
cks  and  schists;  but 
est,  the  reverse  is  the 
its  back  upon  Italy. 


3 


^ 


\»  occupation  by  Spain 
its. 

central  portion  of  liiis 
ain,"  rises  to  a  height  of 
ountain  throughout  the 
magined  that  their  own 
tituted  the  culminating 
ihat  that  superb  peak 

tion  of  the  island  are 
nations.     The  granitio 


region  of  La  Narra,  to  the  west  of  Sassari,  almost  uninhabited  in  spite  of  its 
fertil  valleys,  and  the  island  of  Asinara  adjoining  it,  which  abounds  in  turtles, 
are  amongst  these  insulated  mountain  regions.  Another,  intersected  by  the 
beautiful  valley  of  Domus  Novas,  occupies  the  south-western  extremity  of  the 
island.  Geologists  look  upon  it  as  the  most  ancient  portion  of  the  island,  and 
the  plain  of  Campidano,  which  now  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  arm  of  the  sea, 
is  of  quaternary  formation.  The  transversal  range  of  Marghine  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  island,  and  there,  too,  we  meet  with  vast  limestone  plateaux  pierced 
by  volcanic  rocks.  The  ancient  craters,  however,  no  longer  emit  lava,  nor  even 
gases,  and  the  villagers  have  tranquilly  built  their  huts  within  them.  Thermal 
springs  alone  indicate  the  existence  of  subterranean  forces.  Volcanic  cones  of 
recent  age  are  met  with  in  the  north>westem  portion  of  the  island,  as  well  as  in 
the  valley  of  the  Orosei,  on  the  east  coast.  The  trachytic  rocks  of  the  islands  of 
San  Pietro  and  Sant'  Antioco  are  of  greater  age.  They  sometimes  present  the 
appearance  of  architectural  piles,  especially  at  the  Cape  of  Columns,  which  is, 
however,  rapidly  disappearing,  as  the  stone  is  being  quarried  to  be  converted  into 
pavement.  On  Sant'  Antioco,  which  a  bridge  joins  to  the  mainland,  there  are 
deep  caverns,  the  haunts  of  thousands  of  pigeons,  which  are  caught  by  spreading 
a  net  before  their  entrance. 

In  addition  to  the  changes  wrought  by  volcanic  agencies,  Sardinia  exhibits 
traces  of  a  slow  upheaval  or  subsidence  due  to  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  the 
upper  strata  of  the  earth.  Baised  beaches  have  been  discovered  by  La  Marmora 
near  Cagliari,  at  an  elevation  of  243  and  322  feet  above  the  sea-level,  where 
shells  of  living  species  are  found  together  with  potsherds  and  other  articles, 
proving  that  when  this  upheaval  took  place  the  island  was  already  inhabited. 
Elsewhere  there  exist  traces  of  a  subsidence,  and  the  old  Phoenician  cities  of  Nora, 
to  the  south-west  of  Cagliari,  and  Tharros,  on  the  northern  peninsula  of  the 
Gulf  of  Oristano,  have  become  partly  submerged. 

Amongst  the  rivers  of  the  island  there  is  only  one  which  deserves  that 
name.  This  is  the  Tirso,  or  Fiume  d'Oristano,  which  is  fed  by  the  snows  of  the 
Geimargentu  and  the  rains  which  descend  on  the  western  mountain  slopes.  Other 
rivers  of  equal  length  are  hardly  more  than  torrents,  which  at  one  time  invade  the 
fields  adjoining  them,  and  at  another  shrink  to  a  thin  thread  of  water  meandering 
between  thickets  of  laurel-trees.  Most  of  the  river  beds  are  dry  during  eight 
months  of  the  year,  and  even  after  rain  the  water  does  not  find  its  way  into  the 
sea,  but  is  absorbed  by  the  littoral  swamps. 

All  these  swamps  have  brackish  water.  The  largest  amongst  them  communicate 
freely  with  the  sea,  at  least  during  the  rainy  season,  but  others  are  separated  from 
it  by  a  strip  of  sand.  But  shese,  too,  are  brackish,  for  the  sea-water  percolates 
through  the  soil,  and  kaeps  them  at  the  same  level.  The  water  of  the  inland 
swamps  is  likewise  saturated  with  saline  substances  derived  from  the  surrounding 
soil.  They  generally  dry  up  in  summer,  but  the  coating  of  salt  which  then  appears 
is  hardly  dry  enough  to  repay  the  labour  of  collection  and  refinement.  The  only 
salt  marshes  actually  explored  are  those  of  Cagliari  and  of  Carlo-Forte,  on  San 

86 


ITALY. 


Pietro.    They  have  heen  leased  to  a  French  company,  and  yield  annually  nearly 
120,000  tons  of  salt. 

Swamps  and  marshes  envelop  nearly  the  whole  of  the  island  in  a  zone  of  mias^ 
mata,  which  are  carried  by  the  wind  into  the  interior,  producing  fever  even  in  the 
more  elevated  mountain  districts.  There  are  localities  on  the  island  the  air  of 
which  no  stranger  can  breathe  with  impunity.  The  coast  districts  of  Sardinia, 
with  their  stagnant  waters,  are,  in  truth,  the  most  imhealthy  in  Italy,  and  quite 
one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  island  is  exposed  to  the  scourge  of  malaria,  which 
sufficiently  accounts  for  the  small  population  of  the  island  and  the  little  progress 
made. 

Even  when  Sardinia  was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  and  supplied  Rome 
with  an  abundance  of  com,  cheese,  pork,  lead,  copper,  iron,  and  textile  fabrics, 
it  was  noted  for  its  unhealthiness,  and  the  emperors  exiled  to  it  those  whom  they 
desired  to  get  rid  of.  Then,  as  now,  the  landed  proprietors,  about  the  middle  of 
Jime,  retired  to  the  towns,  the  walls  of  which  offered  some  protection  against  the 
poisonous  air.  The  Italian  Government  officials  are  sent  to  the  island  as  a  punish- 
ment,  and  for  the  most  part  look  upon  themselves  as  condemned  to  death.  Even 
the  native  villagers  are  bound  to  observe  the  greatest  precautions,  and  wear  gar- 
ments of  skin  or  leather  which  are  impenetrable  to  rain,  mist,  and  dew.  They 
are  dressed  most  warmly  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  year  as  a  protection  against 
the  climate,  and  in  their  long  mMtrucaa  of  sheepskin  they  almost  look  like  Wal- 
laohian  herdsmen. 

Ancient  geogr&phers,  as  well  as  the  Sardinians  themselves,  ascribe  the  imhealthi- 
ness  of  the  climate  to  the  rarity  of  north-easterly  winds.  The  mountains  of  Lim- 
barra,  in  the  north  of  the  island,  are  popularly  supposed  to  act  as  a  sort  of  screen, 
which  diverts  this  health-bringing  wind,  to  the  great  detriment  of  Lower  Sardinia; 
and  there  appears  to  be  much  truth  in  this  popular  notion.  South-westerly 
winds,  or  iibeecioa,  are  mostly  equally  rare,  and  when  they  blow  they  do  so  with 
tempestuous  violence. 

The  regular  winds  of  Sardinia  blow  firom  the  north-west  or  south-east.  The 
former  is  known  as  the  maeatrak,  the  latter  as  the  ievante  or  sirocco,  called  maledetto 
kmnie  by  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Sardinia.  It  becomes  charged  with  moisture 
during  its  passage  across  the  Mediterranean,  and  its  temperature  is  in  reality  much 
less  than  might  be  supposed  ftom  the  lassitude  produced  by  it.  The  maestrale,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  hailed  with  joy,  for  it  is  an  invigorating  wind.  On  reaching  the 
coast  it  g^erally  parts  with  its  moisture,  and  when  it  arrives  at  Cagliari  it  is  per- 
fectly dry.  The  capital  of  Sardinia  is  indebted  to  this  wind  and  to  sea  breezes 
for  its  low  temperature  (62'4°  F.),  which  is  far  lower  than  that  of  (Jenoa. 

Hurricanes  are  comparatively  rare,  and  hailstorms,  which  work  such  damage 
elsewhere,  are  hardly  known.  Most  of  the  rain  falls  in  autumn ;  it  ceases  in 
December,  when  the  pleasantest  season  sets  in.  These  are  the  "  halcyon  days " 
of  ancient  poets,  when  the  sea  calms  down  in  order  that  the  sacred  bird  may  build 
his  nest.  But  these  pleasant  days  are  succeeded  by  a  wretched  spring.  February, 
the  "  double-fitced  month  **  of  Sardinian  mariners,  brings  capricious  frosts,  to  which 


lB«iiMi»<u  ^jUi^mam^L'iiiiiii^iMiSt.ijUt^SliiA&jSb.iM 


SABDINIA. 


840 


yield  annually  nearly 

md  in  a  zone  of  mias^ 
cing  fever  even  in  the 
the  island  the  air  of 
t  districts  of  Sardinia, 
hy  in  Italy,  and  quite 
rge  of  malaria,  which 
and  the  little  progress 

f,  and  supplied  Rome 
n,  and  textile  fabrics, 
to  it  those  whom  they 
I,  about  the  middle  of 
protection  against  the 
the  island  as  a  punish- 
tnned  to  death.  Even 
lautions,  and  wear  gar- 
,  mist,  and  dew.  They 
•  as  a  protection  i^inst 
almost  look  like  Wal- 

s,  ascribe  the  unhealthi- 
The  mountains  of  Lim- 
)  act  as  a  sort  of  screen, 
aent  of  Lower  Sardinia; 
lotion.  South-westerly 
y  blow  ihey  do  so  with 

rest  or  south-east.    The 
ir  sirocco,  called  makdetto 
9S  charged  with  moisture 
rature  is  in  reality  much 
ly  it.    The  maestrale,  on 
;  wind.   On  reaching  the 
ves  at  Cagliari  it  is  per- 
find  and  to  sea  breezes 
that  of  Genoa, 
liich  work  such  damage 
a  autumn ;  it  ceases  in 
ire  the  "  halcyon  days  " 
he  sacred  bird  may  build 
bched  spring.    February, 
saprioious  frosts,  to  which 


succeed,  in  March  and  April,  abrupt  changes  of  temperature,  winds,  and  rain. 
Vegetation  in  consequence  is  far  more  backward  than  might  be  supposed  from  the 
latitude. 

The  vegetation  of  Sardinia  resembles  that  of  the  other  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  forest  in  the  highland  valleys  of  the  interior  and  on  the  trackless 
mountain  slopes  consists  of  pines,  oaks,  and  holm-oaks,  mixed  here  and  there  with 
yoke-elms  and  maples.  The  villages  are  surrounded  by  chestnut-trees  and  groves 
of  magnificent  walnut-trees.  The  hill-tops,  robbed  of  their  forests,  are  covered 
with  odoriferous  plants  and  thickets  of  myrtles,  strawberry-trees,  and  heather.  It 
is  there  the  bees  collect  the  bitter  honey  so  much  despised  by  Horace.  Vast  tracts  of 
uncultivated  land  near  the  seashore  are  covered  with  wild  olive-trees,  which  only 
need  grafting  to  yield  excellent  fruit.  All  the  fruit  trees  and  useful  plants  of  the 
Mediterranean  flourish  in  Sardinia.  Almond  and  orange  trees,  introduced  by 
the  Moors  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  flourish  vigorously.  The  orange 
groves  of  Millis,  which  are  protected  by  the  extinct  volcano  of  Monte  Ferru,  are, 
perhaps,  the  most  productive  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  good 
seasons  yield  60,000,000  oranges.  The  gardens  of  Domus  Novas,  Ozieri,  and 
Sassari  are  of  surprising  fertility.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  wherever  the 
cultivated  fields  gain  upon  the  lands  covered  with  rock-roses,  fennel,  and  lilies, 
they  are  fenced  in  with  fig-trees.  The  fan-shaped  foliage  of  the  date-palm  is  seen 
near  every  town,  and  more  especially  in  the  environs  of  Oagliari.  By  a  curious 
contrast  the  dwarf  palm  is  not  met  with  in  the  southern  lowlands  of  the  island, 
though  their  climate  is  almost  African,  but  forms  dense  thickets  in  the  solitudes  of 
Alghero,  in  the  north  of  the  islands.  The  inhabitants  eat  the  roots  of  this  tree,  as 
do  also  the  Moors. 

Although  all  the  plants  of  neighbouring  countries  become  easily  acclimatized  in 
Sardinia,  that  island  is  naturally  poorer  in  species  than  are  continental  regions 
lying  under  the  same  latitude.  l%ere  is  nothing  special  about  its  flora,  for  the 
island  is  probably  only  a  remnant  of  a  larger  tract  of  land  which  formerly  joined 
Europe  to  Asia.  As  to  the  &mous  plant  mentioned  by  ancient  writers,  which,  eaten 
by  mistake,  produced  fits  of  "sardonic  laughter,"  or  even  death,  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  peculiar  to  the  island.  Mimaut  thinks,  from  the  descriptions  of 
Pliny  and  Pausanias,  that  the  large-leafed  water-ptlrsley  {Siutn  latifolium)  is 
referred  to. 

The  number  of  species  of  animals,  like  that  of  plants,  is  smaller  in  Sardinia 
than  on  the  neighbouring  continent.  There  are  neither  bears,  badgers,  polecats, 
nor  moles.  Vipers  or  venomous  serpents  of  any  description  do  not  exist,  and  the 
only  animal  to  be  dreaded  is  the  tarentula  (ansa,  or  argia),  a  sting  from  which 
can  be  cured  only  by  dancing  imtii  completely  exhausted,  or  by  immersion  in 
dung.  The  ordinary  frog,  though  common  in  Corsica,  does  not  exist,  but  European 
butterflies  are  numerous.  The  mouflon,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  ancestor  of  our 
domestic  sheep,  and  has  been  exterminated  in  nearly  all  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  still  lives  in  the  mountains  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  Wild  horses 
roamed  over  Sant'  Antiooo  as  recently  as  the  beginning  of  this  century ;  myriads 


844 


ITALY. 


of  rabbits  burrow  in  the  small  islands  lining  the  coast ;  and  wild  goats  with  long 
horns  and  yellow  teeth  inhabit  the  limestone  island  of  Tavolara,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Terranova.  These  goats  are  descended  from  domestic  animals  abandoned  at  seme 
former  period.  Caprera,  the  residence  of  Garibaldi,  is  named  after  the  goats 
which  formerly  inhabited  it,  and  animals  of  that  Vind  recently  introduced  there 
quickly  returned  to  a  state  of  nature. 

Naturalists  have  observed  that  the  mammals  of  Sardinia  are  smaller  than  the 
same  species  living  on  the  continent.  The  goat  is  the  only  exception  to  the  rule. 
The  stag,  deer,  wild  boar,  fox,  wild  cat,  hare,  rabbit,  marten,  and  weasel  are  all  of 
them  smaller  than  the  continental  varieties.  The  same  rule  applies  to  domesticated 
animals,  with  the  exception  of  the  pig,  which  grows  to  a  great  size,  especially  where 
it  is  allowed  to  roam  through  oak  forests.  There  is  a  variety  of  this  animal 
whose  hoofs  are  not  cloven,  and  which  ought,  therefore,  to  bb  classed  amongst  soli- 
peds.  The  horses  and  asses  of  Sardinia  are  dwarfs.  But  the  horse  is  distinguished 
by  great  sobriety,  sureness  of  foot,  vigour,  and  endurance.  If  in  addition  to  these 
advantages  it  possessed  a  more  attractive  exterior,  it  would  rank  among  the  most 
highly  appreciated  horses  of  £urope.  As  to  the  donkeys,  though  hardly  larger 
than  a  mastiff,  they  are  brave  little  animals,  atod  frequently  share  with  their 
masters  the  only  room  of  their  abode.  The  old-fashioned  mills,  resembling  in 
every  respect  the  Roman  bas-reliefs  which  may  be  seen  in  the  Vatican,  are 
propelled  by  these  donkeys,  which  thus  materially  contribute  towards  the  support 
of  their  proprietors. 

Sardinia  abounds  more  than  any  other  country  of  Western  Europe  in  pre- 
historic remains.  There  are  megaliths,  known  as  "  giants'  stones,"  "  altars,"  or 
"  long-stones,"  as  in  Brittany,  scarcely  any  of  them  showing  traces  of  the  chisel. 
Dolmens,  however,  are  rare,  and  the  genuineness  of  all  is  doubted  Amongst 
these  monuments  there  are,  perhaps,  some  which  were  connected  with  the  worship 
of  some  Eastern  deity,  for  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  stayed  for  a  considerable 
time  upon  the  island,  where  they  founded  Oaralis,  Nora,  Tharros,  and  other  towns ; 
and  even  during  the  time  of  the  Romans  it  was  customary  to  place  Punic  inscrip- 
tions upon  the  tombstones.  The  ruins  of  Tharros  have  yielded  golden  idols  and 
other  articles  in  large  numbers,  most  of  them  being  of  Egyptian  origin.  But  the 
principal  witnesses  to  the  civilisation  of  the  ancient  Sards  are  the  curious 
structures  known  as  nuraghi.  They  generally  occupy  the  hill-tops,  and,  seen  from 
a  distance,  resemble  pyramids.  The  limestone  plateau  of  Giara,  near  the  centre  of 
the  island,  is  surrounded  by  masonry  structures  of  this  description,  which  aboimd 
also  in  other  portions  of  the  island,  the  number  still  existing  being  neatly  4,000. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  the  basaltic  region  to  the  south  of  Maoomer, 
and  are  met  with  for  the  most  part  in  fertile  districts,  far  away  from  the  arid 
steppes. 

The  origin  and  uses  of  these  nuraghi  have  been  a  subject  of  much  discussion,  but 
archaeologists  now  almost  universally  adopt  the  views  of  Signer  Spano,  the  indefa- 
tigable explorer  of  Sardinian  antiquities.  According  to  him  these  nuraghi  were 
dwellings,  and  their  Phoenician  name  simply  means  "  round  house."    The  rudest 


SABDINIA. 


I  wild  goats  with  long 
rolara,  in  the  Gulf  of 
lals  abandoned  at  seme 
lamed  after  the  goats 
jntly  introduced  there 

i  are  smaller  than  the 
'  exception  to  the  rule. 
I,  and  weasel  are  all  of 
applies  to  domesticated 
it  size,  especially  where 
variety  of  this  animal 
)b  classed  amongst  soli- 
le  horse  is  distinguished 
If  in  addition  to  these 
rank  among  the  most 
(/though  hardly  larger 
lently  share  with  their 
ed  miUs,  resembling  in 
jn  in  the  Vatican,  are 
mte  towards  the  support 

Western  Europe  in  pre- 
its'  stones,"  "  altars,"  or 
fing  traces  of  the  chisel. 

is  doubted  Amongst 
inected  with  the  worship 
stayed  for  a  considerable 
'harros,  and  other  towns ; 
y  to  place  Punic  inscrip- 

yielded  golden  idols  and 
Igyptian  origin.    But  the 

Sards  are  the  curious 
)  hill-tpps,  and,  seen  from 
'  Giara,  near  the  centre  of 
lescription,  which  abound 
flting  being  neavly  4,000. 

the  south  of  Maoomer, 
,  far  away  from  the  arid 

ect  of  much  discussion,  but 

Signer  Spano,  the  indefa- 

0  him  these  nuraghi  were 

jund  house."    The  rudest 


among  them,  dating  back  probably  for  forty  centuries,  contain  but  a  single  chamber. 
They  were  erected  during  the  age  of  stone,  when  man  first  gave  up  his  cavern 
dwellings.  The  more  recent  constructions  date  back  to  the  age  of  bronze,  and  even 
of  iron.  More  skill  is  exhibited  in  their  structure,  though  no  mortar  has  been 
used,  and  they  contain  two  or  more  chambers,  forming  as  many  floors,  and  accessible 
by  means  of  stone  stairs.  The  ground  floor  of  some  is  large  enough  for  the  accom- 
modation of  forty  or  fifty  persons,  and  is  furnished  with  antechambers  and  small 
semicircular  recesses.  The  nuraghi  of  Su  Domu  of  S'Orou,  near  Domus  Novasi 
which  has  recently  been  demolished,  contained  ten  chambers  and  four  courtyards ; 

Fig.  127.— La  Giaia. 
Soale  1  :  SOStSM. 


kNirm^ 


SXilM. 


it  was  a  fortress  as  well  as  a  dwelling-plaoe,  capable  of  accommodating  a  hundred 
persons  and  standing  a  siege.  The  dwellings  of  the  modem  Albanians  and  of  the 
Swaneti  in  the  Caucasus  still  resemble  these  ancient  abodes. 

The  rubbish  which  accumulated  in  these  nuraghi  has  yielded  a  multitude  of 
objects  which  throw  light  upon  the  daily  life  of  the  inhabitants,  and  bear  witness  to 
their  relative  civilisation.  The  lower  strata  only  contain  hand-made  utensils,  stone 
arms,  and  pottery,  but  in  the  upper  and  more  recent  layers  many  articles  of  bronze 
have  been  found.  Other  monuments  of  cyclopean  structure  stand  near  these 
ancient  dwellings.     They  are  popularly  known  as  "  giants'  tombs,"  and  Signer 


846 


ITALY. 


Sapi,  who  has  examined  a  large  number  of  them,  has  discovered  in  every  instance 
the  ashes  of  human  beings. 

Though  very  superstitious,  the  Sardinians  have  no  legends  respecting  these 
dwellings  of  the  aborigines,  and  at  most  attribute  them  to  the  devil.  This 
absence  of  traditions  is  no  doubt  traceable  to  the  almost  total  annihilation  of 
the  inhabitants  by  successive  conquerors.  The  Carthaginians  showed  no  mercy 
to  the  aborigines,  and  during  the  first  centuries  of  Roman  rule  massacres  and 
forcible  emigration  were  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  gaps  thus  created  were  filled 
up  by  Italian  colonists  and  exiles.  v 

The  ancient  Sards  were  most  likely  Iberians.  Thpy  are  of  low  stature,  and 
the  climate,  which  has  stunted  the  growth  of  wild  and  domesticated  animals, 
appears  to  have  influenced  man  likewise;  but  they  are  well  proportioned  and 
muscular,  have  an  abundance  of  black  hair  and  strong  beards,  and  scarcely  ever 
grow  bald.  There  are  minor  differences  in  the  Sards  of  the  two  provinces.  Those 
of  the  north  have  generally  oval  features  and  an  aquiline  nose,  whilst  those  near 
Oagliari,  who  are  probably  more  mixed,  have  irregular  features  and  prominent 
cheek-bones. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  interior  of  the  island  are,  perhaps,  of  purer  race  than  any 
other  Europeans.  Their  ancestors,  no  doubt,  were  of  the  most  diverse  orig^,  but 
most  invasions  which  took  place  after  the  Roman  era  stopped  short  at  the  coast. 
The  Yandals  paid  a  visit  to  Sardinia,  but  all  the  other  (Germanic  tribes,  who 
ravaged  nearly  every  other  country  of  Western  Europe,  spared  that  island,  and 
its  inhabitants  were  thus  able  to  preserve  their  manners  and  language.  The 
Moors,  Piaans,  Genoese,  Gatalonians,  and  Spaniards,  who  successively  invaded  the 
island,  never  penetrated  beyond  the  coast.  There  is  only  one  exception  to  this 
rule,  viz.  that  of  the  Barbaricini,  who  inhabit  the  mountain  district  of  Barbagia, 
in  the  very  centre  of  the  island,  and  who  are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of 
Berbers  expelled  from  Africa  by  the  Yandals.  When  they  came  to  the  island 
they  were  still  pagans,  and  they  intermarried  with  their  neighbours,  the  Ilienses, 
an  aboriginal  tribe,  pagans  like  themselves.  They  were  converted  to  Christianity 
in  the  se-  mth  century,  and  the  sombre  drera  worn  by  their  women  reminds  us  of 
Barbary. 

Of  all  the  idioms  derived  from  the  Latin,  that  spoken  in  Sardinia  has  most 
resemblance  to  the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans.  More  than  five  hundred 
words  are  absolutely  identical.  There  are  likewise  a  few  Ch^k  words  not  met 
with  in  any  other  Latin  idiom,  as  well  as  two  or  three  words  which  have  no 
affinity  with  any  other  European  tongue,  and  which  are,  perhaps,  derived  from  the 
language  spoken  by  the  aborigines.  The  two  leading  dialects,  those  of  Logoduro, 
in  the  north  and  of  Cagliari,  are  directly  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  are,  perhaps, 
most  nearly  related  to  Spanish.  At  Sassari,  and  in  some  of  the  neighbouring  coast 
districts,  an  Italian  dialect  is  spoken  which  is  very  much  like  that  of  Corsica  or 
Genoa.  At  Alghero  the  descendants  of  the  Catalonian  immigrants  who  settled 
there  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  still  speak  their  old  Provenfal. 
The  MaureUi,  ox  Maureddus,  in  the  environs  of  Iglesias,  who  are  probably  Berbers, 


SARDINIA. 


847 


ered  in  every  instance 

ends  respecting  these 
to  the  devil.  This 
total  annihilation  of 
ians  showed  no  mercy 
An  rule  massacres  and 
hus  created  were  filled 

re  of  low  stature,  and 
domestioated  animals, 
well  proportioned  and 
ards,  and  scarcely  ever 
I  two  provinces.  Those 
noBo,  whilst  those  near 
'eatures  and  prominent 

I,  of  purer  race  than  any 
nost  diverse  origin,  hut 
ped  short  at  the  coast. 
Qermanio  tribes,  who 
spared  that  island,  and 
>s  and  language.  The 
mccessively  invaded  the 
ily  one  exception  to  this 
in  district  of  Barbagia, 

>  be  the  descendants  of 
hey  came  to  the  island 
aeighbours,  the  Ilienses, 
inverted  to  Christianity 
Ir  women  reminds  us  of 

m.  in  Sardinia  has  most 
Bf  ore  than  five  hundred 
)w  Gh^k  words  not  met 
e  words  which  have  no 
lerhaps,  derived  from  the 
Lects,  those  of  Logoduro, 

>  Latin,  and  are,  perhaps, 
}f  the  neighbouring  coast 
L  like  that  of  Oorsioa  or 

immig^rants  who  settled 
Mk  their  old  Proven9aL 
rho  are  probably  Berben^ 


and  can  be  recognised  by  their  narrow  skulls,  make  use  of  a  few  African  words. 
Maltzan  looks  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  fertile  district  of  Millis  as  the  purest 
representatives  of  African  immigrants,  and  it  was  they  who  introduced  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  orange  into  Sardinia. 

The  Sardinians  of  the  interior  not  only  retain  their  ancient  language,  but  like- 
wise many  of  their  ancient  customs.  Their  dances  are  still  the  same  as  in  the 
time  of  Greece.  In  the  north  the  steps  are  regulated  by  the  human  voice,  the 
chanters  occupying  the  centre  of  the  ring.  In  the  south  a  musical  instrument, 
the  launedda,  is  used,  which  is  nothing  but  an  ancient  flute,  made  of  two  or  three 
reeds.  The  customs  observed  at  christenings,  weddings,  and  funerals  are  likewise 
of  remote  date.  Marriage,  as  amongst  nearly  all  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  is  preceded  by  a  feigned  abduction  of  the  bride.  The  latter,  after  she  has 
entered  the  house  of  her  husband,  must  not  stir  from  her  place  during  that  day, 
nor  speak  a  single  word.  Mute  as  a  statue,  she  is  no  longer  a  sentient  being, 
but  a  "thing,"  the  property,  of  her  husband.  She  is  not  permitted  to  see  her 
relatives  during  three  days,  and  in  the  south  many  women  partly  conceal  their 
features. 

The  mountaineers  likewise  observe  the  lugubrious  ceremony  of  a  wake,  called 
titio  or  attito.  Women,  who  are  either  the  firiends  of  the  deceased  or  are  engaged 
for  the  purpose,  penetrate  the  mortuary  chamber,  tear  their  hair,  howl,  and 
improvise  hymns  of  mourning.  These  old  pagan  ceremonies  become  truly  terrific 
when  the  deceased  has  been  the  victim  of  assassination,  for  in  that  case  the 
mourners  swear  to  take  the  life  of  the  murderer.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  this 
century  the  practice  of  the  vendetta  annually  cost  the  lives  of  hundreds  of  young 
men.  At  the  present  day  it  is  confined  to  the  most  secluded  parts  of  the  island, 
and  in  the  mountain  districts  of  Nuoro  and  La  Oallura  it  is  customary  at 
christenings  to  place  a  few  bullets  in  the  swaddling-clothes  of  the  infants, 
these  consecrated  bullets  being  supposed  never  to  miss  their  mark.  Another 
custom  still  more  barbarous  has  ceased  to  be  observed  since  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century.  Women,  cdled  "  finishers "  (aceabadure),  were  employed  to 
hasten  the  end  of  dying  persons,  a  practice  which  often  led  to  the  most  atrocious 
deeds. 

The  peasant  of  Sardinia,  though  not  the  proprietor  of  the  soil,  is  nevertheless 
permitted  to  enjoy  the  result  of  his  labour.  The  feudal  system  existed  up  to  1840, 
and  many  traces  of  it  still  survive.  The  great  barons,  most  of  them  of  Spanish 
extraction,  were  almost  the  absolute  masters  of  the  country,  and  up  to  1836  they 
administered  the  law,  had  their  prisons,  and  erected  gallows  as  a  symbol  of  their 
power.  The  peasants,  however,  were  not  tied  to  the  land,  but  could  migrate  at 
pleasure,  and  custom  granted  them  a  fair  share  of  the  produce  of  the  soil.  By 
virtue  of  an  ademprivio  they  were  permitted  to  cut  wood  in  the  forests,  to  pasture 
their  sheep  on  the  hills,  and  to  bring  into  cultivation  the  waste  lands  of  the  plains. 
Agriculture  was  oarriod  on  in  the  most  primitive  fashion,  for  the  great  lords  of 
the  land  usually  resided  abroad,  and  the  management  of  their  estates  was  left  to 
baili£b.    Govemmoit  has  now  become  the  proprietor  of  most  of  the  tmenoloaed 


848 


ITALY. 


Un  J,  80,000  acres  of  which  have  been  ceded  to  the  Anf^lo-Ttalian  Company,  which 
baa  undertaken  to  provide  the  island  with  a  network  of  railways. 

In  the  more  densely  populated  districts  the  division  of  the  land  is  exceedingly 
minute,  and  this  subdivision  is  still  progressing  at  a  most  disastrous  rate.  The 
nomad  herdsmen,  on  the  other  hand,  possess  no  land  of  their  own,  though,  it' 
inclined,  they  are  at  liberty  to  enclose  a  plot.  But  vague  proprietary  rights  like 
these  render  the  careful  cultivation  of  the  soil  impossible.  It  has  been  seriously 
proposed  to  expropriate  the  whole  of  the  land,  and  to  sell  it  to  a  few  enterprising 
capitalist*,  bat  this  would  simply  amount  to  a  restoration  of  the  old  feudal  times, 


Fig.  128.— DllTBIOT  OP  lOUHUS. 

BMOti:  tiojm. 

i*!*         CeEoTMr,                          v'i                          W'                        3i' 

1 

^--i. ; 

J 

y-,::   -m 

■ai^ 

■^■:'--'  ■:-    ^  1 

ii    ^            *»>' jj^^^^Hl^^ 

^                    '^-.^^^^^t^^mM 

fe     %V,    '■■ 

..    ^       UPi«lre.F         \^^H^BB9 

s           V       1 

A 

^^^^^^^                 j^Jl^ia^g^  U           ^^H^DnBI^H^^^^^D 

1 

-^  ^       "^T?^     ^^^■■^■^  ^HHh^^H 

m^aa^i\ 

■     -     "    ■- 

'-j'^^^^^Fv  ,V--- TTl^Hffl 

: 

'V'^^^B'                    IJ^^H 

'   ■ 

r»mm,rt,h,rfT^^mi                                  ''l^Pfl 

1 

*         \M^r^  ""^'^-^ 

^ 

1-     1     "1     -1     »i 

and  poverty,  which  is  great  eveu  now,  would  become  greater.  There  are  viUages  in 
the  district  of  Ogliastra  where  the  peasants  eat  bread  made  of  the  acorns  of  Qutreut 
ilex,  the  dough  being  kneaded  with  water  containing  a  fatty  clay.  This  is,  perhaps, 
the  only  instance  of  earth-CBting  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  too,  eat  acorn  bread, 
but  they  use  the  fruit  of  Quereut  haltota,  which  is  really  edible,  and  are  careful 
not  to  mix  its  flour  witih  earth. 

The  Sardinians,  even  when  they  are  the  owners  of  pasture-grounds  or  of  fidds, 
never  live  in  the  country.  Like  the  Sicilians,  they  are  concentrated  in  towns  or 
large  villages,  and  neither  hamlets  nor  isolated  fiinnhouaes  are  met  with.    Even 


"l^^^kii-.. 


SABDINIA. 


0M 


ilian  Company,  whicli 
By». 

je  land  ia  exceedingly 
diMiatrouB  rate.  Tho 
their  own,  though,  if 
proprietary  rights  like 
It  has  been  aenously 
t  to  a  few  enterprising 
r  the  old  feudal  times, 


w.  There  are  villagefl  in 
I  of  the  acorns  of  QuereuB 
foUj.  This  ie,  perhapB, 
rds,  too,  eat  acorn  bread, 
r  edible,  and  are  oarefol 

tore-grounds  or  of  fields, 
onoentrated  in  towns  or 
es  are  met  with.    Even 


the  shepherds  in  the  mountains  build  their  huts  in  groups  called  ttaMni,  and 
combine  for  mutual  protection  into  cuMorgie.  Members  of  these  associations,  when 
thoy  lose  their  cattle  from  disease  or  any  other  cause,  may  claim  one  or  more 
beasts  from  every  one  of  their  comrades  living  within  the  same  district  or  canton. 
In  other  parts  of  the  island — as,  for  instance,  near  Iglesias — the  produce  of  the 
orchards  is  looked  upon  as  common  property.  The  mountaineers,  though  poor, 
practise  the  ancient  virtue  of  hospitality,  and  though  the  dwellings  are  rude,  they 
find  means  of  making  a  stranger  staying  amongst  them  comfortable. 

The  products  of  Sardinia  form  but  a  small  proportion  of  those  of  all  Italy. 
Most  of  the  peasants  only  work  by  fits  and  starts,  and  hardly  more  than  a  fourth 
of  the  area  of  the  island  has  been  brought  under  cultivation.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  crops  are  destroyed  by  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun,  or  eaten  up 
by  locusts,  which  come  in  swarms  from  Africa.  Except  near  Sassari  no  attempt  is 
made  to  improve  the  produce.  The  olive-tree  alone  is  cultivated  with  some  care, 
for  the  grower  of  a  certain  number  of  these  trees  may  claim  political  privileges, 
and  even  the  title  of  "  Count,"  and  thousands  of  proprietors  have  converted  their 
sterile  steppes  into  productive  olive  groves.  The  millions  of  oranges  grown  in  the 
gardens  of  Millis  and  elsewhere  are  taken  entirely  for  home  consumption. 
Commercially  these  oranges  are  of  less  importance  than  the  saline  plants  collected 
in  the  marshes  of  the  coast  districts,  and  the  ashes  of  which  are  exported  to 
Marseilles  to  be  converted  into  soda. 

The  working  of  granite  and  marble  quarries  yields  some  profit,  but  the  mines, 
which  were  of  such  importance  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  are  hardly  touched 
now.  There  is  only  one  iron  mine,  that  of  San  Leone,  where  work  has  been  carried 
on  seriously  by  a  French  company  since  1822.  It  yields  about  60,000  tons  of  ore 
annually,  and  the  oldest  railway  of  the  island  connects  that  mine  with  Oagliari.  The 
district  of  Iglesias,  where  the  Romans  founded  Plumbea  and  Metalla,  and  the 
Pisans  searched  for  silver,  has  recently  regained  some  of  its  ancient  importance  on 
account  of  its  lead  and  zinc  mines.  The  waste  of  the  old  mines  is  likeMrise  being 
scientifically  treated  by  French,  English,  and  Italian  companies,  to  whom  mining 
claims  have  been  ceded,  and  a  curious  stalootite  cavern  which  traverses  the  hill 
near  Domus  Novas  has  been  utilised  in  gaining  acoess  to  the  soorisB.  Iglesias  is 
rapidly  growing  into  a  city  of  modem  aspect,  the  village  of  Gonessa  is  ah-eady  a 
respectable  town,  and  tlie*  little  harbour  of  Porto  Souso,  until  recently  almost 
deserted,  is  now  crowded,  with  small  craft  employed  in  carrying  annually  900,000 
tons  of  lead  and  zinc  ore  to  the  roadstead  tf  Carlo-Forte.  Unfortunately  the 
miners,  especially  thoeei  from  abroad,  frequently  succumb  to  the  climate. 

The  fisheries,  being  for  the  most  part  carried  on  in  the  bays  exposed  to  the 
sea  breezes,  are  not  attended  by  the  same  dangers.  Certain  portions  of  the  coast 
abound  in  fish,  such  as  the  Bay  of  Cagliari,  and  the  narrow  arms  of  the  sea  in  the 
archipelago  of  the  Maddalena,  which  the  ancients  searched  for  purple  shells. 
Anchovies  and  "sardines"  periodically  visit  the  coasts,  and  as  many  as  50,000 
tunny-fish  are  sometimes  caught  in  a  single  srason.  The  swamps  or  lagoons  like- 
wise yield  fidli,  which  are  caught  in  nets  spread  at  the  openings  of  the  channels 


850  ITALY. 

oommunicating  with  the  lea.  The  awamp  of  Cugliari  abounds  in  ahad,  that  of 
Oristano  in  mullets  and  eels,  and  that  of  Alghero  in  pike  and  gold  fish.  The  Hnheriua 
of  Sardinia  are  consequently  of  much  importance,  but  most  of  their  protits  are 
reaped  by  strangers.  Oors'cans  fish  near  La  Maddalena,  Genoese  around  San 
Pietro,  and  Italii>;is  monopolize  the  coral  fisheries.  These  latter,  too,  collect  the 
Pinna  nohilU,  a  shell,  the  silky  byssus  of  which  is  converted  into  stuff  for  garments. 
Nor  do  the  Sardinians  takn  to  the  sea  as  sailors,  and  the  commerce  of  the  island 


Fig.  13D  — Caolubi.  as  •■■»  r>0M  thi  Pam  or  Bomibia. 


.<<<-' 


^fW-*=■ 


•  '•-eyviri'"- 


.'-•  .s^-- 


is  carried  on  almost  ezolusively  in  Oenoeso  and  other  Italian  vessels.     Out  of 
2,400  proverbs  collected  by  SpHno,  only  three  refer  to  the  sea !  * 

The  inhabitants  of  the  northern  "  Cape  "  of  Sassari,  or  di  Sopra,  claim  to  be 
more  intelligent  and  civilised  than  those  of  the  southern  "  Cape  "  of  Cagliari,  or 
di  8otto.  The  former  do  not  call  themselves  Sardinians  at  all,  but  apply  that 
name,  which  to  theih  is  synonymous  with  barbarians,  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 

*  In  1873  ll,2fi6  Tewels,  of  1,080,000  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  five  ports  of  the  island.    In  187fi 
2,016  vessels,  of  604,766  tons,  entered  and  cleared  at  Cagliari  alone,  tbe  increase  since  1861  having  been  | 
nearly  100  per  cent. 


8ABDINU. 


unda  in  ihad,  that  of 
^Id  fish.  The  iiHherius 
•t  of  their  protita  are 
Genoeae  around  San 
latter,  too,  collect  the 
nto  stuff  for  garmenta. 
lommerce  of  the  island 

loMimu. 


...  ^.J     ^ 

parr' 


Italian  vesseli.     Out  of 
J  seal* 

or  rf»  Sopra,  claim  to  be 
1  "Cape"  of  Oagliari,  or 
as  at  all,  but  apply  that 
o  the  inhabitants  of  the 

Bto  ports  of  tb«  ialand.  In  1876 
increoae  since  1861  haying  Iwen 


interior  and  of  the  aouth.  In  former  times  these  two  aectiona  of  the  population 
hated  each  other,  and  the  apirit  of  the  vendetta,  which  aet  family  againat  family, 
village  against  village,  made  its  influence  felt  all  over  the  ialand.  Thia  old 
animoaity  baa  not  yet  completely  died  out ;  but  the  people  of  Sassari  can  no 
longer  claim  to  be  the  superiors  of  their  aouthem  neighboura.  They  certainly 
are  better  agriculturiats  and  more  induatriou*,  but  the  aouthemera  poaaoHS  the 
richest  mines,  their  portion  of  the  ialand  ia  moat  productive,  and  it  ia  the  seat  of 
the  capital. 

Oagliari,  the  ancient  Caralis,  haa  remained  the  great  emporium  of  the  ialand 
since  the  daya  of  Oarthage.     Only  a  few  idola,  aepulchral  chambers,  the  ruins  o| 

Fig:  .180.— Th«  Pokt  or  Tiiibamota. 
BmU*  1  !  VMfiOO. 


l»*Si'a  (TCr 


an  aqueduct,  and  an  amphitheatre  excavated  in  the  rock,  recall  the  dominion  of 
Carthaginians  and  Bomans,  but  it  could  not  be  deprived  of  its  excellent  harbour 
and  riagnificent  roadstead.  The  town  was  only  a  short  time  under  the  rule 
of  the  Moors,  but  its  physiognomy  is  almost  more  oriental  than  that  of  any  city 
in  Europe,  many  of  its  houses  being  provided  with  cupolas  and  balconies  over- 
hanging the  streets.  Its  position  as  a  place  of  commeice  is  most  favourable,  for 
it  lies  on  the  ocean  highway  connecting  Sicily  with  the  Balearic  islunds,  and  the 
coast  of  Africa  is  within  a  day's  sail.  It  is  sure  to  prosper,  especially  if  a  serious 
effort  is  made  to  drain  the  marshes  and  to  transform  the  plain  of  the  Campidano 
into  a  fertile  garden.  The  latter,  an  ancient  arm  of  the  sea,  extends  to  the 
south-east  towards  Oristauo,  the  "  town  of  potters."    During  the  Middle  Aget 


•r^r.  r:7t/r.3KJMtiut:- 


^baaaiaaaaadaasia^asbs^is--^^^^^^^ 


862 


ITALY. 


the  latter  was  the  seat  of  the  most  powerful  lords  of  the  island,  and  it  was  thence 
Eleonora  promulgated  her  famous  Carta  de  logu,  which  hecame  the  puhlio  law  of 
the  whole  island.  Oristano  has  an  excellent  harbour,  sheltered  by  the  peninsula 
of  Tharros,  upon  which  the  Phoenicians  had  founded  one  of  their  settlements ;  its 
fields  are  fertile,  and,  to  bring  about  a  return  of  its  ancient  prosperity,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  drain  the  marshes  which  now  hem  it  in.  In  former  times  fires  were 
lighted  upon  the  walls  of  the  town  during  the  season  of  malaria,  to  purify  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  but  the  vast  forests  from  which  the  fuel  for  these  fires  was  procured  have 
disappeared,  and  this  portion  of  Sardinia  is  no  longer  entitled  to  its  ancient 
epithet  of  "  Arborea."  It  is  said  that  in  the  marshes  of  Nurachi,  to  the  north- 
east of  Oristano,  may  be  heard  now  and  then  a  noise  resembling  the  bellowing 
of  a  bull.  This  noise  is  probably  produced  by  the  passage  of  air  through  some 
subterranean  cavern,  and  similar  phenomena  have  been  observed  on  the  coast  of 
Dalmatia. 

Sassari  the  delightful,  the  rival  of  Oagliari,  is  embosomed  amidst  olive-trees, 
gardens,  and  country  houses.  It  alone,  of  all  the  towns  of  the  island,  could  boast 
of  a  republican  government  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  public  spirit  of  its 
present  inhabitants  is,  perhaps,  traceable  to  this  circumstance.  Its  geographical 
position,  however,  is  far  less  favourable  than  that  of  Oagliari,  for  a  zone  of 
swamps  separates  it  from  the  sea.  It  might  export  its  produce  through  the  port 
of  Alghero  or  the  excellent  harbour  of  Porto  Oonto,  to  the  south  of  the 
mountains  of  La  Nurra ;  but  facility  of  access  has  dictated  its  choice  of  Porto 
Torres,  a  miserable  village  on  the  swampy  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Asinara.  Porto 
Torres  occupies  the  site  of  a  Boman  city,  and  the  arches  of  a  huge  aqueduct  and 
the  columns  of  a  Temple  of  Fortune  still  rise  above  the  reeds.  Thii>  'fid  port 
certainly  offers  great  facility  for  the  export  of  the  olive  oil  of  Sassari  and  the 
wines  of  Tempio,  as  respects  France  and  Genoa ;  but  the  intricate  navigation  of 
the  Strait  of  Bonifacio  separates  it  from  the  nearest  Italian  coast.  It-aly  has 
therefore  determined  to  create  an  additional  port  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island, 
and  the  Bay  of  Terranova  has  been  selected  for  that  purpose.  Olbia,  which  at 
the  time  of  the  Bomans  had  no  leas  than  150,000  inhabitants,  occupied  the  site 
of  the  present  town,  which  the  Italians  fondly  imagine  may  become  the  great 
emporium  of  the  island.  Its  port  is  certainly  well  sheltei^,  and  the  roadsteads 
of  the  archipelago  of  La  Maddalena  near  it  afEord  additional  accommodation ;  but 
seriously  to  improve  the  condition  of  Sardinia  it  will  be  necessary,  above  all  things, 
to  drain  its  dreary  swamps,  and  to  "  transform  tbeir  poisonous  exhalations  into 
bread."* 


IX. — The  Pkesent  and  Future  of  Italy. 

No  impartial  spectator  can  deny  that  Italy,  since  it  has  again  taken  its  place 
among  the  nations  of  Europe,  promises  great  things  for  the  future.     Even  its 

•  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Saidinia  (1871) :— Gagliari,  31,9.5;  SMSari.  30,642;  Algli 
8,769;  Oaieri,  7,96fi  ;  Igleua*,  7,191 ;  Orutano,  6,963 ;  Terranora,  1,976. 


■f- 


THE  PBESENT  AND  FUTUEE  OF  ITALY. 


8«8 


aud,  and  it  was  tbence 

icame  the  public  law  of 

tered  by  the  peninsula 

f  their  Hettlements ;  its 

nt  prosperity,  it  is  only 

former  times  fires  were 

aria,  to  purify  the  atmo- 

fires  was  procured  have 

entitled  to  its  ancient 

Nurachi,  to  the  north- 

isembling  the  bellowing 

,ge  of  air  through  some 

observed  on  the  coast  of 

lomed  amidst  olive-trees, 
of  the  island,  could  boast 
d  the  public  spirit  of  its 
tanoe.     Its  geographical 
Oagliari,   for  a  zone  of 
>roduce  through  the  port 
},  to   the  south  of    the 
bated  its  choice  of  Porto 
Gulf  of  Asinara.     Porto 
}  of  a  huge  aqunduct  and 
the  reeds.    Thii»  '»ld  port 
re  oil  of  Sassari  and  the 
be  intricate  navigation  of 
Italian  coast.    Italy  has 
B  east  coast  of  the  island, 
purpose.     Olbia,  which  at 
ibitants,  occupied  the  site 
le  may  become  the  great 
)ltered,  and  the  roadsteads 
ional  accommodation ;  but 
aecessary,  above  all  things, 
poisonous  exhalations  into 


f  Italy. 

has  again  taken  its  place 
for  the  future.    Even  its 

81,»  6j  SMaui,  30,642;  Alghero, 
(78. 


political  regeneration  has  brought  to  the  surface  men  of  the  highest  intellect, 
courage,  zeal,  and  public  spirit.  There  are  some  amongst  them  whom  posterity 
will  look  upon  as  a  credit  to  all  mankind.  Possibly  this  period  of  excitement 
and  nervous  activity  may  be  succeeded  by  a  sort  of  moral  collapse,  such  as 
generally  takes  place  after  every  great  crisis  in  the  life  of  a  nation.  But  this 
need  not  render  us  anxious  for  the  future,  for  generations  exhausted  by  the  efforts 
they  have  made  will  be  succeeded  by  others  eager  to  continue  the  work  their  pre- 
decessors have  begun. 

In  sciences  and  arts  the  native  country  of  Yolta,  Cialdi,  Secchi,  Rossini,  Yerdi, 
and  Tela  occupies  even  now  a  position  of  equality  with  the  most  advanced  nations 
of  Europe.  The  Italian  of  the  present  day  is  able  to  refer  without  shame  to  the 
two  great  centuries  of  the  Renaissance,  for  he  has  entered  upon  a  second  period 
of  regeneration,  and  the  names  of  contemporaries  can  be  mentioned  by  the  side 
of  the  great  names  of  the  past.  Italy  has  its  skiKul  painters  and  sculptors, 
its  celebrated  architects  and  unrivalled  musicians.  The  great  works  achieved  by 
its  engineers  are  deserving  the  study  of  foreigners.  Amongst  its  physicists, 
geologists,  astronomers,  and  mathematicians  there  are  some  of  the  brightest 
ornaments  of  the  age,  and  the  assiduity  with  which  universities  are  frequented 
insures  their  having  worthy  successors.  A  geographical  society  only  recently 
established  has  succeasfully  taken  up  the  work  of  exploration  so  gloriously  carried 
on  by  the  Genoese  and  Venetians.  It  is  not  just,  therefore,  to  say  ironically 
that  "  Italy  has  been  made,  but  not  Italians."  Individually  the  Italians  are 
inferior  to  no  other  race  of  Europe,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  country  would 
have  been  impossible  had  there  been  any  deficiency  in  men  of  mark. 

Italy  is  more  densely  inhabited  than  any  other  of  the  great  states  of  Europe, 
in  spite  of  vast  extents  of  almost  iminhabitable  mountain  tracts  and  swamps. 
The  population,  however,  increases  less  rapidly  than  in  Russia,  England,  or 
Germany.  It  doubles  in  about  a  century,  whilst  that  of  Russia  doubles  in  fifty, 
and  that  of  France  in  two  hundred  years.  Italy  thus  occupies  an  intermediate 
position.  In  Apulia  and  Calabria,  which  are  amongst  the  poorest  provinces,  the 
birth  rate  is  highest,  whilst  in  the  wealthy  Marches  and  Umbria  it  is  lowest.  On 
an  average  the  Italian  dies  when  he  is  thirty-two,  and  his  life  is  consequentiiy 
much  shorter  than  that  of  the  average  Frenchman  or  Englishman. 

Agriculture  and  the  development  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  soil  and  the 
sea  engage  much  more  attention  than  industry  properly  so  called.  Nearly 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  imder  cultivation.  The  cereals  raised  do 
not  suffice  for  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  but  other  products  are  exported  in 
considerable  quantities.  In  its  production  of  oil  Italy  holds  a  foremost  rank  as 
regards  quantity,  but  not  always  with  respect  to  quality.  The  amount  of  fruit 
gi'own,  such  as  figs,  g^pes,  almonds,  and  oranges,  is  greater  than  in  any  ether 
country  of  Europe.  The  chestnut  forests  in  the  Apennines  and  Alps  yield  rich 
harvests.  Its  mulberry  plantations  are  four  times  more  extensive  than  those  of 
France,  and  the  raw  silk  produced  in  favourable  yeara  exceeds  in  quantity  that 
exported  from  China.     The  peninsula  is  still  entitled  to  its  ancient  epithet  of 


'<imwKi^-»^iiSss^Es^:''?^^ieismmmmm0»i — 


im 


864 


ITALY. 


(Enotria  (wine  land),  but,  apart  from  certain  districts  of  continental  Italy  and 
Sicily,  the  quality  of  wine  produced,  owing  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
growers,  is  inferior  to  what  it  is  in  France.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  com- 
parativdy  of  small  importance.  The  breeding  of  animals  yields  large  protits,  and 
Italy  is  noted  throughout  Europe  for  the  quality  of  some  kinds  of  cheese.* 

The  working  of  the  iron  mines  of  Elba,  the  quarrying  of  marble  and  granite  in 
the  Alps  and  Apuanic  Alps,  the  extraction  of  borax  and  boracio  acid  in  the 
Tuscan  Sub-Apennines,  the  mining  for  lead  and  zinc  in  Sardinia,  and  for  sulphur 
in  Sicily,t  lead  up  to  industrial  pursuits  properly  so  called.  These  latter  extend 
nearly  to  everything,  from  the  manufacture  of  pins  to  the  construction  of  steam- 
engines  and  ships.  Italy,  however,  is  eminent  only  in  the  production  of  certain 
articles  de  luxe,  such  as  straw  bonnets,  cameos,  coral  jewellery,  glass,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  macaroni  and  other  &rinaceous  pastes.  The  manufacture  of  silk, 
however,  has  taken  a  rapid  development  in  recent  years,  and  Milan  has  become  a 
dangerous  rival  of  Lyons.  In  the  province  of  Novara,  and  more  especially  at 
Biella,  there  are  hundreds  of  woollen  factories.  The  cotton  manufacture  is  not  of 
much  importance,  and  linen- weaving  is  for  the  most  part  carried  on  ad  a  domestic 
industry.  Italy,  in  fact,  cannot  yet  be  called  a  manufacturing  country.  The  number 
of  workmen  is  large,  but  they  mostly  labour  at  home  or  in  small  workshops,:^  and 
a  division  of  labour,  such  as  exists  in  England,  France,  or  Oennany,  is  hardly . 
known.  Manufactories,  however,  are  rapidly  increasing,  and  e^o^oniical  con- 
ditions are  gradually  becoming  what  they  are  already  in  most  otL*?^  ui^ries  of 
Europe.  '  * 

Italy  possesses  a  powerful  mercantile  marine,  manned  by  150,000  seamon ;  but 
its  foreign  commerce  is  far  less  than  might  have  been  expected  from  its  tonnage.^ 
Most  of  the  vessels  are  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  The  first  Italian  vessel  was 
seen  in  the  Pacific  in  1847,  and  even  now  the  Italian  flag  is  very  inadequately 
represented  in  the  navigation  of  the  great  oceans.  Italian  patriots  are  anxious  to 
see  the  commerce  of  the  country  extended  to  the  most  distant  regions.  For  the 
present  Italy  enjoys  a  sort  of  monopoly  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  any  increase  of 

*  Agricultural  lUtiitics  of  Italy,  1869  (according  to  Maestri)  -.—JHitribiUioH  o/Armt ;— Field*,  vine- 
yards, and  orchards,  27,267,360  acres ;  olive  plantations,  l,S7l,400  acres;  chestnnt  plantations,  1,446,000 
acres;  foresta,  10,240,400  aores ;  meadows,  2,900,000  acres;  pastures,  18,387,000  acres.  Atmual 
Produee  .—Cereals,  208,300,000  bushels  (value  £84,000,000) ;  potatoes,  27,«00,000  bushels  (£2,000,000) ; 
wines,  880,000,000  gallons  (£44.000,000) ;  raw  silk,  6,889,487  lbs.  in  1873,  6,306,214  Iba.  in  1874 ; 
tobacco,  7,236,000  lbs. ;  oil,  3,747,860  lbs.  (£8,800,000) ;  chestnuts,  14,860,000  bnshols.  Do»mt%e^»d 
AnimtOt  (1868) :— 1,196,128  horses,  3,489,126  heads  of  cattle,  8,674,627  sheep  and  goats,  1,668,682 
P«g«- 

t  Annual  mineral  produce  of  Italy  (in  tons): — Iron,  86,000;  copper,  13,000;  lead,  82,260;  sine, 
30.000;  cowl,  110,760;  sulphur,  286,611;  salt,  888,000;  besides  small  quanUties  of  silver,  nickel, 
mercury,  &c. 

X  OeeupatiMu  :—kaumg!A  every  1.000  inhabitanto  there  are  342  agriculturisto ;  163  miner*  and 
artisans;  29  commercial  men ;  23  arttsto  and  identiflc  men;  7priesto;  6  officials;  1  soldier;  81  "pro- 
prietors ; "  21  domestic  servants ;  IS  paupers ;  and  382  without  occupation. 

{  In  1874  there  were  10,929  vessels  (including  138  steamers),  of  a  burden  of  1,031,8^9  tons;  37,660 
vessels,  of  7,680,817  tons,  entered  from  or  cleared  for  foreign  porta;  197,896  vesssls,  of  16,600,000  tonit, 
entered  and  cleared  in  the  home  trade.  Of  every  1,000  tons  engaged  in  the  foreign  oommerce,  868  sailed 
under  the  Italian,  266  under  the  English,  and  173  under  the  French  ilaf .  The  commerce  with  Fhmce 
engaged  1,779,672  tons ;  that  with  England  1,888,800  tons ;  and  that  with  Austria  998,740  tons. 


f.y^ntf^x: 


THE  PRESENT  AND  PUTUBE  OF  ITALY. 


866 


continental  Italy  and 
B8  on  the  part  of  tbe 
ition  of  cotton  is  com- 
irields  large  prolits,  and 
inds  of  cheese.* 
f  marhle  and  granite  in 
id  horacic  acid  in  the 
strdinia,  and  for  sulphur 
I.     These  latter  extend 
I  construction  of  steam- 
e  production  of  certain 
Uery,  glass,  and  in  the 
he  manufacture  of  silk, 
nd  Milan  has  become  a 
and  more  especially  at 
n  manufacture  is  not  of 
carried  on  ad  a  domestic 
Lg  country.   The  number 
1  small  workshops,^  and 
,  or  Gennany,  is  hardly 
r,  and  e^'>'">Tiio.al  con- 
most  otLe^      !u*rie^  of 

by  160,000  seamen ;  but 
[>ected  from  its  tonnage.§ 
le  first  Italian  vessel  was 
iag  is  very  inadequately 
ta  patriots  are  anxious  to 
[istant  regions.  For  the 
lean,  and  any  increase  of 

IribiUion  ofAr*a  .—Fields  *ine- 
;  ohMtnut  plantetions,  1,445,000 
M.  18,387,000  «ore».  Awtmil 
7,000,000  buahels  (£2,000,000) ; 
1873,  6.308,214  lb«.  in  l«74 ; 
^860,000  buahola.  DomtHietted 
S27  ahoep  and  gotto,  1,M8,682 

p«r,  18,000;  lead,  82,260;  »inf, 
lall  qiiantitiea  of  liWer,  nickel, 

agricultariito;  163  minen  and 
;  6oiBciab;  1  eoldier;  31"pro- 
on. 

nrdenof  1,031,880  tone;  37,660 
(7,896  veaNls,  of  16,600,000  ton*, 
the  foieign  commerce,  368  eailed 
lg.  The  oommeroe  with  Frtnce 
ith  Austria  998,740  tone. 


population  or  wealth  in  Northern  Africa  must  prove  of  immediate  advantage  to  it. 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  proposed  railway  from  Antwerp  or  Calais  to 
Saloniki  or  Constantinople  will  seriously  a£Pect  the  transit  trade  of  Italian  ports. 
Nor  are  Italian  shipowners  able  to  compete  with  their  rivals  of  Marseilles  or  Trieste 
when  it  is  a  question  of  speed,  for  the  number  of  their  steamers  is  very  small.  ^ 

Pig.  181. — Navioatton  of  Ttalt. 


^^ssiiyjr 


The  facilities  for  carrying  on  oo6Mting  trade  have,  in  some  measure,  interfered 
with  the  development  of  the  inland  trade  of  the  country.  The  construction  of 
railways,  however,  is  gradually  bring^g  about  a  change.     Ali^uly  five  lines  of 


«»®a 


THE  PBESENT  AND  FUTUEB  OF  ITALY. 

The  oommeroe  of  Italy  has  increased  rapidly  of  late,  but  it  is  still  inferior  not 
only  to  that  of  England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia,  but  likewise  to 
that  of  muoh  smaller  countries,  like  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands.  In  1875 
the  imports,  including  transit,  were  estunated  at  £48,614,280,  the  exports  at 
£42,301,800.  France  participates  in  this  commerce  to  the  extent  of  31  per  cent., 
England  is  represented  by  23,  Austria  by  20,  and  all  the  other  countries  of  the 
world  share  in  the  remainder.  Recently  the  commerce  with  North  and  South 
America  has  assumed  considerable  proportions,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  obtain 
a  footing  in  Eastern  Asia. 

The  great  scourge  of  Italy  consists  in  the  poverty  of  its  peasantry  even  in 
the  most  fertile  provinces,  as  in  Lombardy  and  the  Basilicata.  These  peasants 
live  in  foul  hovels,  and  the  united  earnings  of  a  whole  family  are  hardly  sufficient 
to  procure  bread.  Cheatnuts,  and  a  polenta  of  maize  and  paste  made  of  damaged 
flour,  are  the  principal  articles  of  food,  and  nothing  is  left  for  luxuries,  or  even 
comfortable  clothing.  Rickets  and  other  diseases  brought  about  by  an  insufficiency 
of  food  are  common,  and,  in  fact,  mortality  is  very  great.  Emigration  is  under 
these  circumstances  of  immense  advantage  to  the  country,  for  the  thousands  of 
Italians  who  seek  work  or  found  new  homes  in  South  America,  the  United  States, 
France,  Turkey,  Egypt,  and  elsewhere,  not  only  earn  their  bread,  but  also  render 
some  assistance  to  those  of  their  relatives  who  remain  behind.  It  is  said  that  out 
of  500,000  Italians  living  abroad,  no  less  than  100,000  are  engaged  in  art,  either 
as  painters,  sculptors,  or  musicians,  the  latter  bdng  frequently  mere  street-singers 
or  organ-grinders. 

!l^orance,  the  usual  companion  of  poverty,  is  still  very  great  throughout  the 
peninsula.  We  might  err  in  condemning  the  Italians  because  of  their  ignorance 
of  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing,  for,  as  the  heirs  of  an  ancient  civilisation, 
they  are  more  polished  in  their  manners  than  the  educated  peasants  of  the 
North.  Still  this  ignorance  i«  nrost  deplorable,  for  it  precludes  all  progress. 
Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  population  over  ten  years  of  age  are  unable  to  read,  and 
fifty-nine  men  and  seventy-eight  women  out  of  every  hundred  are  unable  to  sign 
the  marriage  registers.  There  are  several  thousand  parishes  without  elementary 
schools,  and  the  number  of  pupils,  instead  of  amounting  to  the  normal  proportion 
of  one  to  every  six  or  seven  inhabitants,  is  only  one  to  about  eleven.*  Education, 
however,  is  making  fair  prog^wss,  but  its  influence  upon  the  diminution  of  crimes 
of  violence  has  hitherto  been  small.  In  1874  Signor  Cantelli,  the  Home 
Secretary,  stated  that  there  occurred  annually  3,000  homicides,  4,000  cases  of 
highway  robbery,  and  30,000  violent  assaults. 

The  permanent  confusion  of  the  finances  of  Italy,  attended  as  it  is  by  beavy 
and  vexatious  taxes,  must  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  principal  causes  which 
retard  the  development  of  the  country.  The  national  debt  may  appear  a  small 
matter  if  we  compare  it  with  that  of  France,  but  it  has  been  raised  in  the  course 

*  Pnb!it  Sekool*  {1912) -.—Mfiii  Omamifiry  waA  evening  1(^001^2,274,999  pnpili;  1,088  miperior 
■dioola,  64,044  pupila;  21  niiiTenitiea,  10,000  itadents;   6S1  profeiiional,  teohnioal,  and  art  whool% 
83,311  itiidante.    Total,  60,076  aobooli,  ftc,  with  2,882,354  fupik  and  atadeota. 
26 


mm 


868 


ITALY. 


of  a  tingle  generation,  and  is  angmenMng  from  year  to  year.  The  revenue 
increases,  but  the  expenditure  does  so  ukbttirie,  and  the  additional  income 
resulting  from  an  increase  of  taxation  and  the  sales  of  Church  property  is  not 
sufficient  to  cover  the  deficiency.  The  heavy  cost  of  the  army,  an  absence  of 
sustained  efforts  in  carrying  on  public  works,  waste  and  fraud  by  public  servants, 
have  hitherto  prevented  the  establishment  of  a  balance  between  income  and 
expenditure,  and  the  paper  money  issued  by  Government  is  nowhere  accepted  at 
its  nominal  value. 

This  disorganization  of  the  finances  places  Italy  at  the  mercy  of  foreigners, 
and  the  arrangements  which  have  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  with  foreign 
capitalists  are  not  always  of  a  purely  financial  nature.  The  inefficiency  of  her 
military  and  naval  organisation,  moreover,  compels  her  to  cultivate  foreigib  alli- 
ances as  expediency  may  direct,  and  to  these  alliances  Italy  is,  in  a  large  measure, 
indebted  for  her  political  unity.* 

Nor  is  this  unity  even  now  as  perfect  as  oould  be  desired.  The  Pope  has  been 
deprived  of  his  temporal  power ;  he  resides  at  the  Vatican  as  a  guest ;  and  the 
money  offered  him  by  the  Italian  Government,  but  which  has  never  been  accepted, 
is  not  tribute,  but  a  gratuity.  But,  in  spite  of  this,  the  Pope  is  still  a  real  power, 
and  his  very  presence  interferes  8ubst«ntially  with  the  permanent  establishment 
of  the  state.  The  Oatholics  of  the  woild  have  not  yet  acquiesced  in  his  disesta- 
blishment, and  they  allow  no  opportunity  for  attacking  the  new  order  of  things 
to  escape  them.  Political  Europe  is  consequently  much  interested  in  the  home 
affairs  of  Italy,  and  feels  temjtted  frequently  to  intervene.  The  most  expert 
diplomacy  may  not  be  able  to  avert  this  danger,  and  if  there  is  a  struggle  it  will 
certainly  not  be  confined  to  the  peninsula. 

In  the  end  Italy  will  no  doubt  escape  from  the  anomalous  position  of  having 
for  her  capital  a  city  which  is  the  seat  of  a  theocratic  government  claiming  the 
allegiance  of  the  Roman  Catholics  of  the  entire  world.  The  geographical 
conditions  of  no  other  country  are  equally  favourable  to  the  development  of 
national  sentiments  and  the  maintenance  of  a  national  individuality.  At  the 
same  time  the  well-defined  boundaries  of  the  country  deprive  it  of  all  force  of 
expansion.  Italy  will  never  play  a  great  part  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  though  Italian  may  obtain  a  certain  preponderance  in  Tunis,  Egypt, 
and  the  Levant,  the  noble  language  of  Dante  has  no  chance,  as  regards  univer- 
sality, when  opposed  to  English,  French,  Spanish,  German,  or  Bussian. 


X. — GOVBBMMKNT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 

Thb    charter    promulgated    in    Mtirch,   1848,  declares   the  old    kingdom   of 
Sardinia  to  be  an  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.     It  has  gradually  been 


*  Expaoditore 

BflTMIIlS 

Defldt 
National  Debt 


18U. 
£24,206,920 
£18,832,880 

£6,874,040 
£100,000.000 


ima. 

£61,704,000 
£1(2,884,000 

£0,840,000 
£402,400,000 


1876. 
££6,618,600 
£08,490.800 

£1,118,800 
£460,000,000 


mmm 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADUINISTBATION. 


m 


)  year.  The  revenue 
be  additional  income 
)hurcli  property  is  not 
)  army,  an  absence  of 
wd  by  public  servants, 
I  between  income  and 
is  nowhere  accepted  at 

,e  mercy  of  foreigfners, 
3  to  time  with  foreign 
rhe  inefficiency  of  her 
)  cultivate  foreigib  alli- 
|r  is,  in  a  large  measure, 

d.     The  Pope  has  been 
an  as  a  guest ;  and  the 
las  never  been  accepted, 
ope  is  still  a  real  power, 
lermanent  establishment 
oquiesced  in  his  disesta- 
he  new  order  of  things 
interested  in  the  home 
rene.     The  most  expert 
lere  is  a  struggle  it  will 

lalous  position  of  having 
[ovemment  claiming  the 
rid.  The  geographical 
I  to  the  development  of 
1  individuality.  At  the 
eprive  it  of  aU  force  of 
LO  bounds  of  the  Mediter- 
iderance  in  Tunis,  Egypt, 
lanoe,  as  regards  univer- 
Etn,  or  Russian. 


kTION. 

es   the  old    kingdom   of 
.     It  has  gradually  been 


100 
MO 

WO 

mo 


1876. 
£66,618,600 

£«MM>8<>0 

£M  18,800 

£460,000,000 


extended  to  the  other  portions  of  the  peninsula.  Like  most  similar  documents,  it 
guarantees  equality  before  the  law,  personal  liberty,  and  inviolability  of  the  domi- 
oile.  The  press  is  free,  "  subject  to  a  law  repressing  its  abuses ; "  the  right  of 
meeting  is  recognised,  "  but  not  in  the  case  of  places  open  to  the  general  public  ; " 
and  all  citizens  are  promised  the  enjoyment  of  equal  civil  and  political  rights, 
"  except  in  those  cases  which  shall  be  determined  by  law." 

The  executive  is  intrusted  to  the  King,  but  no  law  or  act  of  government  is 
valid  imless  countersigned  by  a  minister.  The  King,  as  such,  is  commander  of 
the  naval  and  military  forces,  he  concludes  all  treaties,  and  the  assent  of  the 
Chambers  is  only  required  if  they  concern  cessions  of  territory,  or  entail  an 
expenditure  of  public  money.  All  Government  officials  are  appointed  by  the  King, 
he  may  dissolve  the  Ohamber  of  Deputies,  justice  is  administered  in  his  name, 
and  he  possesses  the  right  of  pardon.  He  enjoys  the  fruits  of  the  Crown  lands, 
and  may  dispose  of  his  private  property  without  reference  to  the  general  laws  of 
the  country.  The  civil  list  of  the  £ing  and  the  members  of  his  family  annually 
exceeds  £800,000 1 

Senators  are  appointed  by  the  King  from  amongst  ecclesiastical,  military,  and 
civil  functionaries,  persons  of  wealth,  and  men  who  have  deserved  well  of  the 
country.  Their  number  is  not  limited,  and  they  must  be  forty  years  of  age. 
Deputies  are  elected  for  five  years.  They  must  be  thirty  years  of  age.  I^either 
senators  nor  deputies  are  in  receipt  of  emoluments,  and  this  may  explain  the 
little  zeal  they  exhibit  in  the  performance  of  their  public  duties.  A  quorum, 
consisting  of  one-half  the  members  of  each  house  piua  one,  is  frequently  unattain- 
able for  weeks. 

The  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  professors  of  universities  and  colleges,  civil 
servants,  knights  o.f  orders  of  chivalry,  members  of  the  liberal  professions, 
merchants,  persons  who  have  an  income  of  £24  from  money  invested  in  Govern- 
ment securities,  and  all  others  twenty-five  years  of  age,  able  to  read  and  write, 
and  paying  32s.  in  taxes.  The  number  of  electors  is  about  400,000,  but  hardly 
one-half  of  them  ever  go  to  the  poll. 

Each  province  occupies  the  position  of  a  "corporation,"  which  may  hold 
property,  and  enjoys  a  certain  amount  of  self-government.  The  "Provincial 
Councils"  consist  of  from  twenty  to  sixty  members,  who  are  chosen  by  the 
municipal  electors  for  five  years.  These  Councils  usually  occupy  themselves 
with  the  material  interests  of  the  province,  and,  when  not  sitting,  are  represented 
by  a  "  Deputation  "  charged  with  controlling  the  acts  of  the  prefect. 

The  municipal  organization  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  provinces.  The 
Councils  are  elected  for  five  years:  aU  nudes  of  twenty-one  years  of  age  paying 
from  4s.  to  20s.  In  taxes  (according  to  the  importance  of  the  municipality), 
professors,  civil  servants,  members  of  liberal  professions,  and  soldiers  who 
have  been  decorated  are  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  franchise.  The  Council  meets 
twice  a  year,  and  its  sittings  are  held  in  public  if  a  majority  demands  it.  It 
appoints  a  municipal  giunta  of  from  two  to  twelve  monbers,  oluvrged  with  the 
conduct   of  ounent    affiors.     The  mayors,  like   the   provincial  prefects,  are 


MN 


HALT. 

appointed  by  Goyemmeni,  but  muit  be  chosen  from  the  members  of  the  Municipal 
Council. 

The  great  territorial  divisions  of  the  kingdom  (see  p.  362)  consist  of  69 
provinces  and  284  circles  {drcondarii),  or  districts.  These  latter  again  are  sub- 
divided into  1,77Q  judicial  districts  {mandamenii)  and  8,360  commuaes.  The 
central  Government  is  represented  in  the  provinces  by  a  prefect,  in  the  districts 
by  a  sub-prefect,  and  in  the  communes  by  a  mayor,  or  tindaeo.  This  system  of 
administration  it  very  much  like  that  existing  in  modem  France. 

The  administration  of  justice  was  organised  in  1866.  In  each  commune  there 
is  a  "  Oonciliator,"  appointed  for  three  years  by  Cbvemment,  on  the  presentation 
of  the  Municipal  Oouncil.  A  "Fretor  "  administers  justice  at  the  capital  of  each  of 
the  judicial  districts  :  he  is  assisted  by  one  or  more  Yice-pretors.  "Sexi  follow  161 
civil  and  correctional  courts,  92  assise  courts,  24  courts  of  appeal,  26  commercial 
tribunals,  and  4  courts  of  cassation  ;  the  latter  at  Florence,  Naples,  Palermo,  and 
Turin.  The  Code  of  Laws  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Code  Napoleon,  and  breathes 
the  same  spirit. 

In  military  matters  Prussia  has  served  as  a  model.  Every  Italian,  on  attaining 
his  twenty-first  year,  becomes  liable  to  serve  in  the  army  or  navy.  Men  embodied 
in  the  first  category  of  the  standing  army  (Meeroih  permanente)  remain  frtnn  three 
to  five  years  under  the  colours,  according  to  the  arm  to  which  they  belong,  and  six  to 
seven  years  on  furlough.  The  men  of  the  second  category,  or  reserve  of  the  stand- 
ing army,  drill  fifty  days,  and  are  then  dismissed  to  their  homes.  The  "  mobilised 
militia "  includes  all  men  up  to  forty  not  belonging  to  the  standing  army.  A 
**  levy  en  masse,"  or  Milwia  ttanaiok,  is  provided  for  by  law,  but  nothing  has  been 
done  hitherto  to  render  it  a  reality.  The  standing  army  includes  90  regiments  of 
infantry,  20  regiments  of  cavalry,  14  of  artillery,  and  1  of  engineers,  and  numbers 
410,000  men;  the  reserve  amounts  to  180,000  men;  the  mobilised  militia  (247 
battalions,  24  Alpine  oompanies,  60  batteries,  and  10  companies  of  engineers), 
277,000,  and  234,000  officers  and  men  are  stated  to  be  under  the  colours.  The 
four  great  fortresses  of  the  north  are  Yerona,  Mantua,  Peschiera,  and  Legnago. 
These  form  the  famous  "  Quadrilateral."  Venice  is  likewise  a  place  of  great 
strength,  and  made  an  heroic  defence  in  1849.  Palmanova  defends  the  frontier 
between  the  Julian  Alps  and  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.  Rocoa  d'Anfo,  on  ap  isolated 
rock  to  the  north  of  Lake  Gbrda,  commands  the  defiles  of  the  Adige  and  Chiese. 
Pizzighettone,  on  the  Adda,  is  no  longer  of  much  importance,  now  that  Italy  has 
acquired  possession  of  the  Quadrilateral ;  but  Alessandria,  at  the  confluence  of  ^o  I 
Tanaro  and  Bormido,  will  always  retain  its  rank  as  the  great  strategical  centre  of  I 
Piemont,  and  one  of  the  strongest  places  of  Europe.  Casale  may  be  looked  upon  [ 
as  one  oi  its  outworks,  and  together  with  Genoa  defends  the  passages  of  the 
Apennines.  Piacenza  and  Ferrara  command  important  passages  of  the  Po.  Thai 
other  fortresses  of  Itikly  are  Ancona  in  the  centre ;  Porto  Ferrajo  in  Elba ;  Gaeta,! 
Oapu^  and  Taranto  in  the  south ;  and  Messina  in  Sicily. 

The  navy  consists  of  21  irondads  (179  guns,  engines  of  11,310  horse-power,! 
76,842  tons)  and  61  wooden  steamers,  muuied  by  20,000  seamen.    The  greatf 


r]|i.lipiil'fil|l'.i"ii.j'jfi)-iil'.iii,]»ii|i 


^r 


nben  of  the  Mimioipal 

p.  362)  oonnst  of  69 
i  latter  again  are  tub- 
J,360  commune*.  The 
jrefeot,  in  the  districts 
\idaco.  This  system  of 
i'ranoe. 

In  each  commune  there 
mi,  on  the  presentation 
at  the  capital  of  each  of 
etors.  Next  follow  161 
r  appeal,  26  commercial 
»,  Naples,  Palermo,  and 
Napolten,  and  breathes 

rery  Italian,  on  attaining 
>r  navy.    Men  embodied 
nente)  remain  frwrn  three 
oh  they  belong,  and  six  to 
f,  or  reserve  of  the  stand- 
bomes.     The  "  mobilised 
the  standing  army.     A 
aw,  but  nothing  has  been 
includes  90  r^fiments  of 
>f  engineers,  and  numbers 
le  mobilised  miUtia  (247 
companies  of  engineers), 
under  the  colours.     The 
Feschiera,  and  Legnago. 
ikewise  a  place  of  great 
inova  defends  the  firontier 
icoa  d'Anfo,  on  ap  isolated 
I  of  the  Adige  and  Chieae. 
,rtanoe,  now  that  Italy  has 
ia,  at  the  confluence  of  ^e 
great  strategical  centre  of 
liasale  may  be  looked  upon 
fends  the  passages  of  the 
t  passages  of  the  Fo.    The 
toFerrajoinElba;  Gaeta, 

r- 

lies  of  11,310  horse-power, 
0,000  seamen.    The  great 


OOVEBNMEMT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 

naval  arsenals  and  stations  are  at  Speiia,  Genoa,  Naples,  Oastellamare  di  Stabbia, 
Venice,  Ancona,  and  Taranto. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  alone  is  acknowledged  by  the  State,  but  all  other 
religions  are  tolerated.  The  conflict  between  Church  and  State  is  favourable  to  the 
spread  of  Protestantism  ;  but,  apart  from  the  Waldenses  and  a  few  foreigners  in  the 
larger  towns,  there  art.  ao  Protestants  in  Italy.  Many  of  those,  however,  who  a*^ 
nominally  Catholics  have  ranged  themselves  amongst  the  enemies  of  their  Church, 
or  are  perfectly  indifferent. 

Italy  occupies  quite  a  special  position  in  the  world,  owing  to  its  being  the  seat 
of  the  Papacy.  Rome  is  the  seat  of  two  governments,  viz.  that  of  the  King  and 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontifll  The  latter,  though  shorn  of  his  temporal  power,  is 
in  principle  one  of  the  most  absolute  mopirchs.  Once  elected  Vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ  by  the  cardinals  met  in  conclave,  l.  is  responsible  to  no  one  for  his 
actions,  though  it  is  oustonwry  for  him  to  listen  to  the  advice  of  the  Sacred 
College  of  Cardinals  before  deciding  questions  of  importance.  The  Pope  alone,  of 
all  men,  is  infallible ;  he  can  efiace  the  crimes  of  others,  "  bind  and  unbind,"  and 
holds  the  keys  of  heaven  and  hell,  his  power  extending  thus  beyond  the  span  of 
man's  natural  life. 

The  cardinals  are  the  great  dignitaries  of  this  spiritual  government.  They 
are  created  by  the  Pope.  Their  number  is  limited  to  70,  viz.  6  Cardinal  Bishops 
(who  reside  at  Rome),  50  Cardinal  Priests,  and  14  Cardinal  Deacons.  The  Cardinal 
Camerlengo  represents  the  temporal  authority  of  the  Holy  See,  and  on  the  death  of 
a  pope  he  takes  charge  of  the  Vatican  and  of  the  Fisherman's  Key,  which  is  the 
symbol  of  the  power  bestowed  upon  St.  Peter  and  his  successors.  In  special  oases 
the  cardinals  of  the  three  orders  maj  be  convoked  to  an  (Ecumenical  Council. 
On  the  death  of  &  pope  the  cardinals  elect  his  successor,  who  must  be  fifty-five 
years  of  age,  and  obtain  two-thirds  of  the  votes.  His  investment  with  the 
pallium  and  tiara,  however,  only  takies  place  after  the  assent  of  the  Governments 
of  France,  Spain,  Austria,  and  Naples  (now  represented  by  Italy)  has  been 
secured. 

In  virtue  of  the  formula  of  "  A  free  Church  in  a  free  State,"  so  frequently 
repeated  since  Cavour,  the  Pope  is  permitted  to  enjoy  sovereign  rights.  He 
convokes  councils  and  chapters,  appoints  all  ecclesiastical  officers,  has  his  own 
post-office  and  telegraph,  his  guard  of  nobles  and  of  Swiss,  pays  no  taxes,  and 
enjoys  in  perpetuity  the  palaces  of  the  Vatican  and  Lateran,  as  well  as  the  villa 
of  Castel-Gandolfo,  on  the  Lake  of  Albano.  In  addition  to  this,  he  has  been  voted 
by  the  Italian  Parliament  an  annual  "dotation  "  of  £129,000.  This  grant,  how- 
ever, he  has  not  touched  hitherto,  but  the  "  Peter's  pence/'  collected  by  the 
fiiithful  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  amount  to  more  than  double  that  sum. 

Italy  is  divided  into  47  arohiepiscopal  and  206  episcopal  sees.  There  are  more 
than  100,000  secular  priests,  and  in  1866,  when  the  monasteries  and  convents  were 
suppressed,  their  inmates  receiving  pensions  from  Government,  there  were  32,000 
monks  and  44,000  nuns.  The  ecclesiastioal  army  consequently  numbers  176,000 
souls,  and  is  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  military  force  on  a  peace  footing. 


-  _*fc,(u,w.4-r^prf-^v***)^M-.  ^ 


uwmw    iw    "I  \mnp»\f'ymf^mm^ 


■timated  for  1876)  of 


l,302,9«6 
2,807,460 
1,404,004 

ai7,o«o 

1,2!»,014 

2,008,072 

0*4,482 

27,482,174 


CORSICA/ 


^li'^i^^ii 


RSIOA,  with  Sardinia,  forma  a  world  apart.  At  a  remote  epoch 
theie  two  islands  were  but  one,  and  it  is  ouriovs  to  find  that 
Oorrioa,  which  politically  now  forms  part  of  franco,  is  geo- 
graphically as  well  as  historically  much  more  Italian  than  its  sister 
isknd.  A  ghmoe  at  a  map  is  sufficient  to  convince  us  that  Corsica 
is  a  dependency  of  Italy,  for  while  abyssal  depths  of  more  than  600  fathoms 
separate  it  from  Provence,  it  is  joined  to  the  coast  of  Tuscany  by  a  submarine 
plateau,  the  mountains  of  which  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  waters  as  islands.  The 
climate  and  natural  productions  of  the  island  ai.t,  those  of  Italy,  and  the  language 
of  its  inhabitants  is  Italian.  Purchased  from  the  Genoese,  then  conquered  by 
main  force,  Oorsioa  in  the  end  voluntarily  united  its  destinies  with  those  of  France. 
It  has  now  been  connected  for  more  than  three  generations  with  the  latter,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  most  of  its  citizens  look  upon  themselves  as  Frenchmen. 
Though  only  half  the  size  of  Sardinia,  Corsica  is.  nevertheless  larger  than  an 
average  French  department.  The  fourth  island  in  size  of  the  Mediterranean,  it 
follows  next  to  Cyprus,  but  is  far  more  important  than  that  island,  and  only  yields 
to  Sicily  and  Sardinia  in  wealth  and  population,  t  It  is  a  country  of  great  natural 
beauty.  Its  mountains,  attaining  an  altitude  of  over  8,000  feet,  remain  covered 
with  snow  during  half  the  year,  and  the  view  from  the  summits  embraces  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  island,  its  barren  rocks,  forests,  and  cultivated  fields.  Most  of 
the  valleys  abound  in  running  water,  and  cascades  glitter  in  all  directions.  Old 
Genoese  towers,  standing  upon  promontories,  formerly  defended  the  entrance  to 
every  bay  exposed  to  incursions  of  the  Saracens,  but  they  arc  hardly  more  now- 
adays than  embellishments  of  the  landscape. 

Monte  Cinto,  the  culminating  point  of  the  island,  does  not  pierce  the  region  of 

*  ^irfAor<«iM ;— Haimooohi,  "O^raphifl  de  la  Cone;"  Oregoiovins,  "Oonim;"  Pr.  HMmte, 
"  Voj'age  en  Gone." 

t  Arab  of  Condca,  8,878  ■quare  miles ;  length  from  north  to  eouth,  1 14  miles ;  width,  82  miles ;  dove- 
lopmoit  of  ooaat-Une,  800  mile*. 


f; 


864 


0OB8I0A. 


peniitent  snowi.  A  huge  oitadel  of  granite,  whooe  fiutneiMe  afforded  a  shelter  to 
the  Oortioana  during  their  wan  of  independence,  it  riiee  in  the  north-weitcm 
portion  of  the  island.  From  ite  lununit  we  can  trace  the  whole  of  the  coast  from 
the  French  Alps  to  the  Apennines  of  Tuscany.  There  are  other  peaks  to  tho 
north  and  south  of  it  which  almost  riyal  it  in  height.*  This  main  chain  of  the 
island  consists  throughout  of  crystalline  rook.  Transverse  ridges  connect  it  with 
a  parallel  range  of  limestone  mountains  on  the  east,  which  extend  northward 
through  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  of  Bastia,  and  shut  in,  farther  south,  the  old 
lake  basin  of  Oorte,  now  drained  by  the  Oolo,  Tarignano,  and  other  rivers.  The 
whole  of  the  interior  of  Corsica  may  be  described  as  a  labyrinth  of  mountains,  and 


Fig.  188.— BVBMABIKI  PLATIAir    BRWmf  OOBUOA  AMD  TUMAMT. 
SMdt  1 : 1,860^0001 


y^:V: 


.KWOm. 


in  order  to  pass  firom  village  to  village  it  is  necessary  to  climb  up  steep  steps,  or 
aeak,  and  to  ascend  from  the  region  of  olives  to  that  of  pasturage.  The  high-road 
which  joins  Ajaooio  to  Bastia  has  to  climb  a  pass  3,793  feet  in  height  (Fig.  134), 
and  even  the  road  following  the  populous  western  coast  ascends  and  descends  con* 
tinuously,  in  order  to  avoid  the  promontories  descending  steeply  into  the  sea. 
These  physical  obstades  sufficiently  explain  why  railways  have  not  yet  been 
built. 

The  western  coast  of  the  island  is  indented  by  numerous  gulfs  and  bays,  which 
resemble  ancient  fiords  partly  filled  up  by  alluvial  sediment.    On  ihe  eastern  coast. 


*  From  north  to  Math :— Monte  Padro,  7,846  feat ;  Monte  Cinto,  8,878  feet ;  FagUa  Orba,  8,388  feet ; 
Botondo,  8,607  feet ;  Monte  d'Oio,  7,890  feet ;  Incudine,  6,746  feet 


)  olimb  up  steep  itepe,  or 
isturage.  The  high-road 
eet  in  height  (Fig.  184), 
Moulds  and  deaoends  con- 
ing steeply  into  the  aea. 
frays  have  not  yet  been 

ouB  gulfs  and  bays,  which 
snt.   On  the  eastern  coast, 

78  feet;  P«gli»  OAa,  8,aM  fe^i 


tea£y.;^i^jA!g'ijijia*'Ljji^  " 


mm 


MtMei**^)*^* 


OOBSIOA. 


865 


which  &ce8  Italy,  the  slopes  are  more  gentle ;  the  rivers  are  larger  and  more 
tranquil,  though  not  one  of  them  is  navigable;  and  the  ground  is  more  level. 
This  portion  of  the  island  is  known  as  Banda  di  Dentro,  or  "  inner  zone,"  in  dis- 
tinction of  the  Banda  di  Fuori,  or  "  exterior  (western)  zone."  The  eastern  coast 
appears  to  have  been  upheaved  during  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  and  ancient 
gulfs  of  the  sea  have  been  converted  into  lagoons  and  swamps,  quite  as  dangerous 
from  their  miasmal  exhalations  as  those  of  the  sister  island.  If  we  add  that  the 
mountains  in  the  west  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  vivifying  mistral,  that  the  heat 
in  summer  is  great,  and  droughts  frequent,  we  have  said  enough  to  account  for 
the  i'osalubrity  of  the  climate.*  The  maritime  basin  between  Corsica  and  Italy 
is  almost  shut  ia  by  mountains,  and  purifying  breezes  are  rare  there.  Between 
Bastia  and  Forto-Yeochio  not  a  single  town  or  village  is  met  with  on  the  coast, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  July  the  peasantry  retire  to  the  hiUs  in  order  to  escape 
the  fever.  Only  a  few  guards  and  the  unfortunate  convicts  shut  up  in  the  peni- 
tentiary of  Casabianda  remain  behind.    Nothing  more  melancholy  can  be  imagined 

Fig.  134. — FuotiLR  OF  THB  Road  from  Amccio  to  Bibtia. 


t}         tS        tt         If      M 


than  these  fertile  fields  deserted  by  their  inhabitants.    Plantations  of  eucalyptus 
have  been  made  recently  with  a  view  to  the  amelioration  of  the  climate. 

Owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  mountains  we  are  able  to  trace  in  Corsica 
distinct  zones  of  vegetation.  Up  to  a  moderate  height  the  character  of  the 
vegetation  is  sub-tropiqal,  and  resembles  that  of  Sicily  or  Southern  Spain.  There 
are  districts  which  can  be  numbered  amongst  the  most  fertile  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. One  of  these  is  the  Canyto  deU'Oro,  or  "field  of  gold,"  around  Ajacoio, 
where  hedges  of  tree-like  cacti  separate  the  gardens  and  orchards ;  such,  also,  is 
the  country  to  the  north  of  Bastia,  with  its  aromatic  flowers  and  luscious  fruits. 
Olive  forests  generally  cover  the  lower  hills,  their  silvery  foliage  contrasting  with 
the  sombre  verdure  of  the  chestnut  woods  above.  Balagna,  near  Oalvi,  on  the 
north-western  coast  of  the  island,  is  &mous  for  its  olives,  whilst  another  valley,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  iskad,  near  Bastia,  can  boast  of  the  most  magnificent 
chestnut-trees.    Chestnuts,  in  some  parti,  constitute  the  principal  article  of  food, 

•  Heaa  «iuum1  tenp«ratim  at  Bsrtift,  W'V  F. ;  niidUi,  28  indiM. 


:m'4 


■tMIIyi  "- 


5!!^"3>'5U'?~ 


IMMinty'ii"'"" 


0OB8I0A. 


and  enable  the  inhabitants,  who  are  by  no  means  distinguished  for  their  industry, 
to  dispense  with  the  cultivation  of  cereals.  Some  political  economists  have 
actually  proposed  to  fell  these  trees,  in  order  that  the  inhabitants  may  be  forced 
to  work.  , 

Chestnut-trees  grow  up  to  a  height  of  6,250  feet.  The  virgin  forests  which 
formerly  extended  beyond  them  to  the  zone  of  pasturage  have  for  the  most  part 
disappeared.  In  the  upper  Balagna  valley,  Valdoniello,  and  Aitone,  however, 
magnificent  forests  may  still  be  seen,  and  a  larch  (Pintts  altiaaimm),  the  finest 
conifer  of  all  Europe,  attains  there  a  height  of  160  feet.  These  splendid  trees, 
unfortunately,  are  rapidly  disappearing.  They  are  being  converted  into  masts,  or 
sawn  into  staves  and  planks. 

The  pasturing  grounds  above  theso  forests  are  frequented  during  summer  by 
herdsmen  with  their  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats.  The  agile  mufHon  is  still  met 
with  there  in  a  few  rocky  recesses,  and  the  shepherds  assert  that  wild  boars, 
though  very  numerous  on  the  island,  carefully  avoid  its  haunts.  The  wolf  is 
unknown  in  the  island,  and  the  bear  has  disappeared  for  more  than  a  century. 
Foxes  of  large  size  and  small  deer  complete  the  fauna  of  the  forest  region  of 
Corsica.  The  malmignntu  spider,  whose  bite  is  sometimes  mortal,  is  probably  of 
the  same  species  as  that  of  Sardinia  and  Tuscany ;  the  tarentula  is  the  same  as 
that  of  Naples,  but  the  venomous  ant  known  as  innafantato  appears  to  be  peculiar 
to  the  island. 


m 


We  know  nothing  about  the  origin  of  the  aborig^inal  inhabitants  of  Corsica. 
There  are  neither  nuraghi,  as  in  Sardinia,  nor  other  antiquitie?  enabling  us  to 
form  an  opinion  with  respect  to  their  manners.  But  there  exist  near  Sartdne  and 
elsewhere  several  dolmens,  or  stazzone,  menhirs,  or  staniare,  and  even  avenues 
of  stones  which  are  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  of  Brittany  and  England.  We 
may  assume,  therefore,  that  these  countries  were  formerly  inhabited  by  the  same 
race. 

The  inhabitants  of  Corte,  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  and  the  mountaineers  of 
Bastelioa,  boast  of  being  Corsicans  of  the  purest  blood.  At  Bastia  the  type  is 
altogether  Italian,  but  as  we  travel  into  the  interior  we  meet  men  with  large 
fleshy  faces,  small  noses  devoid  of  character,  dear  complexion,  and  eyes  of  a  chest- 
nut colour  rather  than  black.  Fhocseans,  Romans,  and  Saracens^  who  maintained 
themselves  here  until  the  eleventh  century,  were  succeeded  by  Italians  and  French. 
Calvi  and  Boni&oio  were  Genoese  settlements,  and  at  Carghese,  near  Ajaccio,  we 
even  meet  with  a  coloixy  of  Greek  Mainotes,  who  settled  there  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  whose  descendants  now  speak  Greek,  Italian,  and  French.  But,  in 
spite  of  these  foreign  immigrations,  the  Corsicans  have  in  a  large  measure  retained 
their  homogeneity.  Paolo  was  rather  proud  of  a  Genoese  proverb,  which  said 
that  the  "  Corsicans  deserved  to  be  hanged,  but  knew  how  to  bear  it."  History 
bears,  indeed,  witness  to  their  patriotism,  fearlessness,  and  respect  for  truth ;  but  it 
also  tells  us  of  foolish  ambitions,  jealousies,  and  a  furious  spirit  of  revenge.  Even 
in  the  middle  of  last  century  the  practice  of  the  vendetta  cost  a  thousand  lives 


mt»0»^^*rm$m 


COE8I0A. 


867 


for  their  industry, 
1,1  economists  have 
its  may  be  forced 


virg^'n  forests  which 
e  for  the  most  part 
id  Aitone,  however, 
Itmimus),  the  finest 
lese  splendid  trees, 
irerted  into  masts,  or 

during  summer  by 

muiHon  is  still  met 
lert  that  wild  boars, 

launts.  The  wolf  is 
lore  than  a  century. 

the  forest  region  of 
nortal,  is  probably  of 
tntula  is  the  same  as 
ippears  to  be  peculiar 


ahabitants  of  Corsica. 
|[uitie9  enabling  us  to 
9xist  near  Sartdne  and 
ire,  and  even  ayenues 
ly  and  England.  We 
inhabited  by  the  same 

id  the  mountaineers  of 
At  Bastia  the  type  is 
meet  men  with  large 
m,  and  eyes  of  a  chest- 
icens;  who  maintained 
by  Italians  and  French, 
^hese,  near  Ajacoio,  we 
9re  in  the  seventeenth 

and  French.  But,  in 
large  measure  retained 
se  proverb,  which  said 

to  bear  it."  History 
ispect  for  truth ;  but  it 
irit  of  revenge.     Even 

cost  a  thousand  lives 


annually.  Entire  villages  were  depopulated,  and  in  many  parts  every  peasant's 
house  was  converted  into  a  fortress,  where  the  men  were  constantly  on  the  alert, 
the  women,  protected  by  custom  against  outrage,  sallying  forth  alone  to  cultivate 
the  fields.  The  ceremonies  observed  when  a  victim  of  the  vendetta  was  brought 
home  were  terrible.  The  women  gathered  round  the  corpse,  and  one  amongst 
them,  in  most  cases  a  sister  of  the  deceased,  furiously  called  down  vengeance  upon 
the  head  of  the  murderer.  The  voceri  of  death  are  amongst  the  finest  national 
songs.  Foreign  domination  is  to  blame,  no  doubt,  for  the  frequency  of  these 
assassinations.  The  judges  sent  to  the  country  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  these  latter  returned  to  the  primitive  law  of  retaliation. 

Though  Corsica  gave  a  master  to  France,  the  spirit  of  the  people  is  essen- 
tially republican.  The  Romans  barely  succeeded  in  enslaving  it,  and  even  in 
the  tenth  century  the  greater  portion  of  the  island  formed  a  confederation  of 
independent  communities  known  as  Terra  del  Commune.  The  inhabitants  of  each 
valley  formed  apieve  {plehs),  by  whom  were  elected  a  podesta  and  the  "  fathers  of 
the  commune."  These  latter  appointed  a  "  corporal,"  who  was  charged  with  the 
defence  of  popular  rights.  The  podestas  in  turn  elected  a  Council  of  twelve,  who 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  confederation.  This  constitution  survived  conquest  and 
invasion.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  when  fighting  heroically  against  Genoa  and 
France,  Corsica  declared  all  citizens  equal.  It  was  institutions  like  these  which 
made  Rousseau  say  that  "that  little  island  would  bne  day  astonish  Europe." 
Since  that  time  the  Napoleonic  era  has  whetted  the  ambition  of  the  Corsicans, 
and  they  appear  to  have  forgotten  their  traditions  of  freedom. 

Corsica  is  one  of  the  least-populated  departments  of  France.*  The  eastern 
slope  of  the  island,  though  more  fertile  and  extensive  than  the  western,  and 
formerly  densely  peopled,  is  now  almost  a  desert.  The  Roman  colony  of  Mariana 
DO  longer  exists,  and  the  Phoceean  emporium  of  Aleria  has  dwindled  down  since 
the  thirteenth  century  into  an  isolated  homestead  standing  close  to  a  pestiferous 
swamp.  At  the  present  time  the  great  centres  of  population  are  on  the  western 
coast,  which  faces  France,  enjoys  a  salubrious  climate,  and  possesses  magnificent 
ports. 

The  Corsicans  certainly  appear  to  deserve  the  charge  of  idleness  which  is 
brought  against  them,  for  they  have  done  but  little  to  develop  the  great  n  .-j-urces 
of  their  island.  Fishing  and  cattle-breeding  they  understand  best.  In  many 
parts  agricultural  operations  are  carried  on  almost  exclusively  with  the  help  of 
Italian  labourers,  known  as  Lucchesi,  because  most  of  them  formerly  came  from 
Lucoa.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  impulse  given  by  France,  a  commencement  has 
been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  olive  oil,  equal  to  the  best  of  Provence, 
wine,  and  dried  fruits  already  constitute  important  articles  of  export,  f 

Corsica  abounds  in  ores,  but  they  do  not  appear  to  be  as  rich  as  those  of 
Sardinia.     Formerly  iron  mines  alone  were  worked,  the  ore  being  conveyed  to  the 

•  Area,  8,378  sqaaro  mUes;  population  in  1740,  120,880 ;  in  1872,  2«9,861. 

^  Amragt  annual  produee  :—Ceni^  2,618,000  bashels;    oil,  3,300,000   gallona;    wine,  6,600,000 
gallon!. 


i  ■. 


COBSIOA. 

furnaces  near  Bastia  and  Porto  Yeochio ;  but  of  late  years  copper  mines  have  been 
opened  at  Castifao,  near  Corte,  and  argentiferous  lead  is  being  procured  from  a 
mine  near  Argentella,  not  far  from  He  Rousse.  Bed  and  blue  granite,  porphyry, 
alabaster,  serpentine,  and  marble  are  being  quarried.  There  are  many  mineral 
springs,  but  the  only  one  enjoying  a  European  reputation  is  that  of  Orezzo,  which 
rises  in  the  picturesque  district  of  Oastagnicoia.  Its  ferruginous  water  contains 
a  considerable  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  and  is  recommended  as  efficacious  in  a 
host  of  diseases. 

The  most  important  town  of  Corsica,  though  not  its  capital,  is  Bastia,  thus 

Fig.  136.— Visw  OP  Babtu. 


named  from  a  Genoese  castle  built  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century  on 
the  beach  of  the  hill  village  of  Cardo.  Bastia  stands  about  a  mile  to  the  north  of 
the  two  former  capitals  of  the  island,  viz.  Mariana  and  Biguglia,  of  which  the 
former  has  left  no  trace,  whilst  the  latter  has  dwindled  down  to  a  miserable 
village.  The  geographical  position  of  Bastia  is  excellent,  for  it  is  within  easy 
reach  of  Italy,  and  frequent  communications  with  that  country  have  exercised  a 
most  happy  influence  upon  its  inhabitants,  who  are  the  most  civilised  and  indus- 
trious of  the  whole  island.  Its  harbour  is  small,  and  far  from  safe,  but  it  is  much 
frequented.  The  city  rises  amphitheatrically  upon  hills,  and  is  suiroonded  by 
delightful  gardens  and  numerous  villas. 


.^^^MkiM 


'"•^^'^^ipBP^f 


CORSICA. 


869 


)er  mines  have  been 
ig  procured  from  u 
e  gpranite,  porphyry, 

are  many  mineral 
lat  of  Orezzo,  which 
nous  water  contains 

as  efficacious  in  a 

pital,  is  Bastia,  thus 


St.  Florent,  only  six  miles  from  Bastia,  but  on  the  western  coast  of  the  island, 
has  an  excellent  harbour,  but  the  atmosphere  hanging  over  its  marshes  is  deadly. 
He  Rousse,  farther  to  the  west,  is  the  principal  port  of  the  fertile  district  of 
Balagna.  It  was  founded  by  Paoli  in  1758,  in  order  to  ruin  Oalvi,  which  had 
remained  faithful  to  the  Genoese.  This  object  has  been  attained.  He  Rousse 
exports  large  quantities  of  oil  and  fruit,  whilst  the  old  town  of  Oalvi,  on  its 
whitish  rock,  is  a  place  without  life,  frequently  visited  by  malaria.  The  coast  to 
the  south  of  Oalvi,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Sagone,  though  exceedingly  fertile,  is 
almost  a  desert,  and  many  parts  of  it  suffer  from  malaria.  Ajaccio,  however,  at 
one  time  merely  a  maritime  suburb  of  Oastelvecchio,  standing  a  short  distance 
inland,  has  risen  into  great  importance.  It  is  the  pleasantest  and  best-built 
town  of  the  island,  and  Napoleon,  the  most  famous  of  its  sons,  showered  fo  vours 
upon  it.  The  inhabitants  fish  and  cultivate  their  fertile  orchards.  They  also 
derive  great  advantages  from  a  multitude  of  visitors,  who  go  thither  to  enjoy  a 
delicious  climate  and  picturesque  scenery. 

The  other  towns  of  Oorsica  are  of  no  importance  whatever.  SartSne,  though 
the  capital  of  an  arrondissement,  is  merely  a  village,  and  the  activity  of  the  dis- 
trict centres  in  the  little  port  of  Fropriano,  on  the  Gulf  of  Yalinco,  one  of  the 
trysting-places  of  Neapolitan  fishermen.  Oorte  is  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
island  as  the  birthplace  of  the  heroes  of  the  wars  of  independence.  Porto  Vecchio, 
though  in  possession  of  the  best  harbour  of  the  island,  is  frequented  only  by  a  few 
coasting  vessels,  whilst  Bonifacio,  an  ancient  ally  of  the  Genoese,  is  important  only 
because  of  its  fortifications.  The  prospect  from  the  isolated  limestone  rock  upon 
which  it  is  built  is  exceedingly  picturesque.  The  mountains  of  Limbara  stand 
out  clearly  against  the  sky,  and  in  front  we  look  down  upon  the  granitic  islets 
dotting  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  so  dangerous  to  navigators.  It  was  here  the 
frigate  La  SSmillante  foundered  in  1855,  with  nearly  a  thousand  soids  on  board.* 


•I:  p.:; 


*  Towns  of  Corsica  (1872) :— Bastia,  17,9fi0 ;  Ajacdo,  16,660 ;  Corte,  6,460 ;  Suttoe,  4,160 ;  Bool- 
&cio,  3,600 ;  Bastelica,  2,960 ;  Calensana.  2,600 ;  Caivi,  2,176  inhabitants. 


fourteenth  century  on 

a  mile  to  the  north  of 

Hguglia,  of  which  the 

down  to  a  miserable 

for  it  is  within  easy 

mtry  have  exercised  a 

«t  civilised  and  indus- 

3m  safe,  but  it  is  much 

and  is  surrounded  by 


SPAIN/ 


I. — General  Aspects. 

I  HE  Iberian  peninsula,  Spain  and  Portugal,  must  be  looked  upon 
geographically  as  one.  Differenced  of  soil,  climate,  and  language 
may  have  justified  its  division  into  two  states,  but  in  the  organ- 
ism of  Europe  these  two  constitute  but  a  single  member,  having 
the  same  geological  history,  and  exhibiting  unity  in  their  physical 
configuration,  t 

Compared  with  the  other  peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe,  viz.  Italy  and  that  of 
the  Balkans,  Iberia  is  most  insular  in  its  character.  The  isthmus  which  attaches 
it  to4he  trunk  of  Europe  is  comparatively  narrow,  and  it  is  defined  most  distinctly 
by  the  barrier  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  contour  of  the  peninsula  is  distinguished 
by  its  massiveness.  There  are  curving  bays,  but  no  inlets  of  the  sea  penetrating 
far  inland,  as  in  the  case  of  Ghreeoe.^ 

It  was  said  long  ago,  and  with  justice,  that  Africa  begins  at  the  Pyrenees. 
Iberia,  indeed,  bears  some  resemblance  to  Africa.  Its  outline  is  heavy,  there  are 
hardly  any  islands  along  its  ooasts,  and  few  plains  open  out  upon  the  sea.  But  it 
is  an  Africa  in  miniature,  only  one-fiftieth  the  size  of  the  continent  upon  which  it 
appears  to  have  been  modelled.  Moreover,  the  oceanic  slope  of  the  peninsula  is 
quite  European  as  to  climate,  vegetation,  and  abundance  of  running  water ;  and 

*  Authorities :— Coello,  F.  de  Luxan  y  A.  Faaciul, "  BeseBas  Oeogr&flca,  G«ol6gica  y  Agricola  de 
Espafla ; "  Baron  Davillier  et  Guat.  Dort,  "  Voyage  en  Eapagne ; "  De  Laborde,  "  Itin£ndie  Deacriptif  de 
I'Espagne ; "  Bory  de  Saint- Vincent,  "  B6ium6  G^ographiqne  de  la  P^ninsule  IMrique ; "  De  Vemeuil  et 
Collomb,  "  M^oires  Odologiquea  snr  I'Eapagne ; "  Fori,  "  Handbook  for  Trayellers  in  Spain ; "  Fem. 
Gkurrido,  "  L'Eapegne  Contemporaine ; "  Cherbulies, "  L'Espagne  PoUtiqae ; "  Ed.  Quinet, "  Uea  Vacancca 
en  Eapagne;"  Th.  €toutier,  "Tras  los  Montea,"  "Voyage  en  Eapagne;"  M.  Willkomm,  "Die  Pyre- 
naiache  Halbinael,"  "  Strand-  nnd  Steppengebiete  der  iberiachen  Halbinael ; "  George  Sand,  "Un  Hiver  h 
Majorque ; "  Ludw.  Salvator,  "  Balearen  in  Wort  nnd  BOd ; "  Blad£,  "  ^tudea  Gtegraphiquea  aur  la 
Valine  d'Andorre ; "  W.  von  Humboldt,  "  Urbewdhner  Spaniena ; "  Eug.  Cordier,  "  Organiaation  de  la 
Famille  chea  lea  Baaquea ;  '\  Paul  Broca,  "  M^moiroS  d'Anthropologie." 

t  Area  of  the  Iberian  peninaola,  exduaive  of  tiio  Balearic  lalanda,  226,606  aquare  milea ;  area  of  Spain, 
101,104  aquare  milea ;  of  Portugal  (without  t^e  Acoree),  34,601  aquare  milea.  Average  height,  according 
to  Leiroldt,  2,300  feet. 

^  Contour  of  peninaula,  2,016  milea,  of  which  1,301  are  on  the  Atlantic,  and  714  on  the  Meditenanean. 
Width  of  the  iathmua  of  the  Pyreneea,  260  milea. 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


871 


certain  features  of  its  flora  even  justify  a  belief  that  at  some  remote  epoch  it  was 
joined  to  the  British  Isbnds.  African  Hispania  only  bogius  in  reality  with  the 
treeless  plateaux  of  the  interior,  and  more  especially  with  the  Mediterranean 
coasts.  There  we  meet  the  zone  of  transition  between  the  two  continents.  It* 
general  aspect,  flort,  fauna,  and  even  population,  mark  out  that  portion  of  Spain 
as  an  integral  part  of  Barbary  ;  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Atlas,  facing  each 
other,  are  sister  mountains ;  and  the  strait  which  separates  them  is  a  mere  accident 
in  the  surface  relief  of  our  planet. 


Fig.  136.— Ths  Tablb-landb  of  thb  Ibbriam  Pininivla. 
SmU  1  :  10,800,000. 


must  be  looked  upon 
,  climate,  and  language 
ates,  but  in  the  organ- 
single  member,  having 
;  unity  in  their  physical 

e,  viz.  Italy  and  that  of 
isthmus  which  attaches 
I  defined  most  distinctly 
ininsnla  is  distinguished 
bs  of  the  sea  penetrating 

)eginB  at  the  Pyrenees, 
line  is  heavy,  there  are 
it  upon  the  sea.  But  it 
continent  upon  which  it 
lope  of  the  peninsula  is 
I  of  running  water ;  and 

ftiica,  Geol6gica  y  Agricola  de 
Iwrde,  "  Itm^ndre  Deaoriptif  de 
rale  Ib^rique ; "  De  VeraeuU  et 
r  Travellera  in  Spain;"  Fem. 
i ; "  Ed.  Quinet, "  Mea  Vacancca 
;"  M.  Willkonun,  "Die  Pyre- 
i ; "  George  Sand,  "  Un  Hiver  h 
« lltudea  Otegraphiques  but  la 
;.  Cordier,  "  Organisation  de  la 

SOS  square  miles ;  area  of  Spain, 
les.    Average  height,  according 

,  and  714  on  the  Mediterranean. 


Spain,  though  nearly  surrounded  by  the  sea,  is  nevertheless  essentially  con- 
tinental in  its  character.  Nearly  the  whole  of  it  consists  of  table^lands,  and  only 
the  plains  of  the  Tajo  (Tagus)  and  of  Andalusia  open  out  broadly  upon  the  ocean. 
The  coast,  for  the  most  part,  rises  steeply,  and  the  harbours  are  consequently  diifi- 
cult  of  access  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior,  a  circumstance  most  detrimental 
to  the  development  of  a  large  sea-borne  commerce. 

Ever  since  the  discovery  of  the  ocean  high-roads  to  America  and  the  Indies,  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  has  taken  the  load  in  commercial  matters, 


871 


SPAIN. 


a  fact  easily  accounted  for  by  the  physical  features  of  the  country.  Spain,  like 
peninsular  Italy,  turns  her  back  upon  the  east.  The  plateaux  slope  down  gently 
towards  the  west ;  the  principal  rivers,  the  Ebro  alone  excepted,  flow  in  that  direc- 
tion ;  and  the  water-shed  lies  close  to  the  Mediterranean  shores. 


Spain  must  either  have  given  birth  to  an  aboriginal  people,  or  was  peopled  by 
way  of  the  Pyrenees  and  by  emigrants  crossing  the  narrow  strait  at  the  columns  of 
Hercules.  The  Iberian  race  actually  forms  the  foundation  of  the  populations  of 
Spain.  The  Basks,  or  Basques,  now  confined  to  a  few  mountain  valleys,  formerly 
occupied  the  greater  portion  of  the  peninsula,  as  is  proved  by  its  geographical  nomen- 
clature. Celtic  tribes  subsequently  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  established  themselves 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  mixing  in  many  instances  with  the  Iberians,  and 
forming  the  so-called  Oeltiberians.  This  mixed  race  is  met  with  principally  in 
the  two  Castiles,  whilst  Galicia  and  the  larger  portion  of  Portugal  appear  to  be 
inhabited  by  pure  Oelts.  The  Iberians  had  their  original  seat  of  civilisation  in 
the  south ;  they  thence  moved  northward  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
penetrating  as  far  as  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 

These  original  elements  of  the  population  were  joined  by  colonists  from  the 
great  commercial  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean.  C4diz  and  M&laga  were  founded 
by  the  Phoenicians,  Cartagena  by  the  Carthaginians,  Sagonte  by  immigrants  from 
Zaoynthe,  Rosas  is  a  Rhodian  colony,  and  the  ruins  of  Amt>urias  recall  the  Emporium 
of  the  Massilians.  But  it  was  the  Romans  who  modified  the  character  of  the 
Iberian  and  Celtic  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula,  whom  they  subjected  after  a 
hundred  years'  war.  Italian  culture  gradually  penetrated  into  every  part  of  the 
country,  and  the  use  of  Latin  became  universal,  except  in  the  remote  valleys 
inhabited  by  the  Basques. 

After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  Spain  was  successively  invaded  by 
Suevi,  Alani,  Vandals,  and  Visigoths,  but  only  the  latter  have  exercised  an 
abiding  influence  upon  the  language  and  manners  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
pompous  gravity  of  the  Castilian  appears  to  be  a  portion  of  their  heritage. 

To  these  -northern  invasions  succeeded  an  invasion  from  the  neighbouring 
continent  of  Africa.  The  Af&ha  and  Berbers  of  Mauritania  gained  a  footing  upon 
the  rock  of  Gibraltar  early  in  the  eighth  century,  and  very  soon  afterwards  nearly 
the  whole  of  Spain  had  fallen  a  prey  to  the  Mussulman,  who  maintained  himself 
here  for  more  than  seven  centuries.  Moors  immigrated  in  large  numbers,  and  they 
substantially  affected  the  character  of  the  population,  more  especially  in  the  south. 
The  Inquisition  expelled,  or  reduced  to  a  condition  of  bondage,  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  these  Moors,  but  its  operations  only  extended  to  Mussulmans  or 
doubtful  converts,  whilst  Arab  and  Berber  blood  had  already  found  its  way  into 
the  veins  of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Castilian  bears  witness  to  the  great 
influence  of  the  Saracens,  for  it  contains  many  more  words  of  Arabic  than 
of  Visigothic  origin,  and  these  words  designate  objects  and  ideas  evidencing  a 
state  of  progressive  civilisation,  such  as  existed  when  the  Arabs  of  C6rdova  and 
Granada  inaugurated  the  modem  era  of  science  and  industry  in  Europe. 


OBNBBAL  ASPECTS. 


878 


country.  Spain,  like 
X  slope  down  gontly 
)d,  flow  in  that  diruc- 
es. 

e,  or  was  peopled  by 
rait  at  the  columns  of 
of  the  populations  of 
tain  valleys,  formerly 
I  geographical  nomen- 
established  themselves 
rith  the  Iberians,  and 
Bt  with  principally  in 
Portugal  appear  to  be 
seat  of  civilisation  in 
>f  the  Mediterranean, 

by  colonists  from  the 
M&laga  were  founded 
B  by  immigrants  from 
is  recall  the  Emporium 
the  character  of  the 
hey  subjected  after  a 
into  every  part  of  the 
in  the  remote  valleys 

aooessively  invaded  by 
ter  have  exercised  an 
iie  Spaniards,  tuad  the 
bheir  heritage, 
rom  the  neighbouring 
i  gained  a  footing  upon 
soon  afterwards  nearly 
rho  maintained  himself 
gtrge  numbers,  and  they 
especially  in  the  south, 
bondage,  hundreds  of 
ded  to  Mussulmans  or 
»dy  found  its  way  into 
»  witness  to  the  great 
words  of  Arabic   than 
md  ideas  evidencing  a 
B  Arabs  of  06rdova  and 
ry  in  Europe. 


During  the  dominion  of  the  Moors  the  Jews  prospered  singularly  on  the  soil  of 
Spain,  and  their  number  at  the  time  of  the  first  persecution  is  said  to  have  been 
800,000.  Supple,  like  most  of  their  faith,  they  managed  to  get  a  footing  in  both 
camps,  the  Christian  and  Mohammedan,  and  enriched  themselves  at  the  expense  of 
each.  They  supplied  both  sides  with  money  to  carry  on  the  war,  and,  as  farmers  of 
taxes,  they  oppressed  the  inhabitants.  The  Ohristiaa  faith  triumphed  in  the  end ;  the 
kings,  to  pay  the  cost  of  their  wars,  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  the  Jews ;  and  the 
people  threw  themselves  with  fury  upon  their  hated  oppressors,  sparing  neither  iron, 
fire,  tortures,  nor  the  stake.  A  few  Jewish  families  may  have  escaped  destruction 
by  embracing  Oatholioism,  but  the  bulk  of  that  people  perished  or  were  driven  into 
exile. 

Far  happier  has  been  the  lot  of  the  Gipsies,  or  Oitanoa,  who  are  sufficiently 
numerous  in  Spain  to  give  a  special  physiognomy  to  several  large  towns.  These 
Gipsies  have  always  conformed  outwardly  to  the  national  religion,  and  the  Inqui- 
sition, which  has  sent  to  the  stake  so  many  Jews,  Moors,  and  heretics,  has  never 
interfered  with  them.  The  Oipsies,  in  many  instances,  have  settled  down  in  the 
towns,  but  they  all  have  traditions  of  a  wandering  life,  and  most  highly  respect 
those  of  their  kinsmen  who  still  range  the  woods  and  plains.  These  latter  are 
proud  of  their  title  of  viandantet,  or  wayfarers,  and  despise  the  dwellers  in  towns. 
These  Spanish  GKtanos  appear  to  be  the  descendants  of  tribes  who  sojourned  for 
several  generations  in  the  Balkans,  for  their  lingo  contains  several  hundred  words 
of  Slav  and  Greek  origin. 

M.  de  Bourgoing  has  drawn  attention  to  the  great  diversity  existing  amongst 
the  population  of  Spain.  A  Galician,  for  instance,  is  more  like  an  Auvergnat 
than  a  Oatalonian,  and  an  Andalusian  reminds  us  of  a  Gascon.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants,  however,  have  certain  general  features,  derived  from  a  common 
national  history  and  ancestry. 

The  average  Spaniard  is  of  small  stature,  but  strong,  muscular,  of  surprising 
agility,  an  inde&tigable  walker,  and  proof  against  every  hardship.  The  sobriety 
of  Iberia  is  proverbial.  "  Olives,  salad,  and  radishes  are  fit  food  for  a  nobleman." 
The  physical  stamina  of  the  Spaniard  is  extraordinary,  and  amply  explains  the  ease 
with  which  the  eonquiatadorea  surmounted  the  fatigues  which  they  were  exposed  to 
in  the  dreaded  climate  of  the  New  World.  These  qualities  make  the  Spaniard  the 
best  soldier  of  Europe,  for  he  possesses  the  fiery  temperament  of  the  South  joined 
to  the  physical  strength  of  the  North,  without  standing  in  need  of  abundant 
nourishment. 

The  moral  qualities  of  the  Spaniard  are  equally  remarkable.  Though  careless 
as  to  evety-day  matters,  he  is  very  resolute,  sternly  courageous,  and  of  great 
tenacity.  Any  cause  he  takes  up  he  defends  to  his  last  breath.  The  sons  always 
embrace  the  cause  of  their  fathers,  and  fight  for  it  with  the  same  resolution. 
Hence  this  long  series  of  foreign  and  civil  wars.  The  recovery  of  Spain  from  the 
Moors  took  nearly  seven  centuries;  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  South 
America  waff  one  continued  fight  lasting  throughout  a  century.  The  war  of  inde- 
pendence which  freed  Spain  from  the  yoke  of  Napoleon  was  an  almost  unexampled 
87 


i 


•^ 


S74 


SPAIN. 


effort  of  patriotism,  and  the  Spaniards  may  justly  boast  that  the  French  did  not 
find  a  single  spy  amongst  them.  Th^  two  Oarlisk  wars,  too,  would  have  bvcn 
poflsible  nowhere  else  but  in  Spai  a. 

Who  need  wonder,  after  this,  if  ' .  ^i  Xh-^  \  "vl  <edt  bpaniard  speaks  of  himself  with 
a  certain  haughtiness,  which  in  an\  oi^e  else  would  be  pronoimoed  presumptuouH  ? 
"  The  Spaniard  is  a  Gascon  of  a  tragic  type ; "  sr  lays  a  French  traveller.  With  him 
deeds  always  follow  words.  He  is  a  boaster,  but  not  without  reason.  He  unitcg 
qualities  which  usually  preclude  each  other,  for,  though  haughty,  he  is  kindly  in 
his  manners ;  he  thinks  very  highly  of  himself,  but  is  considerate  of  the  feelings  of 
othurs ;  quick  to  perceive  the  shortcomings  of  his  neighbours,  he  rarely  makes 
them  a  subject  of  reproach.  Trifles  give  rise  to  a  torrent  of  sonorous  lang^ge, 
but  in  nmtters  of  importance  a  word  or  a  gesture  suffices.  The  Spaniard  combines 
a  solemn  bearing  and  steadfastness  with  a  considerable  amount  of  cheerfulness. 
Nothing  disquiets  him ;  he  philosophically  takes  things  as  they  are ;  poverty  has  no 
terrors  for  him ;  and  he  even  ingeniously  contrives  to  extract  pleasure  and  advantage 
from  it.  The  life  of  Oil  Bias,  in  whom  the  Spaniards  recognise  their  own  like- 
ness, was  more  chequered  than  that  of  any  other  hero  of  romance,  and  yet  he  was 
always  full  of  gaiety,  which  even  the  dark  shadow  of  the  Inquisition,  then  resting 
upon  the  country,  failed  to  deprive  him  of.  "  To  live  on  the  banka  of  the 
Mazanares,"  says  a  Spanish  proverb, "  is  perfect  bliss ;  to  be  in  paradise  is  the  second 
degree  of  happiness,  but  only  on  condition  of  being  able  to  look  down  upon  Madrid 
through  a  skylight  in  the  heavens." 

These  opposites  in  the  character  of  the  Spaniards  give  rise  to  an  appearance  of 
fickleness  which  foreigners  are  unable  to  comprehend,  and  they  themselves  com- 
placently describe  them  as  eoaas  de  JEtpana.  How,  indeed,  are  we  to  explain  so 
much  weakness  associated  with  so  many  noblo  qualities,  so  many  superstitions  in 
spite  of  common  sense  and  a  keen  perception  of  irony,  such  ferocity  of  conduct  in  men 
naturally  generous  and  magnanimous  P  A  Spaniard,  in  spite  of  his  passions,  will 
resign  himself  philosophically  to  what  he  looks  upon  as  inevitable.  Lo  que  hade 
ter  no  paede /altar,  "  What  is  to  be  will  be,"  he  says,  and,  wrapped  up  in  his  cloak, 
he  allows  events  to  take  their  course.  The  great  Lord  Bacon  observed,  three  hundred 
years  ago,  that  the  "  Spaniards  looked  wiser  than  they  were ;  "  and,  indeed,  most 
of  them  are  passionately  fond  of  gambling,  and  their  apathetic  fatalism  accounts 
for  many  of  the  ills  their  country  suffers.  The  rapid  decay  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  course  of  three  centuries  has  led  certain  historians  to  number  the 
Spaniards  amongst  fallen  nations.  The  edifices  met  with  in  many  towns  and 
villages  speak  of  a  grandeur  now  past,  and  the  deitpohlados  and  deheaat,  which  we 
encoimter  even  in  the  vidnity  of  the  capital,  tell  of  once  fertile  fields  returned 
to  a  state  of  nature. 

Buckle,  in  his  "  History  of  Oivilisation,"  traces  this  decay  to  the  physical 
nature  of  Spain  and  to  a  long  succession  of  religious  wars.  The  Visigoths  defended 
A  nanism  against  the  Franks,  and  when  the  Spaniards  had  become  good  Catliolics 
their  country  was  invaded  by  Moors,  and  for  more  than  twenty  generatioud  they 
struggled  against  them.    It  thus  happened  that  patriotism  become  identical  with 


.>-m^-^ 


!■*»»**"•- 


:«JP^" 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


m 


■:\ 


at  the  French  did  not 
too,  would  have  boon 

d  Bpeaka  of  himielf  with 
lounced  presumptuouH  ? 
jh  traveller.     With  h  i  in 
out  reaion.     He  unites 
lughtj,  he  is  kindly  in 
derate  of  the  feelings  of 
boun,  he  rarely  makes 
t  of  sonorous  language, 
The  Spaniard  combines 
amount  of  cheerfulness, 
hey  are ;  poverty  has  no 
it  pleasure  and  advantage 
eoognise  their  own  like- 
romance,  and  yet  he  was 
Inquisition,  then  resting 
ro  on  the  banks  of  the 
e  in  paradise  is  the  second 
>  look  down  upon  Madrid 

)  rise  to  an  appearance  of 
md  they  themselves  com- 
eed,  are  we  to  explain  so 
so  many  superstitions  in 
ferocity  of  conduct  in  men 
ipite  of  his  passions,  will 
inevitable.  Lo  que  hade 
wrapped  up  in  his  cloak, 
m  observed,  three  hundred 
vere ; "  and,  indeed,  most 
lathetio  fatalism  accounts 
[  decay  which  has  taken 
historians  to  number  the 
vith  in  many  towns  and 
loa  and  dehemt,  which  we 
noe  fertile  fields  returned 

kis  decay  to  the  physical 
.  The  Visigoths  defended 
lad  become  good  Catholics 
L  twenty  generatioun  they 
ism  became  identical  with 


Absolute  obedience  to  the  behests  of  the  Church,  for  every  one,  from  the  King  down 
to  the  meanest  archer,  was  a  defender  of  the  faith  rather  than  of  his  native  soil. 
The  result  might  have  been  foretold.  The  Church  not  only  took  possession  of  most 
of  the  land  won  from  the  infidels,  but  it  also  exercised  a  baneful  iufluonoo  upon  the 
Oovemmont,  and,  through  its  dreaded  tribunals  of  the  Inquisition,  over  the  whole 
of  society. 

But  whilst  these  long  religious  struggles  tended  to  the  moral  and  intellectual 
abasement  of  the  Spaniards,  there  were  other  causes  which  operated  in  an  inverse 
sense,  and  these  Buckle  does  not  appear  to  have  properly  appreciated.  The  kings, 
in  order  to  secure  the  support  of  the  people  in  their  wars  against  the  MuNsulmans, 
found  themselves  compelled  to  grant  a  large  measure  of  liberty.  The  towns 
governed  themselves,  and  their  delegates,  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  sat  with 
the  nobility  and  clergy  in  the  Oortes,  and  voted  the  supplies.  Local  government 
conferred  advantages  upon  Spain  then  enjoyed  only  in  few  parts  of  Europe. 

Fi(.  1S7.— DSHMAS   IN  THI  EnTIROXS  OF  MaDIUD» 
iMit  1  I  4fl(MXI0. 


Industry  and  the  arts  flourished  in  these  prosperous  cities,  and  a  stop  was  even 
put  to  the  encroachments  of  the  olerffy  long  before  Luther  raised  his  powerful 
voice  in  Oermany. 

A  struggle  between  the  supporters  of  local  government  and  of  a  centralized 
monarchy  at  length  became  imminent,  and  no  sooner  had  the  infidels  been  expelled 
than  civil  war  began.  It  terminated  in  favour  of  King^  and  Church,  for  the 
comuneros  of  the  Castiles  met  with  little  support  in  the  other  provinces,  and  their 
towns  were  ravaged  by  the  bloodthirsty  generals  of  Charles  Y. 

The  discovery  of  the  New  World,  which  happened  about  this  period,  pi-oved  a 
disaster  to  Spain,  for  young  men  of  enterprise  and  daring  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
and  thus  weakened  the  mother  country,  which  was  too  small  to  feed  such  huge 
colonies.  The  inunense  amount  of  treasure  (more  than  £2,000,000,000  between 
1500  and  1702)  sent  home  from  the  colonies  contributed  still  further  to  the  rapid 
decay  of  Spain,  for  it  corrupted  the  entire  nation.    Money  being  obtainable  without 


^ 


5 


Bi^«9S»^- 


876 


SPAIN. 


work,  all  honest  labour  ceased,  and  when  the  colonies  no  longer  yielded  their 
metallic  treasures  the  country  saw  itself  impoverished,  for  the  gold  and  silver 
had  found  their  way  to  foreign  lands,  whence  Spain  had  procured  her  supplies. 

History  affords  no  other  example  of  so  rapid  a  decadence  brought  about  with- 
out foreign  aggression.  The  workshops  were  closed,  the  arts  of  peace  forgotten, 
the  fields  but  indifferently  cultivated.  Toung  men  flocked  to  the  9,000  monas- 
teries to  enjoy  a  life  of  indolence,  and  "science  was  a  crime,  ignorance  and 
stupidity  were  the  first  of  virtues."  Population  decreased,  and  the  Spaniard  even 
lost  his  ancient  renown  for  bravery.     If  the  Bourbon  kings  placed  foreigners  in 


Kg.  138.— DlNSITT  OP  THS  PoPUlATIOir  OF  THB  IbSHUM  PEKDraULA. 


^f^ 

i^ 


N 


•«' 


all  high  positions  of  state,  they  did  so  because  the  Spaniards  had  become  incapable 
of  conducting  public  business. 

But  if  we  compare  the  Spain  of  our  own  days  with  the  Spain  of  the  Inquisition, 
we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  vast  progress  made.  Spain  is  no  longer 
a  "  happy  people  without  a  history,"  for  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  century 
it  has  been  engaged  in  struggles,  and  during  this  period  of  tumidtuous  life  it 
has  done  more  for  arts,  science,  and  industry  than  in  the  two  centuries  of  perce 
which  succeeded  the  dark  reign  of  Philip  II.    No  doubt  Spain  might  have  done 


longer  yielded  their 
>r  the  gold  and  silver 
Ksured  her  supplies. 
;e  hrought  about  with- 
rta  of  peace  forgotten, 
id  to  the  9,000  monas- 

crime,  ignorance  and 
and  the  Spaniard  even 
^  placed  foreigners  in 

[  Pbmnbvla. 


lencia 


BaredoM 


tlAfJ^M, 


rde  had  become  incapable 

I  Spain  of  the  Inquisition, 
ie.  Spain  is  no  longer 
beginning  of  the  century 
od  of  tumiiltuous  life  it 
e  two  centuries  of  peece 
t  Spain  might  have  done 


THE  OASTELES,  LEON,  AND  ESTEBMADUBA. 


377 


even  more  if  the  strength  of  the  country  had  not  been  wasted  in  internal  struggles. 
Unfortunately  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  pcuinsula  is  unfavourable  to 
the  consolidation  of  the  nation.  The  littoral  regions  combine  every  advantage  of 
clljiate,  soil,  and  accessibility,  whilst  the  resources  of  the  inland  plateaux  are 
comparatively  few.  .The  former  naturally  attract  population;  they  aboimd  in 
large  and  bustling  cities,  and  are  more  densely  populated  than  the  interior  of  the 
country.  Madrid,  which  occupies  a  commanding  position  almost  in  the  geo- 
metrical centre  of  the  country,  has  become  a  focus  of  life,  but  its  environs  are  very 
thinly  inhabited. 

This  unequal  distribution  of  the  population  could  not  fail  to  exercise  a  powerful 
influence  upon  the  history  of  the  country.  Each  of  the  maritime  provinces  felt 
sufficiently  strong  to  lead  a  separate  existence.  During  the  struggles  with  the 
Moors  common  interests  induced  the  independent  kingdoms  of  Iberia  to  co-operate, 
and  facilitated  the  establishment  of  a  central  monarchy ;  but,  to  maintain  this  unity 
afterwards,  it  became  necessaiy  to  have  recourse  to  a  system  of  terrorism  and 
oppression.  Portugal,  being  situated  on  the  open  Atlantic,  shook  off  the  detested 
yoke  of  Castile  after  less  than  a  century's  submission.  In  the  rest  of  the 
peninsula  political  consolidation  is  making  progress,  thanks  to  the  facilities  of 
intercoiomunication  and  the  substitution  of  GastiUan  for  the  provincial  dialects ; 
but  it  would  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  Andalusians  and  Galicians,  Basques  and 
Catalans,  Aragonese  and  Madrilefios,  have  been  welded  into  one  nation.  Indeed, 
the  federal  constitution  advocated  by  Spanish  republicans  appears  to  be  best  suited 
to  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  country  and  the  genius  of  its  population. 
The  desire  to  establish  provincial  autonomy  has  led  to  most  of  the  civil  wars  of 
Spain,  whether  raised  by  Carlists  or  Intramingentea.  It  is  therefore  meet  that,  in 
our  description  of  Spain,  we  should  respect  the  limits  traced  by  nature,  bearing 
in  mind  the  fact  that  the  political  boundaries  of  the  province  do  not  always 
coincide  with  water-edieds  or  linguistic  boundaries. 


II. — The  Oastilbs,  Leon,  and  Estremautjra.* 

The  great  central  plateau  of  the  peninsula  is  bounded  on  the  north,  east,  and 
south  by  ranges  of  mountain's  extending  from  the  Cantabrian  Pyrenees  to  the 
Sierra  Morena,  and  slopes  down  in  the  west  towards  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic. 
The  uplands  through  which  the  Upper  Duero,  the  Tajo  (Tagus),  and  the  Guadiana 
take  their  course  are  thus  a  region  apart,  and  if  the  waters  of  the  ocean  were  to 
rise  2,000  feet,  they  would  be  converted  into  a  peninsula  attached  by  the  narrow 
isthmus  of  the  Basque  provinces  to  the  French  Pyrenees.  The  vast  extent  of 
these  plateaux — ^they  constitute  nearly  half  the  area  of  the  whole  country — accounts 
for  the  part  they  played  in  history,  and  their  commanding  position  enabled  the 
Castilians  to  gain  possession  of  the  adjacent  territories. 


*  Basin  of  the  Duero  (Leon  and  Old  Caatile,  ) 

exolusive  of  Logroilo  and  Santander)  ] 

Basins  of  the  Ti^o  and  the  Gnadiana   .    .    . 


Ana. 

PopnUiloa  (187U). 

DenMtr 

36,693  sq.  m. 

2,660,000 

69 

44,719      „ 

2,276^90& 

61 

;';-;( 


■s 


■gi 


SPAIN. 


i£ 


The  Castiles  can  hardly  be  called  beautiful,  oi  rather  their  solemn  beauty  does 
not  commend  them  to  the  majority  of  travellers.  Vast  districts,  such  as  the  Tierra 
de  Campos,  to  the  north  of  Valladolid,  are  ancient  lake  beds  of  great  fertility,  but 
exceedingly  monotonous,  owing  to  the  absence  of  forests.  Otheis  are  covered  with 
small  stony  hillocks ;  others,  again,  may  be  described  as  mountainous.  Mountain 
ranges  covered  with  meag^  herbage  bound  the  horizon,  and  sombre  gorges, 
enclosed  between  precipitous  walls  of  rock,  lead  into  them.  Elsewhere,  as  in  the 
Lower  Estremadura,  we  meet  with  vast  pasture-lands,  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and,  as  in  certain  parts  of  the  American 
prairies,  not  a  tree  arrests  the  attention.  Looking  to  the  faarful  nakedness  of 
these  plains,  one  would  hardly  imagine  that  a  law  was  promulgated  in  the  middle 
of  last  century  which  enjoins  each  inhabitant  to  plant  at  least  five  trees.  Trees, 
indeed,  have  been  cut  down  more  rapidly  than  they  were  planted.  The  peasants 
have  a  prejudice  against  them ;  their  leaves,  they  say,  give  shelter  to  birds,  which 
prey  upon  the  corn-fields.  Small  birds,  nightingales  alone  excepted,  are  pursued 
without  mercy,  and  a  proverb  says  that  "swallows  crossing  the  Castiles  must 
carry  provisions  with  them."  Trees  are  met  with  only  in  the  most  remote 
localities.  The  hovels  of  the  peasantry,  built  of  mud  or  pebbles,  are  of  the  same 
colour  as  the  soil,  the  walled  towns  are  easily  confounded  with  the  rook  near  them, 
and  even  iu  the  midst  of  cultivated  fields  we  may  imagine  ourselves  in  a  desert. 
Many  districts  suffer  from  want  of  water,  and  villages  which  rejoice  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  spring  proclaim  the  fact  aloud  as  one  of  their  attributes.  Huge  bridges 
span  the  ravines,  though  for  more  than  half  the  year  not  a  drop  of  water  passes 
over  their  pebbly  beds. 

The  Sierra  Guadarrama  and  its  western  continuation,  the  Sierra  de  Grddos, 
separate  this  central  plateau  of  Spain  into  two  portions,  lying  at  different 
elevations.  Old  Castile  and  Leon,  which  lie  to  the  north,  in  the  basin  of  the 
Duero,  slope  down  from  east  to  west  from  5,600  to  2,300  feet ;  whilst  New  Castile 
and  La  Mancha,  in  the  twin  basins  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana,  have  an  average 
elevation  of  only  2,000  feet.  In  the  tertiary  age  these  two  plateaux  were  covered 
with  huge  lakes.  One  of  them,  the  contours  of  which  are  indicated  by  the  debris 
carried  down  from  the  surrounding  hills,  orig^ally  discharged  its  waters  in  the 
direction  of  the  valley  of  the  Ebro,  but  aubsequently  opened  itself  a  passage 
through  the  en  'alline  mountains  of  Portugal,  now  representjsd  by  the  gorges  of 
the  Lower  Paero.  At  another  epoch  this  Lake  Superior  communicated  with  the 
lake  which  overs^iread  what  are  now  the  plains  of  New  Castile  and  La  Mancha. 
The  tt;-ea  covered  by  these  two  lakes  amounted  to  30,000  square  miles,  and  Spain 
was  then  a  mere  skeleton  of  crystalline  mountains,  joined  together  by  saddles  of 
triassic,  Jurassic,  and  cretaceous  age,  enclosing  these  two  firesh-water  lakes,  and 
bounded  exteriorly  by  the  ocean.  This  geological  period  must  have  been  of  very 
long  duration,  for  the  lacustrine  deposits  are  sometimes  nearly  a  thousand  feet  in 
thickness.  The  miooene  strata  which  form  the  superficial  deposits  of  these  two  lake 
basins  of  the  Castiles  are  geologically  of  the  same  age,  for  fossil  bones,  of  the 
same  great  animals — megatheria,  mammoths,  and  hipparions — are  found  in  both. 


THE  OASTILES,  LEON,  AND  E8TBEMADUEA. 


879 


eir  solemn  beauty  does 
lots,  such  as  the  Tierra 
s  of  great  fertility,  but 
3theis  are  covered  with 
lountainous.  Mountain 
1,  and  sombre  gorges, 
.  Elsewhere,  as  in  the 
tching  as  far  as  the  eye 

parts  of  the  American 
he  fearful  nakedness  of 
mulgated  in  the  middle 

least  five  trees.  Trees, 
planted.  The  peasants 
B  shelter  to  birds,  which 
e  excepted,  are  pursued 
ssing  the  Castiles  must 
Ly  in  the  most  remote 
pebbles,  are  of  the  same 
nth  the  rook  near  them, 
ae  ourselves  in  a  desert. 
Loh  rejoice  in  the  posses- 
btributes.  Huge  bridges 
t  a  drop  of  water  passes 

1,  the  Sierra  de  GrMos, 
ions,  lying  at  different 
rth,  in  the  basin  of  the 
feet ;  whilst  New  Oastile 
uadiana,  have  an  average 
ro  plateaux  were  covered 
e  indicated  by  the  debris 
iharged  its  waters  in  the 

opened  itself  a  passage 
•esented  by  the  gorges  of 
)r  communicated  with  the 

Castile  and  La  Mancha. 
)  square  miles,  and  Spain 
ed  together  by  saddles  of 
wo  fresh-water  lakes,  and 
1  must  have  been  of  very 
nearly  a  thousand  feet  in 
.  deposits  of  these  two  lake 
B,  for  fossil  bones,  of  the 
ions — are  found  in  both. 


The  Oantabrian  Mountains  bound  Leon  and  Old  Oastile  towards  the  north-west 
and  north,  but  broad  mountain  ranges  run  out  from  these  immediately  to  the  east 
of  the  Fefia  Labra,  and  form  the  water-shed  between  the  basin  of  the  T  aero  and 
the  head -stream  of  the  Ebro.  These  ranges  are  known  by  various^names.  They 
form  first  the  Paramos  of  Lora  (3,542  feet),  which  slope  gently  towards  the  south, 
hut  sink  down  abruptly  to  the  Ebro,  which  flows  here  in  a  gorge  many  hundred 
feet  in  depth.  The  water-shed  to  the  east  of  these  continues  to  the  mountain 
pass  of  the  Brujula,  across  which  leads  the  road  (3,215  feet)  connecting  Bdrgos 
with  the  sea.  Beyond  this  pass  the  so-called  Mantes  of  Oca  gradually  increase  in 
height,  and  join  the  crystalline  Sierra  de  Demanda,  culminating  in  the  Pico  de 
San  Lorenzo  (7,554  feet).  Another  mountain  mass  lies  farther  to  the  south-east. 
It  rises  in  the  Pico  de  Urbion  to  a  height  of  7,367  feet,  and  gives  birth  to  the 
river  Duero.      The  water-shed  farther  on  is  formed  by  the  Sierra  Cebollera 

Mg.  139. — Pbofilk  of  thb  Batlway  from  Batonmb  to  Cadiz. 
(Altitude*  in  feet.) 


2'  3 


(7,039  feet),  which  subsides  by  degrees,  its  ramifications  extending  into  the  basins 
of  the  Ebro  and  Duero.  The  Sierra  de  la  Moncayo  (7,906  feet),  a  crystalline 
mountain  mass  similar  to  the  San  Lorenzo,  but  exceeding  it  in  height,  terminates 
this  portion  of  the  enceinte  of  the  central  plateau.  The  broad  ranges  beyond 
offer  no  obstacles  to  the  construction  of  roads,  but  there  are  several  rugged  ridges 
to  the  south  of  the  Cebollera  and  Moncayo,  which  force  the  Duero  to  take  a 
devious  course  through  the  defile  of  Soria.  Numancia,  the  heroic  defence  of 
which  has  since  been  imitated  by  many  other  towns  of  the  peninsula,  stood  near 
that  gorga 

The  average  height  of  tlie  mountains  separating  the  basin  of  the  Duero  from 
that  of  die  Tajo  is  more  than  that  of  those  in  the  north-east  of  Old  Castile.  The 
mountains  gradually  increase  in  height  towards  the  west  and  south-west,  until 
they  form  the  famous  Sierra  de  Gtiaoarrama,  the  granitic  rocks  of  which  bound  the 
horizon  of  Madrid  in  the  north.    It  cvmstitutes  a  veritable  wall  betwe^i  the  two 


! 


880 


SPAIN. 


Gastiles,  and  the  construction  of  the  roads  which  lead  in  zigzag  over  its  passes  of 
Somosierra  (4,680  feet),  Navaoerrada  (5,834  feet),  and  Guadarrama  (5,030  feet) 
was  attended  with  di£Boalties  so  considerable  that  Ferdinand  YI.,  proud  of  the 
achievement,  placed  the  statue  of  a  lion  upon  one  of  the  highest  summits,  and  thus 
recorded  that  the  "  King  had  conquered  the  mountains."  This  sierra  forms  a 
natural  rampart  to  the  north  of  the  plains  of  Madrid,  and  many  sang^uinary 
battles  have  been  fought  to  secure  a  passage  through  them.  The  railway  to 
Madrid  avoids  them,  but  the  depression  of  Avila,  through  which  it  passes,  is 
nevertheless  more  elevated  than  the  summit  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Railway. 

The  mountains  to  the  south-west  of  the  Peak  of  Pefialara  (7,870  feet),  which 


Fig.    140. — SiBBBAS  DB  GBin08  AMD  Ol  QaTA. 
BoOtl  i  800,000. 


•  W 


is  the  culminating  point  of  the  sierra,  sink  down  itipidly,  ana  at  the  Alto  de  la 
Oierva  (6.027  feet)  the  chain  divides  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  northern 
forms  the  water-shed  between  the  Duero  and  the  Tajo,  whilst  the  more  elevated 
southern  chain  joins  the  Sierra  de  Gxuularrama  to  the  Sierra  de  Gr^os,  but  is  cut 
in  two  by  the  defile  excavated  by  the  river  Alberche,  which  rises  to  the  north 
of  it. 

The  Sierra  de  Gr^dos  is,  next  to  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
Granada,  the  most  elevated  mountain  chain  of  Spain,  for  in  the  Plaza  del  Moro 
Almanzor  it  attains  a  height  of  8,680  feet,  and  thus  reaches  far  beyond  the  zone 
of  trees.  Its  naked  summitB  of  crystalline  rocks  remain  covered  with  snow 
during  more  th^n  half  the  year.    The  country  extending  along  the  southern  slope 


--«« 


",  i»i;!i!)lli|Vj|W,*tii>i 


^^ 


^'yisMtmum'.  i  m  '  i" 


THE  OASTILES,  LEON.  AND  ESTEEMADUEA. 


881 


l^zag  over  its  passee  of 
ladarrama  (6,030  feet) 
land  YI.,  proud  of  the 
leat  summits,  and  thus 
This  jsierra  forms  a 
and  many  sang^uinary 
lem.  The  railway  to 
i^h  which,  it  passes,  is 
)nis  Bailway. 
ara  (7,870  feet),  which 


y,  ana  at  the  Alto  de  la 
,  of  which  the  northern 
Krhilst  the  more  elevated 
la  de  QrMos,  but  is  cut 
rhioh  rises  to  the  north 

I  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
tr  in  the  Plaza  del  Moro 
}he8  far  beyond  the  zone 
lain  covered  with  snow 
along  the  southern  slope 


of  these  mountains  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  districts  of  all  Spain.  It 
abounds  in  streams  of  sparkling  water  ;  groups  of  trees  are  dotted  over  the  hill- 
slopes  and  shield  the  villages ;  and  Charles  Y.,  when  he  selected  the  monastery  of 
St.  Tuste  as  the  spot  where  he  proposed  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  days,  exhi- 
bited  no  mean  taste.  In  former  times  the  foot  of  the  sierra  was  much  more 
frequented,  for  the  Roman  road  known  as  Via  Lata  (now  called  Camino  de  la  Plata) 
crossed  immediately  to  the  west  of  it,  by  the  Puerto  de  Bancs,  and  thus  joined  the 
valley  of  the  Duero  to  that  of  the  Tajo. 

The  Sierra  de  Gata,  which  lies  beyond  this  old  road,  has  a  course  parallel  with 
that  of  the  Sierra  de  GrMos,  and  this  parallelism  is  observable  likewise  with  respect 
to  the  minor  chains  and  the  principal  river  beds  of  that  portion  of  Spain.  The 
Sierra  de  Gata  rises  to  a  height  of  5,690  feet  in  the  Pefia  de  Francia,  thus  named 
after  a  chapel  built  by  a  Prankish  knight.  Within  its  recesses  are  the  secluded 
valleys  of  Las  Batueoas  and  Las  Hurdes. 

°  In  the  eastern  portion  of  .New  Castile  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  undu- 
lating rather  than  mountainous,  and,  if  the  deep  gorges  excavated  by  the  rivers 
were  to  be  filled  up,  wotild  present  almost  the  appearance  of  plains.  The  most 
elevated  point  of  this  portion  of  the  country  is  the  Muela  de  San  Juan  (5,900  feet), 
in  the  Montes  Universales,  thus  called,  perhaps,  because  the  Tajo,  the  Jucar,  the 
Ghiadalaviar,  and  other  rivers  flowing  in  opposite  directions  take  their  rise  there. 

The  Sierra  del  Tremendal,  in  the  district  of  Albarracin,  farther  north,  is  said 
to  be  frequently  shaken  by  earthquakes,  and  sulphurous  gases  escape  there  where 
oolitic  rooks  are  in  contact  with  black  porphyry  and  basalt.  Several  triassic 
hills  in  the  vicinity  of  Cuenca  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  rock-salt,  the 
principal  mines  of  which  are  those  of  Minglanilla. 

Farther  south  the  height  of  land  which  separates  the  rivers  flowing  to  the 
Mediterranean  from  those  tributaiy  to  the  Tajo  and  Guadiana  is  imdulating,  but 
not  moimtainous.  We  only  again  meet  with  real  mountains  on  reaching  the  head- 
waters of  Guadiana,  Segura,  and  Guadalunar,  vhere  the  Sierra  Morena,  forming 
for  2£0  miles  the  natural  boundary  between  La  Mancha  and  Andalusia,  takes  its 
rise.  Seen  ivoro.  the  plateau,  this  sierra  has  the  appearance  of  hills  of  moderate 
height,  but  travellers  facing  it  from  the  south  see  before  them  a  veritable  mountain 
range  of  bold  prohie,  wad  abounding  in  valleys  and  wild  gorges.  Geographically 
this  sierra  belongs  to  Andalusia  rather  than  to  the  plateau  of  the  Castiles. 

In  the  west,  judging  from  the  courses  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana,  thecountoy 
would  appear  to  6tti>side  by  degpwes  into  the  plains  of  Portugal ;  but  such  is  not  the 
case.  The  greater  portion  of  Estremadura  is  occupied  by  a  mountain  mass  con- 
sisting of  granite  and  other  crystalline  rooks.  The  sedimentary  strata  of  the 
region  bounded  in  the  nori:h  by  the  Sierras  of  GrMos  and  Gata,  and  in  the  south 
by  the  Sierra  de  Aroche,  are  but  of  small  thickness.  In  former  times  these 
granitic  mountains  of  Estremadura  retained  pent-up  waters  of  the  lakes  which  then 
covered  the  interior  plateaux,  until  the  incessant  action  of  water  forced  a  passage 
through  them.  Their  highest  summits  form  a  range  between  the  rivers  Guadiana 
an  i  Tajo  known  as  the  Sierra  of  Toledo,  and  attein  a  height  of  5,115  feet  in 


I 


) 


)s 


■A 


■ 


flM 


■■i 


WH 


SPAIN. 

the  Sierra  de  Guadalupe,  famous  in  other  days  on  account  of  the  image  of  a 
miracle-working  Virgin  Mary,  an  object  of  veneration  to  Estremeuos  and  Chrin- 
tianized  American  Indians. 

Geologically  the  eyries  of  volcanic  hills  known  as  Campo  de  Oalatrava  (2,270 
feet)  constitute  a  distinct  group.  They  occupy  both  banks  of  the  Guadiana,  and  the 
ancient  inland  lake  now  converted  into  the  plain  of  La  Mancha  washed  their  foot. 

Fig.  141. — DariLB  op  thi  Tajo  in  thi  Protimoi  of  Goadalajaka. 


From  their  craters  were  ejected  trachytio  and  basaltic  lavas,  as  well  as  ashes,  or 
negrisaka,  but  acidulous  thermal  springs  are  at  present  the  only  evidence  of  sub- 
terranean activity. 

The  rivers  of  the  Cantiles  are  of  less  importance  than  might  be  supposed  from 
a  look  at  a  map,  for,  owing  to  a  paucity  of  rain,  they  are  not  navigable.  The 
moisture  carried  eastward  by  the  winds  is  for  the  most  part  precipitated  upon  the 


-■*.^mm 


W 


of  the  image  of  a 
stremefioa  and  Chris- 

0  de  Oalatraya  (2,270 
he  Guadiana,  and  the 
3ha  washed  their  foot. 

LDALAJABA. 


Bfl,  as  well  as  ashes,  or 
)  only  evidence  of  sub- 


ght  be  supposed  from 
e  not  navigable.  The 
precipitated  upon  the 


THE  OASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTBEMADUBA. 


888 


exterior  slopes  of  the  mountains,  only  a  small  proportion  reaching  the  Castilian 
plateaux.  Evaporation,  moreover,  proceeds  there  very  rapidly,  and  if  it  were  not 
for  springs  supplied  by  the  rains  of  winter  there  would  not  be  a  single  perennial 
river.* 

Of  the  three  parallel  rivers,  the  Duero,  the  Tajo,  and  the  Guadiana,  the  latter 
two  are  the  most  feeble,  for  the  supplementary  ranges  of  the  Sierras  of  Grades  and 
Guadarrama  shut  ofl' their  basins  from  the  n :  oisture-laden  winds  of  the  Atlantic.  Yet, 
in  spite  of  their  small  volume,  the  geological  work  performed  by  them  in  past 
ages  was  stupendous.  Both  find  their  way  through  tortuous  gorges  of  immense  depth 
from  the  edge  of  the  plateaux  down  to  the  plains  of  Lusitania.  The  gorge  of  the 
Duero  forms  an  appropriate  natural  boundary  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  for  it 
offers  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  to  intercommunication.  The  more  con- 
siderable tributaries  of  the  Duero — such  as  the  Tonnes,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the 
Sierra  de  GrMos ;  the  Y^ltes ;  and  the  Agueda — likewise  take  their  course  through 
wild  defiles,  which  may  be  likened  to  the  canons  of  the  New  World.  The  Tajo 
presents  similar  features,  and  below  its  confluence  with  the  A]l.berche  it  enters  a 
deep  defile,  hemmed  in  by  precipitous  waUs  of  granite. 

The  Guadiana  passes  through  a  similar  gorge,  but  only  after  it  has  reached 
the  soil  of  Portugal.  The  hydrography  of  its  head-streams,  the  GKguela  and 
Z&ncara,  which  rise  in  the  Serranio  of  Cuenca,  offers  curious  features ;  but,  as 
they  are  for  the  most  part  dry  during  summer,  the  bountiful  springij  known  as 
the  qfos,  or  "  eyes,"  of  the  Guadiana  are  looked  upon  by  the  inhabitants  as  the 
true  source  of  the  river.  They  are  three  in  number,  and  yield  about  four  cubic 
yards  of  yater  a  second.  These  springs  are  popularly  believed  to  be  fed  by  the 
Ruidera,  which,  after  having  traversed  a  chain  of  picturesque  lakelets,  disappears 
beneath  a  bed  of  pebbles ;  but  Coello  has  shown  that  after  heavy  rains  this  head- 
stream  of  the  Guadiana  actually  reaches  the  Z&ncara. 

The  climate  of  the  Castilian .  plateaux  is  quite  continental  in  its  character. 
The  prevailing  winds  of  Spain  are  the  tame  as  in  the  rest  of  Western  Europe,  but 
the  seasons  and  sudden  changes  of  temperature  in  the  upper  basins  of  the  Duero,  the 
Tajo,  and  the  Ghiadiana  recall  the  deserts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  cold  in  winter  is 
most  severe,  the  heat  of  summer  scorching,  and  the  predominating  winds  aggravate 
these  features.  In  winter,  the  norte,  which  passes  across  the  snow-covered  Pyrenees 
and  other  mountain  ranges,  sweeps  the  plains  and  penetrates  through  every 
crevice  in  the  wretched  hovels  of  the  peasant.  In  summer  a  contrary  wind,  the 
solano,  penetrates  through  breaks  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Sierra  Morena, 
scorches  the  vegetation,  and  irritates  man  and  animals.  The  climate  of  Madrid  f 
is  typical  of  that  of  most  of  the  towns  of  Castile.  The  air,  though  pure,  is  exceed- 
ingly dry  and  penetrating,  and  perstms  affected  with  diseases  of  the  throat  run 
considerable  risk  during  their  period  of  acclimation.  "  The  air  of  Madrid  does 
not  put  out  a  candle,  but  kills  a  man,"  says  a  proverb,  and  the  climate  of  that 
city  is  described  as  "  three  months  of  winter  and  nine  of  hell."     True,  in  the 

*  Average  rainfall  at  Madrid,  10-7  inches ;  evaporation,  72*6  inches, 
t  Mean  annnal  temperatTire,  67'9° ;  eztremea,  104°  and  14°  F. 


■Sf 


■i 


:-j 


884 


SPAIN. 


time  of  Charles  V.,  Madrid  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  having  an  excellent  olimatc, 
and  it  is  just  possible  that  its  deterioration  may  be  ascribable  to  the  destruction  of 
the  forests. 

The  greatest  variety  of  plants  is  met  with  if  we  ascend  from  the  plains  to  the 
summits  of  the  mountains,  but  taken  as  a  whole  tie  vegetation  is  singularly 
monotonous,  for  the  number  of  plants  capable  of  supporting  such  extremes  of 


Fig.  142.— Thi  Stifph  of  Ifiv  Oabtili. 
Aooordins  to  WUlkomiB.    SoUe  1 : 1,800,000. 


aoUilM. 


temperature  is  naturally  limited.  Herbs  and  shrubs  predominate.  The  thickets 
in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Duero  and  on  the  plateaux  to  the  east  of  the  Tajo  and  the 
Ghiadiana  consist  of  thyme,  lavender,  rosemary,  hyssop,  and  other  aromatic  plants  ; 
on  the  southern  slopes,  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  heaths  with  small  pink  flowers 
predominate ;  vast  areas  in  the  mountains  of  Cuenoa  are  covered  with  Spanish 
broom,  or  esparto ;  and  saline  plants  aboimd  in  the  environs  of  Albaoete.  These 
regions  are  generally  described  as  the  "Steppes  of  Castile,"  though  "deserts" 


g  an  excellent  olimate, 
to  the  destruction  of 

rom  the  plains  to  the 
igetation  is  singularly 
ing  such  extremes  of 


•       it        "^     ^ .      - 


an   /"^[^^iSa^j 


»minate.  The  thickets 
jast  of  the  Tajo  and  the 

other  aromatic  plants ; 
leith  small  pink  flowers 

covered  with  Spanish 
18  of  Albacete,  These 
le,"  though  "deserts" 


THE  CA8TILES.  LEON,  AND  E8TBEMADUBA. 

would,  perhaps,  be  a  more  appropriate  term.  For  miles  around  the  village  of  San 
Giemente  not  a  rivulet,  a  spring,  or  a  tree  is  met  with,  and  the  aspect  of  the 
country  throughout  is  exceedingly  dreary.  The  interminable  plains  of  La  Mancha 
— the  "  dried-up  country  "  of  the  Arabs — adjoin  these  steppes  in  the  west,  and 
there  corn-fields,  vineyards,  and  pasture-grounds  alternate  with  stretches  of  thistles, 
and  the  monotony  is  partly  relieved  by  the  windmills,  with  their  huge  sweeps  slowly 
revolving  overhead.  Estremadura  and  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Morena  are  prinoi- 
pally  covered  with  rock-roses,  and  from  the  summit  of  some  hills  a  carpet  otjaraks, 
bluish  g^reen  or  brown,  according  to  the  season,  extends  as  far  as  the  eye  reaches, 
and  in  spring  is  covered  with  an  abundance  of  white  flowers  resembling  newly 
fallen  snow. 

Woods  arti  met  with  only  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  Oaks  of  various 
species  and  chestnut-trees  occupy  the  lower  zone,  and  conifers  extend  beyond  them 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  trees.  These  latter  likewise  cover  the  vast  tracts  of  shifting 
sands  which  extend  along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Sierra  Guadarrama,  and  are  the 
analogue  of  the  French  landea. 

The  remains  of  the  ancient  forests  still  shelter  wild  animals.  In  the  beginning 
of  this  century  bears  were  numerous  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cantxbrian 
Mountains ;  the  thickets  of  Guadarrama,  GrMos,  and  Gata  still  harbour  wolves, 
lynxes,  wild  cats,  foxes,  and  even  wild  goats.  Deer,  hares,  and  other  g^ame  abound. 
The  oak  forests  are  haunted  by  wild  boars  of  immeueie  size  and  strength.  Before 
the  downfall  of  Islam  it  was  thought  meritorious  to  keep  large  herds  of  pigs,  and 
a  traveller  who  visits  the  remote  villages  of  Leon,  Yalladolid,  and  Upper  Estrema- 
dura will  find  that  this  ancient  custom  still  survives.  The  black  hogs  of  Trujillo 
and  Montanchez  are  famous  throughout  Spain  for  their  excellent  hams. 

The  country  offers  great  facilities  for  the  breeding  of  sheep  and  cattle ;  there 
are,  however,  several  districts  which  are  admirably  suited  to  the  production  of  cereals. 
The  Tierra  de  Campos,  in  the  basin  of  the  Duero,  is  one  of  them.  It  owes  its 
fertility  to  a  subterranean  reservoir  of  water,  as  do  also  the  mesa  of  Ocana  and 
other  districts  in  the  upper  basins  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana,  which  are  arid  only 
in  appearance.  The  vine  flourishes  on  stony  soil,  and  yields  excellent  wine,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  olive-tree,  which  constitutes  the  wealth  of  the 
Campo  de  Calatrava.  Agricultural  -^  arsuits  would  thus  appear  to  ofier  great 
advantages;  and  if  thousands  of  acres  are  still  allowed  to  lie  fallow,  if  nomad 
habits  still  predominate,  this  is  owing  to  sloth,  force  of  habit,  the  existence  of 
feudal  customs,  and  sometimes,  perhaps,  to  discouragement  produced  by  seasons 
of  drought. 

Most  of  the  herds  of  merinos  are  obliged  to  traverse  nearly  half  Spain  in 
search  of  the  food  they  require.  Each  herd  of  about  10,000  sheep  is  placed 
in  charge  of  a  mayoral,  assisted  by  rabadanes  in  charge  of  detachments  of  from 
1,000  to  1,200  animals.  The  shepherds  and  sheep  of  B&lia,  in  Leon,  are  reputed 
to  be  the  best.  In  the  beginning  of  April  the  merinos  leave  their  pasture-grounds 
in  Andalusia,  La  Mancha,  and  Estremadura  for  the  north,  where  they  pass  the 
summer,  returning  in  September  to  the  south.     It  may  readily  be  imagined  that 


I 


.':,* 


886 


SPAIN. 


thcHe  wandering  herds  do  miinh  datii^'i^  to  the  fields  through  which  they  puHs, 
even  though  the  privileges  of  the  ctheop'breedors  were  abrogated  in  a  large  measure 
in  1836.  iSpain,  however,  in  spite  of  every  advantage  offered  by  nature,  is  obliged 
now  to  import  sheep  from  abroad  to  improve  its  flocks.  Mules,  too,  which  aro 
almost  indispensable  in  so  stony  u  country,  are  imported  from  prance.  Cameln, 
lamas,  and  kangaroos  have  been  introduced,  but  their  number  has  never  huxitx 
large,  and  the  fauna  as  well  as  the  flora  of  the  Oastiles  bears  the  stamp  of  monotony. 


As  is  the  land  so  are  its  inhitbitants.  The  men  of  Leon  and  the  Oastiles  aro 
grave,  curt  of  speech,  majestic  in  their  gait,  and  of  even  temper.  Even  in  their 
amusements  they  carry  themselves  with  dignity,  and  those  amongst  them  who 
respect  the  traditions  of  the  good  old  time  regulate  every  movement  in  (icoordance 
with  a  most  irksome  etiquette.  The  Oastilian  is  haughty  in  the  extreme,  and  Yo 
soy  Caatellano  !  cuts  short  every  further  explanation.  He  recognises  no  superiors, 
but  treats  his  fellows  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality.  A  foreigner  who  mix's 
for  the  first  time  in  a  crowd  at  Madrid  or  elsewhere  in  the  Oastiles  cannot  fail 
in  being  struck  by  the  natural  freedom  with  which  rich  and  poor  converse  with 
each  other. 

The  Oastilian,  thanks  to  his  tenacious  courage  and  the  central  position  he 
occupies,  has  become  the  master  of  Spain,  but  he  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  the 
master  in  his  own  capital.  Madrid  is  the  great  centre  of  attraction  of  the  entire 
peninsula,  and  its  streets  are  crowded  with  provincials  from  every  part  of 
Spain.  This  invasion  of  the  capital,  and  of  the  Oastiles  generally,  is  explained  by 
the  sparseness  of  the  population  of  the  plateaux,  a  sparseness  not  so  much  due  to 
the  natural  sterility  of  the  country  as  to  political  and  social  causes.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  Oastiles  formerly  supported  a  much  denser  population  than 
they  do  now,  but  the  towns  of  the  valleys  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana  have  shrunk 
into  villages,  and  the  river,  which  was  formerly  navigable  as  far  as  Toledo,  is  so 
no  longer,  either  because  its  volume  is  less  now  than  it  used  to  be,  or  because  its 
floods  are  no  longer  regulated.  Estremadura,  at  present  one  of  the  poorest 
provinces  of  Spain,  supported  a  dense  population  in  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
who  founded  there  the  Oolonia  Augusta  Emerita,  which  became  the  largest  town 
of  Iberia.  During  the  dominion  of  the  Moors,  too,  Estremadura  }*ielded  bounteous 
harvests,  but  the  old  cities  have  disappeared,  and  the  fields  are  now  covered  with 
furse,  broom,  and  rock-roses. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Moors  no  doubt  contributed  towards  the  decay  of  these 
once  fertile  regions,  but  the  principal  cause  must  be  looked  for  in  the  growth  of 
feudal,  military  and  ecclesiastical  institutions,  which  robbed  the  cultivator  of  the 
fruits  of  his  labours.  Subsequently,  when  Oortez,  Pizarro,  and  other  tonquistadores 
performed  their  prodigious  exploits  in  the  I^ew  World,  tht^y  attracted  the  enter- 
prising youth  of  th^  province.  The  peaceable  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  held  in 
contempt,  fields  remained  untilled,  and  40,000  nomadic  shepherds  took  possession 
of  the  country.  It  is  thus  the  JEatrem^os  became  what  they  are,  the  "  Indians" 
of  the  nation. 


augh  which  they  pns^ 
ated  in  a  large  meastiro 
Bd  by  nature,  is  obliged 
Mules,  too,  which  urc 
Tom  prance.  Camels, 
umber  has  never  btien 
the  stamp  of  monotony. 

on  and  the  Castiles  aro 
temper.  Even  in  their 
ose  amongst  them  who 
novement  in  (locordanco 
in  the  extreme,  and  Yo 
recognises  no  superiors, 
A  foreigner  who  mix's 
the  Oastiles  cannot  fail 
and  poor  converse  with 

the  central  position  he 
ardly  be  said  to  be  the 

attraction  of  the  entire 
als  from  every  part  of 
enerally,  is  explained  by 
ness  not  so  much  due  to 
Doial  causes.  There  can 
L  denser  population  than 
iie  Guadiana  have  shrunk 
le  as  far  as  Toledo,  is  so 
ised  to  be,  or  because  its 
sent  one  of  the  poorest 
be  time  of  the  Romans, 
became  the  largest  town 
nadura  pelded  bounteous 
lids  are  now  covered  with 

>ward8  the  decay  of  these 
ked  for  in  the  growth  of 
bed  the  cultivator  of  the 
},  and  other  conquistadores 
thty  attracted  the  enter- 
n  of  the  soil  was  held  in 
ihepherds  took  posseesion 
they  are,  the  " Indians" 


THE  0A8TILES.  LEON,  AND  E8T11EMAUURA. 


887 


This  decrease  of  population  was  unfortunately  attended  by  a  return  towards 
barbarism.  Throe  hundred  years  ago  the  region  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  de  Ouudarrama  was  famous  for  its  industry.  The  linen  and  cloth  of  Avila, 
Medina  del  Oampo,  and  Segovia  were  known  throughout  Europe;  Burgos  and 
Aranda  del  Duero  were  the  seats  of  commerce  and  industry;  and  Medina  de 
Rio  Seco  was  known  as  "  Little  India,"  on  account  of  the  wealth  displayed  at  its 
fairs.  But  misgovemment  led  to  the  downfall  of  these  industries,  the  country 
became  depopulated,  and  its  ancitnt  culture  dwindled  to  a  thing  of  the  past.  At  the 
famous  university  of  Salamanca  the  g^eat  discoveries  of  Newton  and  Harvey  were 
still  ignored  at  the  close  of  last  century  as  being  "  contrary  to  revealed  religion," 
and  the  lower  classes  grovelled  in  the  most  beastly  superstitions. 

In  this  very  province  of  Salamanca,  close  to  the  Feiia  de  Francia,  exist  the 
"  barbarous "  Batueoas,  who  are  charged  with  not  being  able  to  distinguish 
the  seasons.  Nor  are  the  inhabitants  of  other  remote  mountnin  districts  of 
the  Oastiles  what  wt;  should  call  civilised.  Amongst  these  may  be  noticed  the 
charroa  of  Salamarw  a  and  the  famous  maragatos  of  Astorgu,  most  of  them 
muleteers.     The"  intermarry  amongst  themselves,  and  are  looked  upon  as 

the  lineal  desceuu,.ut8  of  some  ancient  tribe  of  Iberia.  The  suggestion  that 
they  are  a  mixed  I'ace  of  Visigoths  and  Moors  is  not  deserving  of  attention, 
for  neither  in  their  dress  nor  in  their  manners  do  they  remind  us  of  Mussulmans. 
They  wear  loose  trousers,  cloth  gaiters  fastened  below  the  knee,  a  short  and 
close-fitting  coat,  a  leather  belt,  a  frill  round  the  neck,  and  a  felt  hat  with  a 
broad  brim.  They  are  tall  and  strong,  but  wiry  and  angular.  Their  taci- 
turnity is  extreme,  and  they  neither  laugh  nor  sing  when  driving  before  them 
their  beasts  of  burden.  It  is  difficult  to  excite  their  passion,  but,  once  roused, 
they  become  ferocious.  Their  honesty  is  above  suspicion,  and  they  may  be  safely 
trusted  with  the  most  valuable  goods,  which  they  will  defend  against  every 
attack,  for  they  are  brave,  and  skilled  in  the  use  of  arms.  Whilst  the  men 
traverse  the  whole  of  Spain  as  carriers  of  merchandise,  the  women  till  the  soil, 
which,  being  arid  and  rocky,  yields  but  a  poor  harvest. 

The  vicissitudes  of  history  explain  the  existence  of  numerous  towns  in  the 
Castiles  which  can  boast  of  having  been  the  capital  of  the  country  at  one  time  or 
other.  Numantia,  the  most 'ancient  of  all  those  cities,  exists  no  longer,  and  the 
learned  are  not  yet  agreed  whether  the  ruins  discovered  near  the  decayed  town  of 
Soria  are  the  remains  of  the  walls  demolished  by  Soipio  iBmilianus.  But  there  are 
several  cities  of  great  antiquity  which  possess  some  importance  even  at  the  present 
day.  Leon  is  one  of  these.  It  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  Roman  legion 
{septima  gemina),  and  its  name,  in  reality  a  corruption  of  kgio,  ia  supposed  to  be 
symbolized  by  the  lions  placed  in  its  coat  of  arms.  Leon  was  one  of  the  first 
places  of  importance  taken  from  the  Moors.  Its  old  walls  art  in  ruins  now,  and 
the  bcuiutiful  cathedral  has  been  transformed  into  a  clumsy  cube.  Astorga,  the 
"  magnificent  city  "  of  Asturica  Augusta,  has  fallen  even  lower  than  Leon,  whilst 
Palenoia  (the  ancient  Pallantia)  still  enjoys  a  certain  measure  of  prosperity,  owing 


I 


SM  SPAIN. 

to  its  favourable  geographical  position  at  the  Pisuerga,  which  has  caused  it  to 
be  selected  as  one  of  the  great    ailway  centres  of  the  peninsula. 

Burgos,  the  former  capital  of  Old  Oastile,  points  proudly  to  its  gruoefUl  oatho* 
dral  and  other  ancient  buildings,  but  its  streets  are  nearly  deserted,  and  the  crowds 
which  congregate  occasionally  in  the  churohos,  hotels,  or  at  the  railway  station 
are  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  beggars.  In  the  cathedral  are  preserved 
numerous  relics,  and  the  Cid,  whose  legendary  birthplace,  Bivar,  is  near,  lies  buriod 
in  it. 

Valladolid,  the  Belad  Walid  of  the  Moors,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  all  Spain, 
enjoys  a  more  favourable  geographical  position  than  Bdrgos.     It  lies  on  the  Lower 


Fig.  143.— Saumanoa  AMD  in  Dupoblaoos. 
1 1  :  lOO^OOO. 


•  SKUm. 


Pisuerga,  where  that  river  enteis  the  broad  plain  of  the  Puero,  at  an  elevation 
of  less  than  600  feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  numerous  factories,  conduct 
by  Catalans,  and  the  city  boasti,  like  Bdrgos,  of  many  curious  buildings  and 
historical  reminiscences.  The  houses  in  which  Columbus  died  and  Cervantes 
bom  are  still  shown,  as  is  the  beautiful  monastery  of  San  Pablo,  in  which  reside 
Torquemada,  the  monk,  who  condemned  8,000  heretics  to  die  at  the  stake.  Th^ 
castle  of  Sim&ncas,  where  the  precious  archives  of  Spain  are  kept,  is  near  thil 
city. 

Descending  tiie  Duero,  we  pass  Toro,  and  then  reach  Zomora,  the  "  goodlj 
walls  "  of  wbich  proved  such  an  obstacle  to  the  Moors.  Zamora,  though  on  th| 
direct  line  between  Oporto  and  continental  Europe,  is  an  out-of-the-way  place 


<«a» 


which  has  caused  it  to 
Itiula. 

]ly  to  its  graceftU  oatho- 

Ideaerted,  and  the  crowd* 

ir  at  the  railway  atation 

I  cathedral  are  preservod 

Uvar,  ia  near,  liea  buried 

the  capital  of  all  Spain, 
M.    It  lies  on  the  Lower 


■    '  -m-r- 

sJh*"      ^ 

sfe^ 

^^% 

^^p 

r-rl^^E 

MjLhMw '''yj^^ 

Kj'  \J  I    -^'l^^^ 

^K 

he  Puero,  at  an  elevation 
erous  factories,  conducted 
ny  curious  buildings  and 
us  died  and  Oerrantes  was 
in  Pablo,  in  which  resided 
to  die  at  the  stake.  The 
iin  are  kept,  is  near  this 

aoh  Zamora,  the  "  goodly 

Zamora,  though  on  the 

n  out-of-the-way  place  at 


*.;:— ^ 


'^^'  ^^^  ^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


Uilli    125 
^  Ufi    12.0 


«' 


Photographic 

Sdsices 

Corporation 


<«^ 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRHT 

WltSTII,N.Y.  14510 

(716)S72-4S03 


CIHM/ICMH 


Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


%' 


Canadian  Inttituta  for  Historical  IMicroraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductiona  historiquaa 


^ 


©1984 


\ 


THE  CA8TILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTREMADUBA. 


889 


present,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  famous  city  of  Salamanca,  on  the 
Tormes,  to  the  south  of  it. 

Salamanca,  the  Salmantica  of  the  Romans,  succeeded  to  Palencia^as  the  seat  of 
a  university,  and  during  the  epoch  of  the  Renaissance  was  described  as  the  "  mother 
of  virtues,  sciences,  and  arts,"  and  the  "  Rome  of  the  Castiles."     It  still  deserves 
the  latter  epithet,  because  of  its  magnificent  bridge  built  by  Trajan,  and  the  beau- 
Fig.  144.— The  Alcazab  of  Skoovia. 


tiful  edifices  dating  bock  to  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.     Its  intellectual 
superiority,  however,  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Ar^valo,  and  the  famous  town  of  Medina  del  Campo,  to  the  norUi-east  of  Sala- 
manca, carry  on  a  considerable  trade  with  com.  Avila  ooonjnes  an  isolated  hillock 
on  the  banks  of  the  Adaja,  to  the  north  of  the  Sierra  de  Grades.  Avila  still  preserves 
its  turreted  walls  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  its  fortress-like  cathedral  is  a  marvel 
I  of  architecture.    There  are  also  curious  sculptures  of  aninuds,  which  are  ascribed 

88 


/ 


890 


SPAIN. 


«■' 


I 


t 


I 


to  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  Similar  works  of  rude  art  in  the 
vicinity  are  known  as  the  "  bulls  of  Guisando,"  from  a  village  in  the  Sierra  de 
GrWos. 

Segovia  the  "  circumspect "  is  situated  on  an  affluent  of  the  Duero,  like 
Avila,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Sierra  de  Ghiadarrama.  Its  turreted 
walls  rise  on  a  scarped  rock,  supposed  to  resemble  a  ship.    On  the  poop  of  this 

Fig.  146.— Toledo. 


ix 


fancied  ship,  high  above  the  oonfluence  of  Clamores  and  Eresma,  rise  the  ruins  of 
the  Moorish  Alcazar,  whilst  the  cathedral,  in  the  centre  of  the  oit}',  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  mainmast.  A  beautiful  aqueduct  supplies  Segovia  with  the  clear 
waters  of  the  Guadarraioia.  It  is  the  finest  Roman  work  of  this  class  in  Iberia,  and 
&r  superior  to  the  royal  palace  of  San  Ildefonso  cr  De  la  Granja,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  city. 
.  Toledo  is  the  most  famous  city  to  the  south  of  the  great  rampart  formed  by  the 


[ 


t  rampart  formed  by  the 


mit 


THE  OASTILEa.  LEON,  AND  E8TBEMADURA. 


891 


Sierras  of  Guadurrama,  Gr^dos,  and  Gata.  This  is  the  Citulad  Im})eriul,  the 
"  mother  of  cities,"  the  coronet  of  Spain  and  the  light  of  the  world,  as  it  was 
called  by  Juan  de  Padilla,  the  most  famous  of  its  sons.  Tradition  tells  us  that  it 
existed  long  before  Hercules  founded  Segovia,  and,  like  Rome,  it  stands  upon  seven 
hills.  Toledo,  with  its  gates,  towers,  Moorish  and  mediaoval  buildings,  is  indeed  a 
beautiful  city,  and  its  cathedral  is  of  dazzling  richness.  But,  for  all  this,  Toledo  is 
u  decayed  place,  and  its  famous  armourers'  shops  have  been  swamped  by  a 
Government  manufactory. 

Talavera  de  la  Reina,  below  Toledo,  on  the  Tajo,  still  possesses  some  of  its 
ancient  manufactures  of  silk  and  faience.  Puente  del  Arzobispo  and  the  other 
towns  on  the  Tajo  are  hardly  more  now  than  large  villages.  The  bridge  of  Almar&z 
crosses  tlie  river  far  away  from  any  populous  town,  and  the  old  Roman  bridge 
of  Alcondtar  exists  no  longer.  Alo&ntara, — that  is,  the  bridge, — near  the  Por- 
tuguese frontier,  still  remains  a  monument  of  the  architectural  skill  of  the 
Romans.  It  was  completed  in  the  year  105,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and  its 
architect,  Lacer,  appears  to  have  been  a  Spaniard.  Its  centre  is  at  an  elevation 
of  160  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the  Tajo,  the  floods  of  which  rise  occasionally 
to  the  extent  of  a  hundred  feet. 

All  the  great  towns  of  Estremadura  lie  at  some  distance  from  the  Tajo,  and 
its  great  volume  of  water  has  hitherto  hardly  been  utilised  for  purposes  of 
irrigation  or  navigation.  On  a  fertile  hill  nearly  twenty  miles  to  the  north  of 
this  river,  the  old  town  of  Plasenoia  may  be  seen  bounded  in  the  distance  by 
mountains  frequently  covered  with  snow.  C&oeres  is  about  the  same  distance 
to  the  south,  as  is  also  Trujillo,  which  received  such  vast  wealth  from  the  con- 
querors of  Peru,  but  is  now  dependent  upon  its  pigs  and  herds  of  cattle. 

The  position  of  those  towns  of  Estremadura  which  lie  on  the  banks  of  the 
Guadiana  is  more  favourable.  Badajoz,  close  to  the  Spanish  frontier,  has  lost  its 
ancient  importance  as  a  fortress  since  it  became  a  place  of  commerce  on  the  only 
railway  which  as  yet  joins  Spain  to  Portugal.  M^rida,  on  the  same  railway,  is 
richer  in  Roman  monuments  than  any  other  town  of  Spain,  for  there  are  a 
triumphal  arch,  the  remains  of  an  aqueduct,  an  amphitheatre,  a  naumacby,  baths, 
and  an  admirable  bridge  of  eig\<  '  granite  arches,  2,600  feet  in  length;  but  in 
population  it  is  ^t  inferior. to  Dc>'  Benito,  a  town  hardly  mentioned  in  history, 
higher  up  the  Guadiana,  at  the  edge  of  the  vast  plain  of  La  Serena.  It  was  founded 
in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  together  with  its  neighbour, 
Villanueva  de  la  Serena,  derives  its  wealth  from  the  fertility  of  the  surrounding 
country.  Its  fruits,  and  particularly  its  water-melons,  are  much  esteemed.  The 
plains  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadiana  abound  in  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is 
exported  to  France  and  England. 

The  towns  of  La  Mancha  are  of  no  historical  note,  and  the  province  owes 
its  celebrity  almost  exclusively  to  Cervantes'  creation,'  the  incomparable  "Don 
Quixote."  Ciudad  Real,  an  industrious  place  formerly  ;  Almagro,  known  for  its 
point-lace ;  Daimiel,  near  which  stood  the  principal  castle  of  the  military  order  of 
Calatrava;  Ifanzanares ;  and  other  towns  are  important  principally  because  of  their 


892 


SPAIN. 


trade  in  com  and  wine.  Almaden, — that  ii,  "the  mine," — in  a  valley  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Sicrru  Morena,  has  become  famous  through  its  cinnubur 
mineH,  which  for  moro  than  threes  centuries  supplied  the  New  World  with 
mercury,  and  still  yield  about  1,200  tons  annually. 


' 


Fig.  146.— Madrid  and  its  EiiviROMi. 
Sou*  1 :  900,000. 


.SMOm. 


Eastern  Castile,  being  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea- level,  and 
having  a  rugged  surface,  cannot  support  a  population  more  dense  ihan  either  La 
Mancha  or  Estremadura.  There  are  but  few  towns  of  note,  and  even  the  capital, 
Cuenoa,  is  hardly  more  than  a  third-rate  provincial  city.    Picturesquely  perched 


THI-J  CASTlLEfl.  LEON.  AND  ESTREMADURA. 


808 


n  a  vttlloy  on  the 
rough  its  cinnuhur 
New  World  with 


r 


I 


ove  the  sea-level,  aad 

dense  than  either  La 

J,  and  even  the  capital, 

Picturesquely  perched 


upon  a  steep  rock  overhanging  the  deep  gorges  of  the  Huecar  und  Jiinur,  it  merely 
lives  in  the  past.  The  only  other  towns  of  note  in  thut  part  of  the  country  uro 
(iuao..iajttra,  with  a  Roman  acqueduct,  and  Alcal4,  the  native  place  of  Cervantes 
und  seat  of  an  ancient  university,  which  at  one  time  saw  10,000  students  within  its 
wiiUs.  Both  these  towns  are  situated  on  the  Henaros,  a  tributary  of  the  Tujo, 
und  either  would  have  been  fit  to  become  the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 

Indeed,  at  the  first  glance,  it  almost  appears  us  if  Madrid  owed  its  existence  to 
tho  caprice  of  a  king.  It  has  no  river,  for  the  Manzanares  is  merely  a  torrent,  its 
climate  is  abominable,  and  its  environs  present  fewer  advantages  than  those  of 
Toledo,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Romans  and  Visigoths.  But  once  having  been 
Helectod  us  the  capital,  Madrid  could  not  fail  to  rise  in  importance,  for  it  occupies  a 
central  position  with  respect  to  all  other  towns  outside  the  basin  of  the  Upper  Tujo. 
Pinto  {Punctum),  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  Madrid,  is  popularly  supposed  to 
be  the  mathematical  centre  of  the  peninsula ;  and  thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  plain 
bounded  in  the  north  by  the  Sierra  de  Ouadarramu  forms  the  natural  nucleus  of 
tho  country,  and  is  traversed  by  its  great  natural  highways. 

Toledo  occupies  a  position  almost  equally  central.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
country  during  the  reign  of  the  Romans,  and  subsequently  became  the  capital  of 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  and  of  the  kings  of  the  Visigoths,  and  retained  that 
position  until  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Moors.  During  the  struggles  between 
Moors  and  Christians  the  latter  shifted  their  capital  from  place  to  place,  according 
to  the  varying  fortunes  of  the  war,  but  no  sooner  had  the  former  been  expelled 
from  Cordova  than  the  Christian  kings  again  established  themselves  in  the  plain 
to  the  south  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama.  They  had  then  to  chose  between  Toledo 
and  Madrid.  Toledo  no  doubt  offered  superior  advantages,  but  its  citizens  having 
joined  the  insurrection  of  the  eomunerot  against  Charles  V.,  the  Emperor-king  decided 
in  favour  of  Madrid.  Philip  III.  endeavoured  to  remove  the  capital  to  Valladolid, 
but  the  natural  attractions  of  Madrid  proved  too  strong  for  him,  and  the  schools, 
museums,  public  buildings,  and  manufactories  which  have  arisen  in  the  latter  since 
then  must  for  ever  insure  it  a  preponderating  position.  The  railways,  which  now 
join  Madrid  to  the  extremities  of  the  peninsula,  countervail  the  disadvantages 
of  its  immediate  neighbourhood ;  and  although  the  purest  Castilian  is  spoken  at 
Toledo,  it  is  Madrid  which,  through  its  press,  has  insured  the  preponderance  of  that 
idiom  throughout  Spain.  Madrid  has  long  been  in  advance  of  all  other  cities  of  the 
peninsula  as  regards  political  activity,  industry,  and  commerce,  but  its  growth 
having  taken  place  during  a  period  devoid  of  art,  it  is  inferior  to  other  towns  with 
respect  to  the  character  of  its  public  buildings.  The  museums,  however,  are 
amongst  the  richest  in  Eurqpe,  and  make  it  a  second  Florence.  Immediately 
outside  the  public  promenades  of  the  Prado  and  Buen  Retire  we  find  our- 
selves in  a  desolate  country  covered  with  flints,  and  this  must  be  crossed  by 
a  traveller  desirous  of  visiting  the  delightful  gardens  of  Aranjuez,  the  huge 
Escorial  built  by  Philip  II.,  or  the  villas  in  the  wooded  valleys  of  the  Sierra  de 
Guadarrama.  These  latter  supply  Madrid  with  water,  as  the  neighbouring  moim- 
tains  do  with  ice.    Formerly  one  of  the  most  secluded  of  these  valleys  became 


HPAIN. 


L 


fliu  Hout  of  u  iiio<;k-kin(f<tuiii,  nominully  indopondniit  of  the  Kingi  of  Gustilc 
During  tlio  Muoriah  invuiiioii  thu  inhuhituiits  of  tho  plain  of  Jariirou  had  nought 
abuUer  in  tho  mountuiui,  and  the  ruat  of  thu  world  forgot  uU  about  thorn.  Thoy 
cullod  thomMilvoH  i'ntoncH,  and  uloctcd  an  hereditary  king.  About  the  middle  of 
tho  Bovonteonth  century  tho  lunt  of  tho  lino,  by  trudo  a  currior,  aiirrondered  )ii> 
wund  of  authority  into  thu  hundn  of  u  royal  otHuer,  und  the  valley  waa  placed 
under  the  juriwlictiuu  of  the  uuthoritiea  ui  IToeda.* 

III. — ANDALiraiA.t 

Andai.uhia  embraces  the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir,  together  with 
aome  adjoining  diatriota.    It  ia  bounded  in  the  north  by  the  Sierra  Morena,  which 


Piff.  147.— Aranjum. 

RmI*  1  :  7ft,000, 


Mil*. 


in  the  direction  of  Portugal  becomes  a  rugg^  mountain  district  of  crystalline 
formation  intersected  by  tortuous  rayines,  and  rising  in  the  Sierra  de  Aracena, 
north  of  the  mining  region  of  the  Rio  Tinto,  to  a  height  of  6,500  feet.  Farther 
east  the  Sierra  Morena  ascends  in  terraces  above  the  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
and  on  its  reverse  slope  we  meet  with  districts,  such  as  that  of  Los  Fedroohes 
(1,650  feet),  hardly  less  monotonous  of  aspect  than  the  plains  of  La  Mancha.    The 

*  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Costiles  (1870)  :—0U  Gattik :  V  tdolid,  60,000 ;  Bfirgoa, 
14,000;  Salamanca,  13,600;  Palencia,  13,000;  Zamora,  9,000;  Segovia,  7,000;  Leon,  7,000;  Avila,  6,000 
Ntw  CuttiU:  Madrid,  332,000;  Toledo,  17,600;  Almagro,  14,000;  Daimiel,  13,000;  Ciudad  Real, 
12,000;  Yal  de  PeAas,  11,000;  Almaden,  9,000;  Manzanares,  9,000;  Guenca,  7,000;  Talavera  de  la 
Rej'na,  7,600 ;  Ouadalajara,  6,000.  Ettrtwutdura :  Badajoz,  22,000 ;  Don  Benito,  16,000 ;  C&ceree,  12,000 
Villanueva  de  la  Serena,  8,000 ;  Plaaencia,  6,000 ;  M£rida,  6,000. 

t  Area  of  the  basin  of  the  Quadalquivir,  21,000  square  miles ;  area  of  Andalusia,  28,370  square  miles 
population  (1870),  2,749,629;  density,  91. 


ANDAMISIA. 


806 


tho  King!  of  Ouatilc, 
of  Jariimu  had  Huu^ht 
ill  about  thorn.  They 
About  the  iniddlo  of 
urriiT,  Burrondored  lii^ 
tho  valley  wan  pluccHl 


alquivir,  together  with 
I  Sierra  Morena,  which 


district  of  crystalline 
he  Sierra  de  Araoena, 
f  5,600  feet.  Farther 
ly  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
that  of  Los  Pedroohes 
18  of  La  Mancha.    The 

Y  tdolid,  60,000 ;  B6rgoa, 
0;  Leon,  7,000;  ivila,  6,000. 
miel,  13,000;  Ciudad  Real, 
enca,  7,000 ;  Talavera  de  la 
lito,  16,000 ;  C&ceree,  12,000  ; 

idaluaia,  28,370  square  miles ; 


I'unta  de  Alinonaru  (.'i,J)2()  feet),  in  the  Sierra  do  AlcurAz,  in  tho  oxtrutne  cuMt,  may 
bt<  looked  u|K)n  as  tho  culminating  pint  of  thin  niorra,  vthuh  i»  indebted  for  its 
name  of  "  Hluck  Mountain  "  to  the  sombro  pint's  which  clothe  its  hIo|M!h. 

The  lint)  of  wutur-parting  does  not  pans  through  the  highest  summits  of 
this  range.  Most  of  the  rivers  rise  on  tho  plateau,  und  take  their  course,  by 
pictures<]ue  gorges,  right  through  the  heart  of  tho  mountains.  Tho  most  famous 
of  these  gorges  is  that  of  Despeilaperros  (2,444  feet),  loading  from  the  dreary 
plains  of  Lu  Manoha  to  tho  smiling  valley  of  Andalusia.  This  pass  ban  played  a 
greot  part  in  every  war.     At  its  foot  was  fought  in  1212  tho  fearful  l)attlo  of 

Fig,  M8.— Till  Uakinn  of  (li'Ai)UNA  and  OuAnALQiriVIH. 
Heals  t  ;  H,nn(),iion. 


>?  V ; 


'  60  Miles. 


Navas  do  Tolosa,  in  which  more  than  200,000  Mussulmans  are  said  to  have  been 
slaughtered. 

The  mountains  which  shut  in  the  basin  of  Andalusia  on  the  east  are  cat  up 
by  deep  river  gorges  into  several  distinct  masses  or  chains,  of  which  the  Calar 
del  Mundo  (5,437  feet),  Yelmo  de  Segura  (5,925  feet),  and  Sierra  Sagra  (7,675 
feet)  are  the  principal.  The  southern  mountain  ranges  uniformly  extend  from  east 
to  west.  From  north  to  south  we  cross  in  succession  the  Sierras  de  Maria  (6,690 
feet),  de  las  Esf^ncias,  and  de  los  Filabres  (6,283  feet),  so  famous  for  its  marbles. 
In  the  west  the  latter  two  ranges  join  the  Sierra  de  Baza  (6,236  feet),  itself  attached 
to  the  great  culminating  range  of  Iberia,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  by  a  saddle  of  incon- 
siderable height  (2,950  feet). 


SPAIN. 


The  Sierra  Nevada  consists  mainly  of  schists,  through  which  eruptions  of 
serpentine  and  porphyry  have  taken  place.  The  area  it  occupies  is  small,  but 
from  whatever  side  we  approach  it  rises  precipitously,  and  the  eye  can  trace  the 
succeeding  zones  of  vegetation  up  to  that  of  perennial  snows  pierced  by  the  peaks 
of  Mulahacen  (11,661  feet),  Ficacho  de  la  Yeleta  (11,386  feet),  and  Alcazaba 
(7,590  feet).  Vines  and  olive-trees  clothe  the  foot-hills;  to  these  succeed  walnut- 
trees,  then  oaks,  and  finally  a  pale  carpet  of  turf  hidden  beneath  snow  for  six 

Fig.    149. — ThI   Fa»B   of   DuPBITAPRHBOg. 


months.  Masses  of  snow  accumulate  in  sheltered  hoUows,  and  these  ■^ventiaqmros, 
rentiacas,  or  snow-drifts,  supply  Granada  with  ice.  In  the  Cotral  de  la  Vekta  there 
even  exists  a  true  glacier,  which  gives  birth  to  the  river  Genii,  and  is  tb^  most 
southerly  in  all  Europe.  The  more  extensive  glaciers  of  a  former  age  have 
disa{^)eared  long  ago.  To  the  piirliug  streams  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  sierra  the 
Yega  of  Granada  owes  its  rich  verdure,  its  flowers,  and  its  excellent  fruits,  and  the 
delightful  valley  of  Lecrin  its  epithet  of  "  Paradise  of  the  Alpujarras." 


rumiiiiiHiHilllllfltirli' 


•WMWMa 


ANDALUSIA. 


897 


which  eruptions  of 
supies  is  small,  but 
B  eye  can  trace  the 
derced  by  the  peaks 
feet),  and  Alcazaba 
lese  succeed  walnut- 
meath  snow  for  six 


No  other  district  of  Spain  so  forcibly  reminds  us  of  the  dominion  of  the  Moors. 
The  principal  summit  is  named  after  a  Moorish  prince.  On  the  Picaoho  they  lit  a 
beacon  on  the  approach  of  a  Christian  army,  and  in  the  Alpujarras,  on  the 
southern  slope,  they  pastured  their  sheep.  The  Galician  and  Asturian  peasants, 
who  now  occupy  this  district,  are  superior  in  no  respect  to  the  converted  Moori^ 
who  were  permitted  to  remain  at  Ujijar,  the  capital  of  Alpujarras,  when  their 

Fig.  160.— Thb  Sibhra  Nevada  as  ribn  from  Baza. 


-'»"*^'5'*2^SJ,iS>.s""~?-T-. 


-r-—   1  ■ )' 


p^ 


and  these  Ntvn<M;u«ro8, 
mral  de  la  Vekta  there 
^enil,  and  is  th'  most 
of  a  former  age  have 
snows  o£  the  sierra  the 
soellent  fruits,  and  the 
Ipujarras." 


4^: 


•^i 


compatriots  were  driven  forth.     The  natural  riches  of  the  mountains  remain 
undeveloped,  and  they  are  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  detpohladot. 

From  the  Pass  of  Alhedin  (3,300  feet),  between  Gh-anada  and  Alpujarra,  we  look 
down  upon  one  of  the  most  charming  panoramas  of  the  world.  It  was  here  that 
Boabdil,  the  fugitive  Moorish  king,  beheld  for  the  last  time  the  smiling  plains  of 
his  kingdom,  and  hence  the  spot  is  known  as  the  "  Last  Sigh  of  the  Moor,"  or  the 
"Hill  of  Tears."  From  the  highest  summits  of  the  nerra,  however,  the  prospect 
is  exceedingly  grand.  Standing  upon  the  Picaoho  de  la  Vdeta,  we  see  Southern 
99 


ifrwi>^i«^''r 


r 


SPAIN. 


Spain  spread  out  beneath  our  feet,  with  its  fertile  valleys,  rugged  rocks,  and 
russet-coloured  wilds.  Looking  south,  across  the  blue  waters  of  the  Mediterranean, 
the  mountains  of  Barbary  loom  out  in  the  distance,  and  sometimes  we  are  even  able 
to  hear  the  murmuring  of  the  waves  as  they  beat  against  the  coast. 

The  mountains  around  these  grants  of  Granada  are  very  inferior  to  them  in 
height.  The  country  in  the  north,  which  is  bounded  by  the  valleys  of  the  Genii, 
Guadiana  Menor,  and  Guadalquivir,  is  occupied  by  an  upland  intersected  by  deep 
ravines,  and  rising  now  and  then  into  distinct  mountain  chains,  such  as  the  Sierra 
Magina  (7,047  feet)  and  Sierra  de  Jabalcuz,  near  Jaen  (1,800  feet) ;  the  chain 
Alta  Ooloma,  farther  south,  with  its  wild  pass,  Puerto  de  Arenas,  between  Jaen 
and  Granada ;  and  the  Sierra  Susana,  close  to  Granada,  which  extends  westward 
to  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Parapanda,  the  great  prophet  of  the  husbandmen  of 
the  Vegfa  : —    . 

"  Cuando  Parapanda  ae  pone  la  montera,  ' 

Llneve,  aunque  Dios  no  lo  quuiera." 

("  When  Parapanda  pnte  on  hia  cap  it  rains,  though  Ood  may  not  \  iah  it.") 

The  mountains  extending  alonsf  the  coast  are  out  up  by  transverse  valleys  into 
several  distinct  masses.  The  Sierra  de  Gata,  in  the  south-east,  is  a  detached 
mountain  mass,  pierced  by  several  extinct  volcanoes.  Farther  west  rises  the 
Sierra  Alhamilla,  the  torrents  of  which  are  so  rich  in  garnets  that  the  huntsmen 
use  them  instead  of  shot.  Grossing  a  rivulet,  we  reach  the  superb  Sierra  de  C^or 
(7,620  feet),  consisting  of  schists. 

The  Contraviesa  (6,218  feet),  which  separates  the  Alpujarras  from  the  Mediter- 
ra;.ean,  ri8<*o  so  steeply  from  the  coast  that  even  sheep  can  hardly  climb  it.  The 
Sierra  de  Almijara,  beyond  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Guadalfeo,  and  its  western 
continuation,  the  Sierra  de  Alhamd  (7,003  feet),  present  similar  features.  The 
mountains  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pass  of  Al&mate  or  de  los  Alazores  (2,723 
feet)  constitute  the  exterior  rampart  of  an  andent  lake  bed,  bounded  in  the  north 
by  an  irregular  swelling  of  ground  known  as  Sierra  de  T^guas.  The  road  from 
M&laga  to  Antequera  crosses  that  rampart  in  the  &mous  Pass  of  El  Torcal  (4,213 
feet),  the  fantastically  shaped  rooks  of  which  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  ruins 
of  an  extensive  city.  Archaeologists  have  discovered  there  some  of  the  most  curious 
prehistoric  remains  of  Iberia. 

To  the  west  of  the  basin  of  Malaga,  drained  by  the  Guadalhoroe,  the  emissary 
of  the  ancient  lake  referred  to  above,  the  mountains  again  increase  in  height,  and 
in  the  Sierra  de  Tolox  attain  an  elevation  of  6,430  feet.  Snows  remain  here 
throughout  the  winter.  From  the  Tolox  mountain  chains  ramify  in  all  directions. 
The  Sierra  fiermeja  (4,756  feet)  extends  to  the  south-west,  its  steep  promontories 
being  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  sea ;  the  wild  "  Serrania  "  de  Ronda  (6.085  feet) 
extends  westward,  and  is  continued  in  the  mountain  mass  of  San  Oristobal 
(5,627  feet),  which  sends  branches  southward  as  far  as  the  Capes  of  Trafalgar  and 
Tarifa.  The  rock  of  Gibraltar  (1,408  feet),  which  rises  so  proudly  at  the  ent|«nce 
of  the  Mediterranean,  is  a  geological  outlier  attached  to  the  mainland  by  a  strip  of 
sand  thrown  up  by  the  waves  of  the  ooeau. 


lllL-lUJH.Lllj.limu.i.lt«i 


-imi<iwm.)Wj>iiw#'i 


# 


■KMNIWplPI 


),  rugged  rocks,  and 
ji  the  Mediterranean, 
imes  we  are  even  able 
coast. 

'  inferior  to  them  in 
valleys  of  the  Genii, 
1  intersected  hy  deep 
as,  such  as  the  Sierra 
800  feet) ;  the  chain 
Arenas,  hetween  Jaen 
ioh  extends  westward 
>f  the  husbandmen  of 


aot  X  id»  it.") 

transverse  valleys  into 
th-east,  is  a  detached 
artiher  west  rises  the 
its  that  the  huntsmen 
uperb  Sierra  de  Gl&dor 

rras  from  the  Mediter- 
hardly  climb  it.  The 
dalfeo,  and  its  western 
similar  features.  The 
de  los  Alazores  (2,723 
I,  bounded  in  the  north 
iguas.  The  road  from 
188  of  El  Torcal  (4,213 
Bsemblance  to  the  ruins 
ome  of  the  most  curious 

adalhorce,  the  emissary 
increase  in  height,  and 
t.  Snows  remain  here 
ramify  in  all  directions. 
;,  its  steep  promontories 
"  de  Ronda  (5.085  feet) 
mass  of  San  Cristobal 
Capes  of  Trafalgar  and 
proudly  at  the  entrance 
e  mainland  by  a  strip  of 


'&t-„;*j>-3:'Si'-;s 


mmimmmtKltmmiim!»09^ 


\ 


: 


GOSaK  DE  LOS  aAITAHKB,  BBFIUfi  OF  afTADALHOBCB. 


ijNtJiwMIWW^i J-'^'i:' ~ ''''  -'  ■  JL-:-;..-'! J-- 1. ■  r;  f  V' i  r i  n ~T'"~rTi" -—-■-■■-  —-i - -i- — — —  ■■'  ■■  "»""'*>■'  -  <  m. mi ■■  ..i «■> 


9: 


ANDALUSIA. 


Erosion  has  powerfully  affected  the  mountains  occupying  the  country  hetween 
the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir  and  the  coast.  Amongst  the  numerous  river  gorges, 
that  of  the  Gaytanos,  through  which  the  Guadalhorce  flows  from  the  plateau  of 
Antequera  to  the  orange  groves  of  Alora,  is  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  magnifi- 
cent in  all  Spain.  Only  torrents  enter  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  of  the  rivers 
discharging  their  Wi  'ers  into  the  Atlantic  there  is  but  one  which  is  of  some 
importance,  on  account  of  its  great  volume  and  the  facilities  it  offers  for  navigation. 
This  is  the  Guadalquivir,  which  rises  in  the  Sierra  Sagra,  at  an  elevation  of  5,900 
feet  above  the  sea-level.    Having  received  the  Guadalimar,  its  current  becomes 


Hg.  1£1. — Tub  Hovth  op  thm  Ouai>aiaditib. 
Sode  1 :  S00,O0O. 


ilOlM. 


gentle,  and  it  flows  through  a  wide  and  open  valley  thus  differing  essentially 
from  the  rivers  of  the  Oastiles,  which,  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  traverse  narrow 
gorges.  Its  volumo  fairly  entitles  it  to  its  Arab  name  of  Wad-el-Eebir,  or  "  large 
river."  The  geological  work  performed  by  this  river  and  its  tributaries  has  been 
enormons.  Mountain  ramparts  have  been  brokeu  through,  lakes  drained,  and 
immense  quantities  of  toil  spread  over  the  valley.  Nowhere  can  this  work  be 
traced  more  adtan^agdoosly  than  in  the  valley  of  the  Genii  of  Ghunada,  for  the 
fertile  district  of  La  Vega  was  covered  by  a  lake,  the  pent-up  waters  of  which 
opened  themselves  a  passage  near  Loja. 


-wg^eafeajfeiVwaA^ 


'  vi*lli*S'-^'t''i"'^f>i-' 


400 


SPAIN. 


The  estuary  of  the  river  has  been  gradually  filled  up  by  sediment.  The  tide 
ascends  nearly  as  far  as  Seville,  where  the  river  is  about  250  yards  wide.  Below 
that  city  it  passes  through  an  alluvial  tract  known  as  the  marianuu,  ordinarily  a 
dusty  plain  roamed  over  by  half-wild  cattle,  but  converted  by  the  least  rain  into  a 
quagpnire.  Neither  villages  nor  homesteads  are  met  with  here,  but  the  sands 
farther  back  are  covered  with  dwarf  palms,  and  lower  down  a  few  hills  of  tertiary 
formation  approach  close  to  the  river,  their  vine-clad  slopes  affording  a  pleasing 
contrast  to  the  surrounding  solitude. 

A  contraction  of  the  alluvial  valley  marks  the  exterior  limit  of  the  ancient 
estuary  silted  up  by  the  Guadalquivir.  Sanlucar  de  Barrameda,  a  town  of 
oriental  aspect,  stands  on  the  left  bank,  whilst  a  range  of  dunes  intervenes 
between  the  sea  and  the  flat  country  on  the  right  bank.  The  mouth  of  the  river 
is  closed  by  a  bar,  so  that  only  vessels  of  small  draught  can  enter  it.  These 
Arenas  Oordas,  or  "great  sands,"  are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  pineS,  and, 
except  on  their  exterior  face,  they  have  remained  stable  since  the  historical  epoch. 

The  Qiiadalquivir  is  the  only  river  of  Spain  which  is  navigable  for  a  consider- 
able distance  above  its  mouth.  Vessels  of  200  tons  ascend  it  as  far  as  Seville,  a 
distance  of  sixty  miles.  Sanlucar  was  formerly  the  great  port  of  Spain,  and  its 
coasting  trade  is  still  considerable.  None  of  the  other  rivers  of  Andalusia  are 
navigable.  The  Guadalete,  which  enters  the  Bay  of  C&diz,  is  a  shallow,  sluggish 
stream ;  the  Odiel  and  the  Rio  Tinto  are  rapid  torrents,  and  their  estuary,  below 
Uuelva,  has  been  choked  up  by  the  sediment  brought  down  by  them ;  while  Palos, 
so  famous  as  the  port  from  which  Columbus  started  upon  his  g^reat  voyage  of  dis- 
covery, has  dwindled  down  to  a  poor  fishing  village. 

But  what  are  these  changes  compared  with  the  great  revolution  which  joined 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic  P  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  barrier  of 
mountains  separated  the  two  seas.  The  destructive  action  of  the  Atlantic  appears 
to  have  been  facilitated  not  only  by  the  cavernous  nature  of  the  rocks  on 
both  sides  of  the  strait,  but  also  by  the  fifict  of  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean 
having  been  much  lower  at  that  time  than  that  of  the  Atlantic.  Even  now  the 
waters  of  the  latter  sometimes  rush  through  the  strait  with  astounding  velocity 
(see  Fig.  6,  p.  26).  We  cannot  tell  whether  the  strait  has  increased  in  width  during 
historical  times,  for  ancient  g^graphers  are  not  very  precise  in  their  measurements. 
Thus  much,  however,  is  certain,  that  the  general  features  of  the  strait  have  not 
changed,  and  the  two  pillars  of  Hercules,  Calpe  and  Abyla,  may  still  be  recog- 
nised in  modem  Gibraltar  and  Oeuta. 

The  rock  of  Gibraltar  does  not  form  the  southernmost  promontory  of  Iberia,  but, 
being  the  most  striking  object  along  the  strait,  it  has  given  its  name  to  it.  Mariners 
look  upon  it  as  the  true  boundary  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic, 
and  it  has  been  likened,  not  inaptly,  to  a  crouching  lion  guarding  the  gateway 
between  the  two  seas.  It  rises  almost  perpendicularly  on  the  east,  and  the  town, 
with  most  of  the  batteries,  has  been  constructed  on  the  western  slope,  which  is 
more  accessible.  The  famous  rock,  though  a  natural  dependency  of  Spain,  has 
become,  by  right  of  conquest,  one  of  the  great  strongholds  of  England,  and  its 


ANDALUSIA. 


401 


sediment.  The  tide 
)  yards  wide.  Below 
riaristnas,  ordinarily  a 
Y  tbe  least  rain  into  a 
here,  but  the  sands 
a  few  hills  of  tertiary 
9  affording  a  pleasing 

limit  of  the  ancient 
arrameda,  a  town  of 
of  dunes  intervenes 
be  mouth  of  the  river 
can  enter  it.  These 
rered  with  pineA,  and, 
le  the  historical  epoch, 
vigable  for  a  oonsider- 
it  as  far  as  Seville,  a 
port  of  Spain,  and  its 
vers  of  Andalusia  are 
;,  is  a  shallow,  sluggish 
ad  their  estuary,  below 
by  them ;  while  Palos, 
is  great  voyage  of  dis- 

•evolution  which  joined 
ioubt  that  a  barrier  of 
of  the  Atlantic  appears 
ftture  of  the  rocks  on 
si  of  the  Mediterranean 
itlantio.  Even  now  the 
rith  astounding  velocity 
ncreased  in  width  during 
e  in  their  measurements. 
18  of  the  strait  have  not 
l>yla,  may  still  be  recog- 

iromontory  of  Iberia,  but, 
its  name  to  it.  Mariners 
ranean  and  the  Atlantic, 
n  guarding  the  gateway 
a  the  east,  and  the  town, 
)  western  slope,  which  i» 
lependency  of  Spain,  has 
olds  of  England,  and  its 


importance  as  a  fortress  as  well  as  a  place  of  commerce  is  indisputable.  In  its 
caverns  have  been  discovered  stone  implements  and  the  skeletons  of  dolicho- 
cephalous  men. 

The  frequent  intercourse  between  Andalusia  and  the  Berber  countries  on  the 
other  side  of  the  strait  is  explained  by  vicinity  as  well  as  by  similarity  of  climate. 
Algarve,  Huelva,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir,  as  far  as  Seville  and 
Ecija,  that  "  stewing-pan  "  or  "  furnace  "  of  Spain,  is  one  of  the  hottest  districts 
of  Europe,  and  the  coast,  from  Algeoiras  and  Gibraltar  to  Cartagena,  Alicante,  and 
the  Cabo  de  la  N&o,  is  hardly  inferior  to  it.  The  country  around  the  Bay  of 
Cadiz  and  the  hilly  districts  in  the  extreme  south,  which  are  freely  exposed  to  the 
eirazon,  or  sea  breeze,  enjoy  a  more  temperate  climate.  In  the  t^vo  torrid  coast 
regions  delineated  above  frosts  are  hardly  known,  and  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  coolest  month  reaches  54°  F.  The  heat  is  greatest  around  the  bays  exposed 
to  the  full  influence  of  the  hot  African  winds,  and  least  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
where  westerly  breezes  moderate  it.  Contrary  atmospheric  currents  naturally 
meet  in  the  Strait  of  GKbraltar,  where  the  wind  is  generally  high,  and  tempests 
are  frequent  in  winter.  Westerly  winds  prevail  during  winter,  easterly  winds 
in  summer.  The  two  promontories  of  Europe  and  Africa  are  looked  upon  by 
mariners  as  trustworthy  signallers  of  the  weather :  when  they  are  wrapped  in 
clouds  or  mists  rain  and  easterly  winds  may  be  looked  for,  but  when  their  pro- 
files stand  out  clearly  against  the  blue  sky  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  fine  weather  and 
westerly  winds.* 

The  dry  and  semi-tropical  climate  of  Lower  Andalusia  frequently  exercises  a  most 
depressing  influence  upon  Northern  Europeans.  In  the  plain  and  along  the  coast 
it  hardly  ever  rains  during  summer,  and  the  heat  is  sometimes  stifling,  for  the 
trade  winds  of  the  tropics  are  unknown.  At  O&diz  the  land  wind  blowing  from 
the  direction  of  Medina  Sidonia,  and  hence  known  as  medina,  is  suffocating,  and 
quarrels  and  even  murders  are  said  to  occur  most  frequently  whilst  it  lasts.  But 
the  most  dreaded  wind  is  the  aolano  or  levante,  which  is  hot  as  the  blast  from  a 
furnace.  A  curious  vapour,  known  as  calina,  then  appears  on  the  southern 
horizon,  the  air  is  filled  with  dust,  leaves  vrither,  and  sometimes  birds  drop  in 
their  flight  as  if  suffocated. 

In  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  summer  is  the  season  of  flowers  and  foliage, 
but  in  Andalusia  it  is  that  of  aridity  and  death.  Except  in  gardens  and  irrigated 
fields  all  vegetation  shrivels  up  and  assumes  a  greyish  tint  like  .that  of  the  soil. 
But  when  the  equinoctial  autumn  rains  fall  in  the  lowlands,  and  snows  in  the 
mountains,  the  plants  recover  rapidly,  and  a  second  spring  begins.  In  February 
vegetation  is  most  luxuriant,  but  after  March  heat  and  dryness  again  become  the 
order  of  the  day.  lud'eed,  Andalusia  sufibrs  from'  a  want  of  moisture.  There  are 
steppes  without  water,  trees,  or  human  habitations,  the  most  extensive  being  on 


Mtsn  Amnial 

Rutn&II. 

BainbU. 

BainflOL 

Temp. 

Y««r. 

Get— Harch. 

April-Sq>t. 

Oranada  .    • 

.     .    66"  F. 

48-6  in. 

40-3  in. 

8-2  in. 

SevOle .    .    . 

.     .    W„ 

26-1  „ 

281  „ 

3-0,, 

Gibraltar  .    . 

.    .    IV  „ 

28-9  „ 

20-8  „ 

8-6  „ 

15. 


^Ail^'^RMSBy" 


^'triiitiiiiir- 


A.S^ 


4di 


SPAIN. 


the  Lower  Oenil,  where  the  depressions  are  occupied  by  salt  lakes,  as  in  Algeria 
or  Persia,  and  cultivation  is  impossible.  Another  steppe  of  some  extent  stretches 
to  the  east  of  Jaon,  and  is  known  as  that  of  Mancha  Real.  The  barreu  tracts  on 
the  Mediterranean  slopes  are  relatively  even  of  greater  extent  than  those  in  the 
basin  of  the  Quadalquivir.  The  volcanic  region  of  the  Sierra  de  Gkita  is  a  complete 
desert,  where  castles  and  towers  erected  for  purposes  of  defence  are  the  only 
buildings.    Elsewhere  the  coast  is  occupied  by  saline  plains,  which  support  a  vege- 

Fig.  142.— Thi  Stippu  or  Eoua: 
B4Ml*  t  :  700,000. 


tation  mainly  consisting  of  salsolaoeee,  plumbagineos,  and  cruciferse,  five  per  cent, 
of  the  species  of  which  are  African.  Barilla,  the  ashes  of  which  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda,  grows  plentifully  there. 

In  the  popular  mind,  however,  Andalusia  has  at  all  times  been  associated  with 
fertility.  Its  name  recalls  the  oranges  of  Seville,  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the 
Vega  of  Oranada,  tho  "  Elysian  Fields,"  and  the  "  Garden  of  the  Hesperides," 
which  the  ancients  identified  with  the  valley  of  the  Bsetis.  The  indigenous  flora 
entitles  Andalusia  to  its  epithet  of  the  "  Indies  of  Spain,"  and,  in  addition  to 


ANDALUSIA. 


408 


lakes,  ai  in  Algeria 
ome  extent  ^tretchoB 
The  barrtJii  ♦racts  on 
it  than  those  in  the 
ie  Otata  is  a  complete 
efenoe  are  the  only 
rhich  support  a  vege- 


'P^ 


the  tropical  plants  from  Asia  and  Africa  which  grow  there  spon  taneously,  we  meet 
with  others  which  have  been  successfully  acclimatized.  Dates,  bananas,  and  bam- 
b(x>8  grow  side  by  side  with  caoutchouc-trees,  dragon's-blood  trees,  magnolias, 
ohirimoyas,  erythrinas,  azedaraohs  ;  ricinus  and  stramonium  shoot  up  into 
veritable  trees ;  the  cochineal  cactus  of  the  Canaries  and  the  ground-nut  of  the 
Senegal  do  well ;  sweet  potatoes,  cotton,  and  coffee  are  cultivated  with  Ruccess ; 
and  the  sugar-cane  succeeds  in  sheltered  places.  The  coast  between  Motril  and 
M&laga  is  supposed  to  yield  annuallj'^  £20,000  worth  of  sugar. 

The  fauna  of  Andalusia  presents,  also,  some  African  features.  The  molluscs 
met  with  in  Morocco  exist  likewise  in  Andalusia  ;  the  ichneumon  may  be  seen  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ijower  Guadalquivir  and  elsewhere ;  the  chameleon  is  plen- 
tiful ;  and  u  species  of  wild  goat  is  said  to  be  common  to  the  mountains  of  Morocco 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada.    Nor  should  we  forget  to  state  that  an  African  monkey 


oruoiferffi,  five  per  cent, 
which  are  used  in  the 

lesbeen  associated  with 
uriant  vegetation  of  the 
en  of  the  Hesperides," 
The  indigenous  flora 
in,"  and,  in  addition  to 


Fig.  163.— ZoMBs  or  Vboration  on  thb  Coa»t  of  Amdalvria. 


Until  tt  IMI*  1k«M 


Limta  •#  Ona^  «WM  . 


{Inuus  aylmnutt)  still  lives  on  the  rook  of  Gibraltar,  but  whether  he  has  been 
imported  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

In  the  dawn  of  European  history  Andalusia  was  probaUy  inhabited  by  an 
Iberian  laoe  akin  to  that  of  the  Basques.  The  Bastulse,  Bastamse,  and  Bastease, 
in  the  hills  facing  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Turdetani  and  Turduli  of  the  valley 
of  the  Bsetis,  bore  Euskarian  names,  as  did  many  of  their  towns.  But  even  thus 
early  they  must  have  been  a  mixed  race.  Celtic  tribes  held  the  hills  extending 
to  the  north-west  of  the  Beetis,  in  the  direction  of  Lusitania;  the  Turdetani, 
who  were  relatively  civilised,  for  they  possessed  written  laws,  permitted  Phoe- 
nicians, Carthaginians,  and  Greeks  to  settle  amongst  them,  and  in  the  end  becune 
thoroughly  Latinised.  Municipal  charters  discovered  at  M&laga,  and  more  recently 
at  Osuna  {Cotania  Julia  OeniHva),  prove  that  the  cities  of  this  province  enjoyed  a 
considerable  degree  of  self-government. 

When  the  Boman  world  broke  down.  Southern  Spain  was  invaded  by  Vandals, 


404 


SPAIN. 


Byzantines,  and  Viaigotha,  to  whom  succeeded  Arabs,  Berbers,  and  Jews.  Tho 
influence  exercised  upon  the  country  by  the  Moors — that  is,  by  a  mixed  race 
of  Arabs  and  Berbers — has  been  more  abiding  than  that  of  their  Teutonic 
predecessors.  They  maintained  themselves  for  more  than  seven  centuries,  were 
numerous  in  the  towns,  and  cultivated  the  fields  conjointly  with  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  country.  When  the  order  of  exile  went  forth  against  their 
whole  race,  Moon'sh  blood  circulated  in  the  veins  of  those  who  were  charged  with 
the  execution  of  this  harsh  measure.  In  certain  portions  of  Andalusia,  and  more 
especially  in  the  Alpujarras,  where  the  Moors  maintained  their  independence  until 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  mixture  between  the  two  races  had  made 
such  progpress  that  religious  profession,  and  not  the  colour  of  the  skin,  decided 
nationality.  Numerous  Arabic  words  and  phrases  have  found  their  way  into  the 
Andalusian  dialect,  and  the  geographical  nomenclature  of  many  districts  is  Arabic 
rather  than  Iberian  or  Latin.  Most  of  the  large  buildings  in  the  towns  are  alcanarn, 
or  mosques,  and  even  the  style  of  modem  structures  is  Arabic,  modified  to  some 
extent  by  Roman  influences.  The  houses,  instead  of  looking  upon  the  street,  face 
an  interior  court,  or  patio,  where  the  members  of  the  family  meet  by  the  side  of 
a  cool  fountain.  No  further  ethnical  element  has  been  added  to  the  population 
since  the  epoch  of  the  Arabs,  for  the  few  (German  colonists  who  settled  at  Carolina, 
Carlota,  and  elsewhere  did  not  prosper,  and  either  returned  to  their  native  country 
or  became  merged  in  the  general  population. 

The  Andalusians  have  frequently  been  called  the  Gkisoons  of  Spain.  They  are 
generally  of  graceful  and  supple  build,  of  seductive  manners,  and  full  of  eloquence, 
but  the  latter  is  too  frequently  wasted  upon  trifles.  Though  not  devoid  of  bravery, 
the  Andalusian  is  a  great  boaster,  and  his  vanity  often  oausea  him  to  pass  the 
bounds  of  truth.  At  the  same  time  he  is  of  a  contented  mind,  and  does  not  allow 
poverty  to  affect  his  spirit.  The  mountaineers  differ  in  some  respects  from  the 
dwellers  in  the  plains.  They  are  more  reserved  in  their  manners,  and  the 
Jaetanos,  or  mountaineers  of  Jaen,  are  known  as  the  Galicians  of  Andalusia. 
The  beauty  of  the  highland  women  is  of  a  more  severe  type,  and,  compared  with 
the  charming  Qaditanes  and  the  fascinating  mqf'ag  of  Seville,  the  women  of 
Granada,  Quadix,  and  Baza  are  remarkable  for  an  air  of  haughty  nobleness. 

No  doubt  there  are  men  in  Bsetica  who  work,  but  as  a  rule  love  of  labour  is  not 
amongst  the  virtues  of  the  Andalusian.  The  country  might  become  the  great 
tropical  storehouse  of  Europe,  but  its  immense  resources  remain  undeveloped.  To 
some  extent  this  is  explained  by  the  &ct  that  nearly  the  whole  country  is  owned 
by  great  landlords.  Many  estates,  which  formerly  were  carefully  cultivated,  have 
been  converted  into  sheep-walks,  and  for  miles  we  meet  neither  houses  uor  human 
beings.  The  highlands,  ton,  belong  to  large  proprietors,  but  are  leased  to  anudl 
farmers,  who  pay  one-third  of  their  product  in  lieu  of  rent 

The  magnificent  orange  groves  of  Seville,  Sanluoar,  and  other  towns,  the  olive 
groves,  vineyards,  and  orchards  of  M&laga,  supply  the  world  with  vast  quantities 
of  fruit ;  its  productive  corn-fields  have  made  Andalusia  one  of  the  great  granaries 
of  the  world ;  but  it  is  mainly  its  wines  which  enable  it  to  take  a  share  in  inter- 


""TJBWWiffBiWwlf 


ssju^smmti 


mmm 


ANDALUSIA. 


40S 


Pi,  and  Jews.    The 
I,  by  a  mixed  race 
of  their  Teutonic 
iven  centuries,  weru 
y  with  the  ancient 
forth  against  their 
>  were  charged  with 
Lndaluua,  and  more 
■  independence  until 
two  races  had  made 
of  the  skin,  decided 
i  their  way  into  the 
(ly  districts  is  Arabic 
\ie  towns  are  alcatarit, 
i>io,  modified  to  some 
upon  the  street,  face 
f  meet  by  the  side  of 
»d  to  the  population 

0  settled  at  Carolina, 

1  their  native  country 

of  Spain.     They  are 
and  full  of  eloquence, 
lot  devoid  of  bravery, 
ises  him  to  pass  the 
d,  and  does  not  allow 
me  respects  from  the 
ir  manners,  and  the 
licians  of  Andalusia. 
I,  and,  compared  with 
mile,  the  women  of 
l^hty  nobleness. 
le  love  of  labour  is  not 
^ht  become  the  great 
Lain  undeveloped.    To 
hole  country  is  owned 
efuUy  cultivated,  have 
her  houses  uor  human 
ut  are  leased  to  small 

other  towns,  the  olive 
1  with  vast  quantities 
of  the  great  granaries 
take  a  share  in  inter- 


national commerce.  Immense  quantities  of  the  wine  known  as  sherry  are  grown  in 
the  vineyards  of  Jeres,  to  the  east  of  C&dii.  Many  of  the  vineyards  belong  to 
Knglishmen,  and  merchants  of  that  nation  are  busily  occupied  in  blending  and 
other  operations  peculiar  to  their  trade.  Hevorul  wines,  however,  maintain  their 
superior  oharact«r  to  the  present  time.  Such  are  the  sweet  fintilla  of  Rotu, 
mannanilla,  and  pq/arate,  made  from  dried  grupes.  In  spite  of  many  mulpructices, 
this  branch  of  industry  has  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence  upon  thb  character 
of  the  population.  Santa  Maria,  on  the  Bay  of  Cddiz,  is  one  of  the  great  wine 
ports  of  the  world,  and  Spain  has  become  a  formidable  rival  of  its  northern 
neighbour.* 

The  ancient  manufacturing  industry  of  the  country  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist 
any  longer,  but  mining  is  still  carried  on.  Strabo  exaggerates  the  mineral 
wealth  of  the  country,  which  is  nevertheless  very  great.  Nearly  all  the  pro- 
ductive mining  districts  of  Southern  Spain  are  in  the  hills.  The  Sierra  de 
Q&dor  is  said  to  contain  "  more  metal  than  rook."  Hundreds  of  argentiferous 
lead,  copper,  and  iron  mines  have  been  opened  there,  and  in  the  sierras  of 
Quadix,  Baca,  and  Almeria.  Near  Lin&res,  on  the  Upper  Guadalquivir,  there  are 
lead  mines  yielding  about  210,000  tons  annually.  The  silver  mines  of  Oonstantina 
and  Ghiadaloanal,  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  are  being  worked  only  at  intervals.  The 
coal  basins  of  Bt^lmez  and  Espiel,  to  the  north  of  Cordova,  promise  to  become  of 
great  importance,  although  the  output  at  present  hardly  exceeds  200,000  tons  a 
year.    Deposits  of  iron  and  copper  exist  near  them. 

But  of  all  the  mines  of  Spain  those  situated  in  the  province  of  Huelva  are 
the  most  productive.  The  Silurian  rocks  there  are  wonderfully  rich  in  pyrites  of 
copper.  The  mines  of  Rio  Tinto  strike  the  beholder  by  their  stupendous  extent ; 
and  the  existence  of  ancient  galleries,  buildings,  and  inscriptions  proves  that  they 
have  been  worked  since  the  most  remote  time.  The  invasion  of  the  Vandals 
temporarily  put  a  stop  to  the  work,  which  was  only  resumed  in  1730.  The  two 
principal  deposits  have  been  computed  to  contain  no.  less  than  300,000,000  tons 
of  ore.  The  deposits  at  Tharsis  are  much  less  extensive,  but  within  easier  reach 
of  Huelva.  They  contain  14,000,000  tons  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  and  are 
worked  like  an  open  quarry.  The  deposit  is'  no  less  ihan  400  feet  in  thickness, 
and  6ome  of  the  ores  yield,  twenty  per  cent,  of  copper.  Immense  heaps  of  scoriae 
have  accumulated  near  the  mine,  where  they  are  bedded  in  regular  strata  dating 
back  to  the  time  of  the  Carthaginians.  The  sulphurous  vapours  rising  from 
hundreds  of  furnaces  poison  the  air  and  destroy  the  vegetation.  The  rivers  Odiel 
and  Bio  Tinto  run  with  ferruginous  water  which  kills  the  fish;  yeUow  ochre 
is  thrown  up  along  their  banks ;  and  in  their  estuary  is  precipitated  a  blackish 
mud  consisting  of  the  metal  mixed  with  the  sulphur  of  decomposed  marine 
animals,  t 

•  Export  of  wise  from  Cbdis  and  Santa  Haiia:— ISfiS,  8,697,000  gaUcuu;  1802, 5,116,000  gaUons; 
1S73, 10,446,480  gallons,  valned  at  £2,937,000. 

t  In  1873  600,000  tona  of  pyritea  were  exported  from  the  district  of  Huelva,  of  which  340,000  tons 
came  from  the  mine  of  Thanria. 


406 


sPAiy. 


Aiulttlusiu,  though  tt  d«Mrt  in  comparison  with  whut  it  might  \m),  rivala  Italy 
in  thn  fumu  and  bounty  of  it*  citie*.  Thfl  names  of  Orunudu,  Cordova,  Seville, 
and  C(u\i-/.  awaken  in  our  mind  the  most  pleasing  memories,  for  these  old  Moorish 
towns  have  iMJconio  identified  with  a  grout  udvunoo  in  arts  and  scieaoe. 


ViH.  104.— Thk  Minbk  of  HustrA. 


SKOm. 


Their  advantageous  geographical  position  aooounts  for  their  prosperity,  past 
and  present.  Cordova  and  Seville  command  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
and  the  roads  crossing  the  gaps  of  the  neighhouring  mountains  converge  upon 
them  ;  Granada  has  its  plentiful  supply  of  water  and  rich  fields ;  Huelva,  C&diz, 


~^■UU^!.ca^.J»attg^'^^^Vi■M'^-tuaj.^l;i;jM^W<ll^klffi»^rHl■^r^g^ 


J. 


r  their  prosperity,  past 
in  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
luntains  converge  upon 
I  fields ;  Huelva,  O&diz, 


P;^fciilMi|Mi.iii  ii.»iWWil""iiiJ,',WWW 


■::■-:"'■  vJr'"'"''*'^^'''^"''^''^''''''''''^'^"^'*''^'^'''^'*^ 


-  -^^■>^'^r-2^j!.;fx!:;^i}^f)ffm'^i'S''^^^^^^  ^'-'^  '.iiyjMaJfcfligiiiMw^'  t **"  f^fim^S'iH'  !*llW^iP 


IMMMM 


ANDALUSIA. 


407 


M&lag^,  and  Almeria  are  considerable  seaports ;  and  Gibraltar  oooupies  a  command- 
ing position  between  two  seas.  There  are  other  towns  less  populous,  but  of 
great  strategical  importance,  as  they  command  the  roads  joining  the  valleys  of  the 
Genii  and  Guadalquivir  to  the  sea. 

Amongst  the  smaller  towns  which  have  played  a  part  in  history  are  several  to 
the  east  of  Granada,  such  as  Y^lez  Rubio  and  Y^lez  Blanco,  on  the  Mediterranean 
slope ;  Cdll4r  de  Baza,  with  its  subterranean  houses  excavated  in  the  gypsum,  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Vertientes,  or  "  the  water-shed  ;  "  Huescar,  the  heir  of  an 
old  Carthaginian  city ;  and  Baza,  environed  by  a  fertile  plain  known  as  Iloya, 
or  "the  hollow." 

Granada,  though  it  celebrates  the  anniversary  of  the  entrance  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  is  a  very  inferior  place  to  what  it  was  as  the  capital  of  a  Moorish 
kingdom,  when  it  had  60,000  houses  and  400,000  inhabitants,  and  was  the  busiest 
and  wealthiest  town  of  the  peninsula.  It  is  still  the  sixth  city  of  Spain,  but 
thousands  of  its  ragged  inhabitants  live  in  hideous  dens,  and  close  to  the  picturesque 
suburb  of  Albaicin  a  mob  largely  composed  of  gipsies  has  settled  down  in  nauseous 
caverns.  Remains  of  Moorish  buildings  are  met  with  only  in  the  suburb  named,  but 
at  some  distance  from  the  city  there  still  exist  edifices  which  bear  witness  to  the 
glorious  reign  of  its  ancient  masters.  The  Torres  Vermytu,  or  "  red  towers," 
occupy  a  hill  to  the  south;  the  Oenerali/e,  with  its  delightful  gardens,  crowns 
another  hill  farther  east ;  and  between  both  rise  the  bastions  and  towers  of  the 
Alhamhra,  or  "red  palace,"  even  in  its  present  dilapidated  condition  one  of 
the  masterpieces  of  architecture,  which  has  served  as  a  pattern  to  generations 
of  artists.  From  the  towers  of  this  moguifioent  building  we  enjoy  a  prospect 
which  indelibly  impresses  itself  upon  the  memory.  Granada,  with  its  towers, 
parks,  and  villas,  lies  beneath.  The  course  of  the  two  rivers,  Genii  and  Darro, 
can  be  traced  amidBt  the  foliage,  whilst  naked  hills  bound  the  verdant  plain 
of  La  Yega,  which  has  been  likened  to  an  "  emerald  enchased  in  a  sapphire." 
The  contrast  between  these  savage  mountains  and  the  fertile  plain,  between  the 
beautiful  city  and  precipitous  rocks,  struck  the  Moors  with  admiration,  for  they 
saw  reflected  in  them  their  own  nature — an  outward  impassivenees  and  a  hidden 
fire.  Ghranada,  to  them,  was  the  "  Queen  of  Cities,"  the  "  Damascus  of  the  West." 
Nor  are  the  modem  Spaniaids  behind  them,  in  their  admiration  of  Orailhda  and 
its  vicinity. 

There  are  other  beautiful  towns  in  the  basin  of  the  (Tenil,  but  none  can  com- 
pare with  Granada,  not  even  Loja,  a  "  flower  in  the  midst  of  thorns,"  an  oasis 
surrounded  by  rugged  rocks  and  savage  defiles.  Jaen,  however,  almost  rivals 
Granada.  It,  too,  was  the  seat  of  a  powerful  Moorish  king,  the  hills  surround- 
ing it  are  still  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  fortifications  buried  beneath  luxuriant 
foliage,  and  the  aspect  of  the  town  remains  oriental  to  this  day. 

The  upper  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir  abounds  in  cities.  Ba^za  had  more  than 
150,000  inhabitants  in  the  time  of  the  Moors,  but  wars  depopulated  it,  many  of 
the  people  removing  to  Granada.  Close  by  is  Ubeda,  another  Moorish  town. 
Higher  up  in  the  hills  is  the  mining  town  of  Lin&res,  hardly  large  enough  to 


rnv^ia 


408 


SPAIN. 


shelter  8,000  residents,  but  actually  inhabited  by  40,000.  In  descending  the 
river  we  pass  Andujar,  famous  on  account  of  its  alcarrazas,  and  about  twenty  miles 
below  the  town  of  Montoro  we  reach  the  marble  bridge  of  Alcol^a,  celebrated 
for  the  many  battles  which  have  been  fought  for  its  possession. 

Cordova  dates  back  to  the  dawn  of  civilisation.  It  has  been  famous  and 
powerful  at  all  times,  and  the  Spanish  noblemen  are  proud  of  tracing  their 
origin  back  to  this  fountain-head  of  the  "  blue  blood  "  {iangre  azul)  which  is  sup- 
posed to  flow  in  the  veins  of  Spanish  nobles.  It  was  under  the  Moors  that 
Oordova  reached  the  apogee  of  its  grandeur ;  from  the  ninth  century  to  the  close 


Fig.  IM.— Thb  Alhambra. 


of  the  twelfth  it  had  nearly  a  million  of  inhabitants ;  and  its  twenty-four  suburbs 
spread  far  and  wide  over  the  plain  and  along  the  lateral  valleys.  The  wealth  of 
its  mosques,  palaces,  and  private  houses  was  prodigious ;  but,  more  glorious  still, 
Oordova  could  boast  of  being  the  "  nursery  of  science,"  for  it  was  the  greatest 
university  of  the  world,  abounding  in  schools  and  libraries.  Civil  wars,  foreign 
invasions,  and  religious  fanaticism  led  to  the  dispersion  of  its  libraries,  and 
Cordova  can  no  longer  boast  of  being  the  first  city  of  Andalusia.  Most  of  the  old 
monuments  have  perished,  but  there  still  exists  the  marvellous  menquita,  or  mosque, 
built  at  the  dose  of  the  eighth  century  by  Abder-rahman  and  his  son.     The 


nrntm" 


ANDALUSIA. 


400 


In  descending  the 
I  about  twenty  miles 
Alcol^,  celebrated 

8  been  famous  and 
ad  of  tracing  their 
azul)  which  is  sup- 
ider  the  Moors  that 
century  to  the  close 


^ 


ts  twenty-four  lubnrbs 
illeys.  The  wealth  of 
lut,  more  glorious  still, 
or  it  was  the  greatest 
«.  Civil  wars,  foreign 
I  of  its  libraries,  and 
Jusia.  Most  of  the  old 
ras  menquiia,  or  mosqiw, 
lan  and  his  son.    The 


interior  was  fitted  up  in  the  most  lavish  manner,  the  floors  being  paved  with  silver, 
and  the  walls  covered  with  gold,  precious  stones,  ivory,  and  ebony,  but  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  building  has  been  pulled  down  to  make  room  for  a  Spanish 
cathedral. 

The  more  fertile  districts  of  the  province  of  Cordova  are  at  some  distance  from 
the  Ouadalquivir,  in  the  hills  to  the  south.  Montilla,  one  of  the  towns  there,  is 
noted  for  its  wines,  as  are  Aguilar,  Ba^na,  Cabra,  and  Lucena,  the  latter  boasting 
likewise  of  some  manufactures.  Between  Cordova  and  Seville,  a  distance  of  over 
ninety  miles,  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  river,  we  do  not  meet  with  a  single 
town  of  note,  for  even  Palma  del  Rio,  at  the  mouth  of  the  OtenH,  is  only  a  small 
place,  though  of  some  importance  as  the  outlet  of  Ecija,  a  large  town  higher  up  the 
GenU. 

Seville,  the  reigning  queen  of  Andalusia,  boasts  of  a  few  remarkable  buildings, 
including  the  alcazar,  a  gorgeous  cathedral,  and  the  palace  known  as  "  Pilate's 
House,"  in  which  the  Benaissance  is  admirably  wedded  with  the  Moorish  style. 
But  more  famous  than  either  of  these  is  Gfiralda'a  Tower,  with  the  saint's  revolving 
statue  on  the  top,  like  a  weathercock.  But  neither  these  buildings  nor  Murillo's 
fine  paintings  have  won  Seville  its  epithet  of  "Enchantress."  For  this  it  is 
indebted  to  its  gaiety  and  to  a  succession  of  fStes,  amongst  which  bull-fights  figure 
prominently.  Seville  became  Spanish  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Its  citizens  valiantly  defended  their  municipal  liberties  against  the  King  of  Castile, 
but  they  were  defeated,  and  most  of  its  inhabitants  then  fled  to  Barbary.  The 
town  was  repeopled  by  Christian  emigrants.  Triana,  however,  a  suburb  with 
which  an  iron  bridge  connects  it,  is  inhabited  by  gipsies,  whose  secret  tribunal 
has  its  seat  there.  A  short  distance  to  the  north  of  Triana  are  the  ruins  of  the 
amphitheatre  of  Italica,  the  old  rival  of  Seville,  and  the  native  town  of  Silius 
ItalicuB,  and  of  the  Emperors  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Theodosiu«>,  Coria,  another 
Boman  city,  which  had  its  own  mint  during  the  Middle  Ages,  lies  bcilow  Seville. 

Seville  has  numerous  potteries,  but  its  silks  and  eta&  interwoven  with  gold 
and  silver  have  ceased  to  command  the  markets  of  tile  world.  The  largest  manu- 
factory of  the  place,  that  of  tobacco  And  cigars,  is  carried  on  by  Oovemment,  and 
employs  several  thousand  workmen. 

AIo«14  de  Guadaira,  tQ  the  south-east  of  Seville,  supplies  the  latter  with  btead, 
and  its  delicious  springs  feed  the  aqueduct  known  as  Arcos  de  Carmona,  thus 
called  because  it  runs  parallel  with  the  old  Roman  road  leading  to  Carmona 
(Oarmo). 

The  towns  to  the  south  of  Seville  are  no  longer  of  importance.  Utrera,  the 
most  considerable  amongst  them,  is  a  gpreat  railway  centre,  where  the  line  to 
the  marble  quarries  of  Moron,  and  that  passing  through  the  fertile  districts  of 
Marchena  and  Osuna,  branch  off  f^m  the  Andalusian  main  line.  The  town  is 
well  known  to  qfieionadoa,  or  sportsmen,  on  account  of  the  wild  bulls  which  pasture 
in  the  neighbouring  mariamaa.  Lebrija,  with  its  fine  tower  imitated  from  that  of 
Giralda,  is  still  nearer  to  these  marshes,  which  "extend  almost  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Chiadalquivir. 


■I'li-i'Ki.fc.'/aiaa^iaiiii* 


«NM 


410 


SPAIN. 


Sanlucar  de  Barrameda,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  with  its  white  and 
pink  houses  shaded  by  palms,  is  not  now  the  great  port  it  was  in  the  time  of  the 
Arabs.  It  may  justly  boast  of  having  sent  forth,  in  1519,  the  first  vessel  which 
circumnavigated  the  globe,  but  it  is  now  rather  a  pleasure  resort  than  a  place  of 
commerce.  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  in  the  basin  of  the  Guadalete,  is  the  busiest 
town  between  Seville  and  C&diz.  It  is  a  neat  and  showy  place,  surrounded  by 
immense  bodegas,  or  wine  vaults,  in  which  are  stored  the  wines  grown  in  the  fertile 
valley  of  Guadalete,  and  known  as  sherry.  Near  Aroos  de  la  Frontera,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  valley,  is  pointed  out  the  site  upon  which  was  fought  the  famous 
battle  which  delivered  Spain  to  the  Mussulmans. 

The  Bay  of  C4diz,  so  wrll  sheltered  against  winds  and  waves  by  the  tongqe  of 
land  which  begins  at  the  island  of  Leon,  is  surrounded  by  numerous  towns, 
forming,  as  it  were,  but  a  dingle  city.  Rota,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  bay,  is 
encircled  by  walls  of  cyclopean  aspect.  It  is  the  resort  of  fishermen,  and  its 
vintners,  though  reputed  Boeotians,  produce  one  of  the  best  wines  of  Spain. 
Farther  south,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalete,  is  the  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  with 
its  wine  stores,  at  all  times  a  bustling  place.  Puerto  Real,  the  Pottua  Oaditanm, 
lies  in  a  labyrinth  of  brackish  channels,  and  is  now  merely  a  landing-place.  The 
neighbouring  dockyard,  known  as  Trocadero,  and  the  arsenal  of  Carraoa,  are  fre- 
quently inhabited  only  by  galley-slaves  and  their  gaolers.  The  salt-pans  near  that 
place  are  most  productive. 

San  Fernando  is  the  most  important  town  on  the  island  of  Leon,  to  the  south 
of  C&diz.  The  initial  meridian  of  Spanish  mariners  is  drawn  through  its  observa- 
tory. Looking  across  the  navigable  channel  of  San  Pedio,  which  separates  the 
island  from  the  main,  we  perceive  the  villas  of  Ghiclana,  famous  as  the  training- 
place  of  the  toreros,  or  bull-fighters,  of  Andalusia.  Turning  to  the  north,  we  reach 
the  narrow  ridge  of  the  Arrecife,  which  may  be  likened  to  a  stalk  with  Cidiz  as 
its  expanded  flower.  Boatmen  point  out  the  supposed  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Hercules,  now  covered  by  the  sea ;  and  thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  land  is  at 
present  subsiding,  though  this  subsidence  must  have  been  preceded  by  an  upheaval, 
as  the  peninsula  upon  which  C&diz  has  been  built  rests  upon  a  foundation  of  shells, 
oysters,  and  molluscs. 

We  pass  several  forts,  cross  the  ramparts  of  the  Cortadura,  erected  in  1811, 
and  at  length  find  ourselves  in  the  famous  city  of  G&diz,  the  heir  of  the  Gadir  of 
the  Phoenicians,  called  Gadira  by  the  Greeks,  and  Ghides  by  the  Romans.  O&diz 
was  the  leading  city  of  Iberia  when  that  country  first  became  known.  Like  other 
cities,  it  has  known  periods  of  decay,  but  its  g^reat  geographical  advantages  have 
always  enabled  it  to  recover  quickly.  It  is  the  natural  outlet  of  an  extensive  and 
fertile  region,  and  its  position  near  the  extremity  of  the  continent  enables  it  suc- 
cessfully to  compete  with  Lisbon  for  the  trade  of  the  New  World.  Palos  may 
boast  of  living  sent  forth  the  earacelas  which  discovered  the  West  Indies,  but  it 
was  C&diz  which  reaped  all  the  advantages  of  this  discovery,  more  especially 
since  the  Tribunal  of  the  Indies  was  transferred  to  it  fh>m  Seville  (1720).  In 
1792  C&diz  exported  merchandise  valued  at  £2,500,000  sterling  to  America, 


iiii>im»ii,"' 


•^rtigpi 


/ 


r,  with  its  white  and 
ras  in  the  time  of  the 
the  first  vessel  which 
esort  than  a  place  of 
dalete,  is  the  busiest 
place,  surrounded  by 
!S  grown  in  the  fertile 
le  la  Frontera,  in  the 
ras  fought  the  famous 

aves  by  the  tongue  of 
by  numerous  towns, 
n  coast  of  the  bay,  is 
of  fishermen,  anci  its 
best  wines  of  Spain, 
de  Santa  Maria,  with 
the  Portm  Oaditanus, 
a  landing-place.  The 
j1'  of  Carraoa,  are  fre- 
The  salt-pans  near  that 


of  Leon,  to  the  south 
m  through  its  observa- 
o,  which  separates  the 
uncus  as  the  training- 
;  to  the  north,  we  reach 
a  stalk  with  C&diz  as 
ruins  of  a  temple  of 
tin,  that  the  land  is  at 
receded  by  an  upheaval, 
n  a  foundation  of  shells, 

adura,  erected  in  1811, 
bie  heir  of  the  Gadir  of 
by  the  Romans.  O&diz 
tme  known.  Like  other 
phioal  advantages  have 
itlet  of  an  extensive  and 
lontinent  enables  it  suc- 
ew  World.  Palos  may 
the  West  Indies,  but  it 
soovery,  more  especially 
^m  Seville  (1720).  In 
K)  sterling  to  America, 


8M)...ilMW*Ui  "    "  ''"'"?' 


^.JkiilWIW 


msm 


mmm 


412 


SPAIN. 


and  received  precious  metals  and  other  articles  of  a  value  of  £7,000,000  in 
return.  Soon  afterwards  Spain  paid  for  a  commercial  monopoly  maintained 
during  three  centuries  by  the  sudden  loss  of  her  colonies,  and  C&diz  found  itself 
dependent  upon  its  fisheries  and  salt-pans.  But  recently  fortune  has  again  smiled 
upon  the  city,  and  its  harbours  are  crowded  with  merchantmen.*  C&diz,  with  the 
towns  surrounding  its  bay,  has  a  population  of  200,000  souls.  The  site  of  the  city 
proper  is  limited  by  nature,  and  its  houses  have  been  built  to  a  height  of  five  and 
six  stories.  The  inhabitants  are  fond  of  pleasure,  vivacious,  and  quick  at  repartee. 
They  have  at  all  times  shown  themselves  to  be  good  patriots,  and  it  was  on  the 
island  of  Leon  that  the  Cortes  met  to  protest  against  the  occupation  of  the  country 
by  the  French. 

Almeria,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Andalusia,  rivalled  C&diz  in  importance 
as  long  as  it  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Moors,  but  prosperity  fled  the  place 
immediately  the  Spaniards  occupied  it.  Subsequently  the  town  suffered  g^atly 
from  the  pirates  of  Barbary,  as  is  proved  by  the  fortress-like  cathedral  built  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  aspect  of  the  place,  with  its  narrow  streets  and  old  kaeba, 
is  quite  orientaL 

The  towns  to  the  west  of  Almeria  have  a  tropical  climate  and  tropical  produc- 
tions. Dailas,  said  to  be  the  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  Arabs,  is  famous  for 
its  raisins ;  to  it  succeed  Adra,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bio  Orande  of  Alpujarra, 
Motril,  y^lez  M&laga,  and  M&Iaga,  embosomed  in  gardens  watered  by  the 
Guadalmedina. 

M&laga,  like  most  of  the  ports  on  that  coast,  is  of  Phcenician  origin,  and  the 
most  populous  town  of  Andalusia.,  Less  rich  than  Granada,  Cordova,  and 
Seville  in  Moorish  monuments,  or  than  C&diz  in  historical  traditions,  it  is  indebted 
to  its  port  and  to  the  fertile  country  surrounding  it  for  its  commercial  pre- 
eminence. Its  exports,  consisting  of  raisins  {paaoH),  almonds,  fig^  lemons,  oranges, 
wine,  olive  oil,  &o.,  are  the  product  of  the  immediate  vicinity.  There  are  foundries, 
sugar  refineries,  and  factories.  Seen  from  the  sea,  the  cathedral  appears  to  be 
almost  as  largie  as  the  rest  of  the  town,  but  in  the  latter  must  be  included  not 
only  the  houses  standing  at  the  foot  of  the  citadel  of  (Hbralfaro,  but  also  the 
numerous  villas  dotting  the  surrounding  hills.  Nay,  even  the  picturesque  towns 
and  watering-places  in  the  neighbouring  mountains,  such  as  Alora,  Alhaurin, 
Carratraca,  and  Albam&,  oAy  be  looked  upon  as  dependencies  of  the  city,  for 
scarcely  any  but  Malagvmot  resort  to  them. 

Antequera  and  Ronda,  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  belong  to  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean,  for  the  one  stands  on  the  Ghiadalhorce,  which  enters  the  sea 
near  M&laga,  whilst  the  other  occupies  a  position  in  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Goadioro,  which  washes  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  San  Roque,  to  the  north  of 
Gibraltar.  Antequera  is  one  of  the  ".  c^^  ancient  towns  of  Spain,  and  acts  as  an 
intermediary  between  M&laga  and  tUo  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir.  On  a  hill  near 
it  stands  a  curious  dolmen,  twenty  feet  in  height,  known  as  Cueva  del  Mengal. 

*  In  1874  3,630  veaMli,  of  616,060  tona  iHuden,  eateced ;  the  impoitg  had  a  ndiu  of  4488,700,  the 
ezporta  (ooniriiiting  for  the  most  part  of  wine)  of  £8,116,000. 


unimm 


mmm 


W**^ "'^:'rr-^ 


'r^'matf 


ANDALUSIA. 


due  of  £7,000,000  in 
monopoly  maintained 
md  C4diz  found  itself 
ortune  has  again  smiled 
men.*  C4diz,  with  the 
Is.  The  site  of  the  city 
,  to  a  height  of  five  and 
B,  and  quick  at  repartee, 
riots,  and  it  was  on  the 
ccupation  of  the  country 

lied  O&diz  in  impbrtance 
prosperity  fled  the  place 
e  town  suflfered  greatly 
ke  cathedral  built  in  the 
ow  streets  and  old  kaaba, 

late  and  tropical  produc- 
;  the  Arabs,  is  famous  for 
J  Grande  of  Alpujarra, 
gardens  watered  by  the 

loenician  origin,  and  the 
Granada,  Oordova,  and 
1  traditions,  it  is  indebted 
for  its  commercial  pre- 
nds,  figs,  lemons,  oranges, 
lity.   There  are  foundries, 
)  cathedral  appears  to  be 
iter  must  be  included  not 
'  Gibralfaro,  but  also  the 
en  the  picturesque  towns 
such  as  Alora,  Alhaurin, 
tndenoies  of  the  city,  for 

ry,  belong  to  the  basin  of 
)rce,  which  enters  the  sea 
I  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Roque,  to  the  north  of 
I  of  Spain,  and  acts  as  an 
idalquivir.  On  a  hill  near 
Bwn  as  Cueva  del  Mengal. 

xntB  had  a  vtatt  of  £433.700,  the 


The  picturesque  Moorish  town  of  Ronda  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  gorge 
600  feet  in  depth,  120  to  800  feet  wide,  and  spanned  by  three  bridges,  one  Roman, 
one  Arab,  and  the  last  (built  1740 — 88)  Spanish.     Ronda  still  possesses  some 


Fig.    107.— OlBBALTAB. 
SoUe  1 :  160,000. 


vlit-WufrM- 


•     A*%  -SI    „ 


ilXilM. 


strategical  importance,  for  it  defends  the  road  leading  from  the  valley  of  the  Geml 
to  that  of  the  Guadi4ro.  The  Itondenoa  are  noted  for  the  skill  with  which  they 
train  horses  for  mountain  travel.     They  are  notorious  smugglers,  as  are  also  many 

80 


414 


SPAIN. 


of  the  inhabitanta  of  the  small  seaport  towns  of  Marbella,  Estepona,  and  Algeoirus, 
near  Gibraltar.* 

The  rock  of  Oibraltar,  of  which  the  English  obtained  possession  in  1704,  haa 
not  only  been  converted  into  a  first-rate  fortress,  but  is  likewise  a  busy  place  of  com- 
merce. Gibraltar  produces  nothing  except  a  little  fruit,  and  most  of  its  provisions, 
including  meat  and  corn,  are  imported  from  Tangiers,  in  Morocco.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town  are  dependent  for  their  support  upon  passing  vessels,  the  EnglJHli 
garrison,  and  a  brisk  contraband  trade  with  Spain.  Gibraltar  affords  very  indif- 
ferent shelter,  and  only  one-fourth  of  the  vessels  passing  through  the  strait  call 
there,  and  even  these  generally  confine  themselves  to  replenishing  their  stock  of 
coal.  Nor  is  a  residence  on  this  picturesque  rock  very  pleasurable,  for  fevers 
prevail,  and  the  military  character  of  the  place  entails  numerous  restrictions. 
During  the  heat  of  summer  many  of  the  English  residents — facetiously  called 
"  lizards  of  the  rock  " — seek  refuge  at  San  Roque,  a  village  to  the  north  of  the 
bay,  the  neighbourhood  of  which  affords  excellent  sport. f 

IV. — The  Mediterranean  Slope  of  the  Great  Platbao. 
MuRciA  AND  Valencia  * 

In  a  few  hours  we  ai  e  able  to  travel  from  the  inhospitable  plateaux  to  the  hot 
valleys  and  plains  of  Murcia  and  Valencia  debouching  upon  the  Mediterranean. 

The  spurs  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  approach  the  coast  to  the  north  of 
the  Gabo  de  data,  are  separated  by  ramblat,  or  torrent  beds,  and  gradVially  decrease 
in  height  as  we  proceed  north.  The  torrent  of  Almanzora  separates  the  Sierra  de 
los  Filabros  from  its  northern  continuation,  the  Sierra  de  Almenara,  which  for  a 
considerable  distance  runs  parallel  with  the  coast.  It  sends  out  a  spur  in  the 
direction  of  Cartagena,  which  terminates  in  Oabo  de  Palos.  The  inland  ranges 
run  almost  parallel  with  this  coast  range,  and  are  separated  by  longitudinal  valleys 
opening  out  into  the  great  transverse  one  of  the  Segura.  These  ranges  are  the 
Sierra  de  Maria,  "el  Gigante"  (4,918  feet),  with  the  Sierra  de  EspuAa  (5,190  feet), 
the  Sierra  de  Talbilla,  the  (Mar  del  Mundo  (6,440  feet),  and  the  Sierra  de  AloarAk 

*  Approximate  population  of  the  principal  towna  of  Andaluria  :— 

C&diz,  62,000;  Jeres,  35,000;  Chiolana,  22,000;  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  18,000;  San  Fernando, 
18,000 ;  SanlOcar  de  Barrameda,  17,000 ;  Puerto  Real,  14,000 :  Arcof  de  la  Froiiteni,  12,000 ;  Algecitaa, 
18,000  ;    Medina  Sidonia,  10,600. 

Huelva,  10,000. 

Seville  (Sevilla),  80,000 ;  Ecija,  24,000 ;  Carmona,  18,000 ;  Ocuna.  16,000 ,  Utrera,  14,000 ;  Lebrija, 
12,000 ;  Marchena,  12,000. 

C6rdova,  46,000;  Luoena,  16,000;  Hontilla,  16,600;  Montoro,  12,000:  Aguilar,  12,000;  Baena, 
14,600;  Cabra,  11,600. 

Jato,  18,000;  Lin&res,  40,000;  TJbeda,  16,000;  i^a^sa,  16,000;  Alcal&  la  Real,  11,600;  And6jar, 
9,600. 

Granada,  66,000  ;  Loja,  16,000;  Motril,  13,600;  Baca,  13,600. 

MiOaga,  92,000 ;  Anteqiiera,  30,000 ;  y61ez  M&laga,  16,000 :  Ronda,  14,000. 

Almuria,  27,000 ;  Vilez  R6bio,  13,000. 

t  Gibraltar  in  1871  had  16,464  inhabitants,  excluaive  of  the  military:  iU  annual  revenue  exceeds 
£40,000,  and  the  burden  of  the  veasels  which  enter  and  dear  annually  amounts  to  3,600,000  tons. 
X  Mflrcia  ....     10,460  square  miles.  660,040  inhalntants,  or  63  to  a  sq.  m. 

Valencia     .    .     .      8,896  „  1,401,833  „  168        „ 


ami 


stepona,  and  Algecirus, 


(osseMion  in  1704,  hiifi 
iae  a  busy  place  of  com- 
,  most  of  ita  proviaions, 
[oroooo.  The  inbabit- 
ng  veaaelB,  the  English 
iltar  affords  very  indif- 
tbroagh  the  strait  call 
mishing  their  stock  of 
pleasurable,  for  fevers 
numerous  restrictions, 
ants— facetiously  called 
ge  to  the  north  of  the 


SAT  Plateau. 

)le  plateaux  to  the  hot 
1  the  Mediterranean. 
i  coast  to  the  north  of 
I,  and  gradually  decrease 
1  separates  the  Sierra  de 
Almenara,  which  for  a 
mds  out  a  spur  in  the 
08.  The  inland  ranges 
1  by  longitudinal  valleys 
1.  These  ranges  are  the 
I  de  EspuAa  (5,190  feet), 
nd  the  Sierra  de  Alcar&a 


Maria,  18,000;  San  Pwiiando, 
la  Froiltera,  12,000;  Algecim, 


6,000,  ITtrera,  14,000;  Lebrija, 
,000:  Aguilar,  12,000;  Bacnm 
lc«l&  la  Beol,  11,600;   AndAjar, 

14,000. 

iry:  ita  annual  revenue  exceeds 
sounta  to  3,600,000  tons, 
itants,  or  63  to  a  aq.  m. 
-        '  168        „ 


jjuMiMia 


1 


•SSSBSgBBSgggB 


agjSiiafri',,iwifavXjj.iMg 


Jt ^ 


MH. 


D  VALENCIA. 


4U 


and  <   (At  nf  the  Soguru  munt  tx)  Umh'i'    tpoa 
Th'  y  atfjii'     fhuir  greatest  Blfitt^lo  i  i  Ih 
torm  Hevi      I  nf)tabl<'  promontori"*  jitr  <tn^r.( 
md  the  C    <»  d<»  In  ^'A»  and  Hi     Ai\lv«lo. 
m  known       «  oruokl 


iit*  feature  of 
•««pect  of  the 


(5,910  feet).    The  ranges  to  th*  nui 

ns  continuations  of  those  mentiosicMl 

Moncubror  (4,543  feet),  and  their  npi 

which  are  the  volcanio  Peilon  de  Ifm 

Near  the  latter  rises  the  Mongo  (2,337  feet),  which  huH  h^> 

trigonometrical  station. 

The  mountains  which  dominate  the  valley  of  the  J(i«  preHen^ 
a  denuded  plateau,  above  which  rise  a  few  isolated  sumn,  «.  The 
basin  of  the  Ouadalaviar  is  far  more  mountainous.  On  the  west  it  is  bounded 
by  the  sierras  having  their  nucleus  in  the  Muela  de  San  Juan  (5,280  feet),  and  to 
the  east  rise  the  imposing  mountain  masses  of  the  Javalambre  (6,569  feet)  and 
PeAa  Qolosa  (5,942  feet).  The  summits  of  the  range  which  extends  from  the 
latter  to  the  great  bond  of  the  Lower  Ebro,  such  as  the  Muela  de  Ares  (4,332  feet), 
the  Tosul  de  Encanades  (4,565  feet),  and  Dosch  de  la  Espina  (3,868  feet),  bear 
Catalan  names.  A  range  of  inferior  heights  runs  parallel  with  it  along  the  coast, 
the  interval  between  the  two  forming  a  strath,  or  vale.  This  coast  range  termi- 
nates abruptly  in  the  Sierra  de  Montsia  (2,500  feet),  dose  to  the  delta  of  the  Ebro, 
and  before  the  pent-up  waters  of  the  river  had  excavated  themselves  a  path  to  the 
aea  it  extended  right  to  the  Pyrenees. 

All  these  mountains  are  for  the  most  part  naked,  and  shrubs  appear  like  black 
patches  upon  their  whitish  slopes.  They  stand  out  clearly  against  the  blue  and 
limpid  sky,  whose  transpai'ency  has  won  Murcia  the  title  of  the  "  most  serene 
kingdom."  The  climate  in  the  valley  of  the  Segura  is  even  more  African  in  its 
character  than  that  of  Andalusia.  There  are  only  two  seasons,  sununer  and 
winter,  the  latter  lasting  from  October  to  January,  but  the  temperature  throughout 
the  year  is  equable,  owing  to  the  mistral  which  blows  from  the  cool  plateau 
and  the  sea  breezes. 

The  flora,  especially  along  the  coast  of  Mdrcia,  is  a  mixture  of  tropical  and 
temperate  plants.  There  are  trees  which  shed  their  leaves  in  winter,  others  which 
retain  their  foliage  throughout  the  year,  and  by  the  side  of  wheat,  rice,  maize, 
olives,  oranges,  and  grapes  are  grown  cotton,  sugar-cane,  sweet  potatoes,  nopals, 
agaves,  and  dates.  Tropical  diseases  have  found  a  congenial  soil  in  this  country. 
Yellow  fever  has  been  imported  occasionally  from  America.  The  putrefying 
substances  left  upon  the  fidds  after  floods  poison  the  air,  and  the  brackish  waters 
of  the  lagoons,  or  albu/enu,  are  the  breeding-places  of  fever.  The  salt  lakes  to  the 
south  of  the  Segura,  however,  exercise  no  deleterious  influence  upon  the  climate. 

■Nowhere  else  in  Spain  is  the  rainfall  so  inconsiderable.  Between  Almeria  and 
Cartagena  only  eight  inches  fall  during  the  year;  in  the  environs  of  Alicante  and 
Elche  the  rains  are,  perhaps,  a  trifle  more  copidus ;  and  at  Miircia  and  Valencia, 
which  lie  at  the  foot  of  mountains  that  intercept  the  moisture-laden  winds,  they 
are  more  abundant  still,  though  even  there  they  do  not  exceed  eighteen  inches. 
Moreover,  most  of  the  rain  is  immediately  absorbed  by  the  thirsty  air,  and  only  a 
very  small  quantity  finds  its  way  through  ramblas  to  the  sea.  The  quantity  is  alto- 
gether insufficient  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  rivers  the 


416 


SPAIN. 


country  would  bo  a  doiert.  Oultivntion  is  curried  on  only  along  tho  riven  and  in  a 
few  othur  favoured  ipota.  Veritable  tteppua  extend  on  both  banks  of  the  Segura. 
The  cam/ton  between  Almeria  and  Villajoyoaa,  for  a  diatunoe  of  300  milea,  are  aterilo 


FiK   lAR,— HTHPfiiii  or  Muitcu. 
Kflil*  I  :  9IM,0nO. 


10 


and  bare.  The  brine  and  magnesia  springs,  which  rise  at  the  foot  of  the 
saliferous  triassic  rocks,  fill  small  lakes,  which  dry  up  in  summer,  and  in  August 
the  lagoons  near  Orihuela  become  covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  salt. 


MiiMiii 


mnim 


MUBOIA  AND  VALENCIA. 


417 


\g  the  riven  and  in  a 

bunki  of  the  Segura. 

;iUO  miles,  are  Bterilo 


►'J'*. 


■^1 


.»<i^:*> 


The  beneficent  rivers,  whose  waters  are  drunk  by  the  hmrtm,  or  gurdons,  nour 
their  banks,  are  the  Segura,  Vinalupo,  Jucar,  Ouadalaviur  (known  as  Tiiria  in  its 
lower  course),  Mijaros,  and  several  others.  They  all  resemble  each  other  as 
regards  the  ruggednoss  of  their  upper  valleys  and  the  savageness  of  the  gorges 
through  which  they  pass.  The  Hegura  forces  itself  a  paswtgn  through  several 
mountain  defiles  before  it  reaches  the  plain  of  Muroia.  The  Jucur  and  Gundalaviar 
(Wod-el-Abiad,  or  "  white  river  ")  have  fewer  obstacles  to  overcome,  but  some  of 
the  gorges  through  which  they  pass  are  nevertheless  of  surpassing  beauty. 

The  volume  of  these  rivers  is  comparatively  small,  and  the  husbandmen  dwell* 
ing  along  their  banks  economize  the  water  as  far  as  possible.  Reservoirs,  or 
pnntano9,  havi  been  constructed  at  the  outlet  of  each  valley,  whence  the  water  is 
distributed  over  the  fields  by  means  of  innumerable  canals  of  irrigation.  The 
irrigated  huertas  contrast  most  favourably  with  the  cultivated  oampos  in  their 
neighbourhood.  Irrigation  has  probably  been  praoti«pd  at  Valencia  since  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  but  the  Moors  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  construct  a  regular 
system  of  canals.  Eight  of  these,  ramifying  into  innumerable  acequituiH,  have 
converted  the  environs  of  Valencia  into  an  Eden.  Carefully  manured  as  they 
are,  these  fields  are  never  allowed  to  lie  fallow.  Stalks  of  maize  fifteen  and  even 
twenty-five  feet  in  height  may  be  seen  in  the  gardens,  the  mulberry-tree  yields 
three  or  four  harvests  annually,  four  or  five  crops  are  obtained  from  the  sume 
field,  whilst  the  grass  is  mown  as  many  as  nine  or  ten  times.  This  luxuriant 
vegetation,  however,  is  said  to  be  watery,  and  hence  the  proverb,  "  In  Valencia 
meat  is  gross,  grow  is  water,  men  are  women,  and  women  nought." 

The  huertas  of  the  J  (lour,  though  less  fumous  than  those  of  Valencia,  are  even 
more  productive.  Orange- trees  predominate,  and  around  Aloira  and  Oaroagente 
alone  20,000,000  oranges  are  picked  ann  iially,  and  exported  t4>  Marseilles. 

The  oases  in  the  g^reat  steppe  which  extends  from  Alcuy  to  Almeria  are  less 
fertile  than  those  on  the  Jtioar  and  Guudalaviar.  That  of  Alicante  is  fertilised  by 
the  Oastalla,  the  waters  of  which  are  collected  in  the  reservoir  of  Tibi.  The  huerta 
of  Elohe,  on  the  Vinolapo,  is  chiefly  occupied  by  a  forest  of  palm-trees,  the 
principal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  who  export  the  figs  to  France,  and  the  leaves 
to  Italy  and  the  interior  of  Spain. 

The  huerta  around  Oriluiera,  on  the  Lower  Segura,  cannot  boast  of  a  palm  forest 
like  that  of  Elche,  but  is  more  productive.  The  inhabitants  of  Mdroia,  higher  up  on 
the  same  river,  though  they  enjoy  similar  advantages,  have  failed  to  profit  by  them 
to  the  some  extent.  Their  huerta,  which  contains  a  third  of  the  total  popidation 
of  the  province,  is  fertile,  but  cannot  compare  with  that  of  their  neighbours.  iN'or  do 
the  fields  of  Lorca  equal  them.  They  have  not  yet  recovered  from  the  bursting  of  a 
reservoir,  the  freed  waters  of  which  carried  destruction  as  far  as  Muroia  and  Orihuela. 


rise  at  the  foot  of  the 
summer,  and  in  August 
ast  of  salt. 


The  moral  and  physical  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  exhibiting 
such  great  contrasts  could  hardly  fail  to  present  corresponding  differences,  and, 
indeed,  we  find  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  fertile  gardens  and  those  of  the  barren 
steppes  and  mountains  differ  essentially,  in  spite  of  their  common  origin. 


sSSsirr 


418 


SPAIN. 


The  pecple  of  Murcia  cannot  be  said  to  have  issued  Tiutoriously  from  the  struggle 
against  barren  rocks,  desiccating  winds,  and  a  dry  atmosphere.  They  abandon 
themselves  to  a  fatalism  quite  oriental,  and  make  hardly  any  effort  at  improvement. 
Lazily  inclined,  they  take  their  siesta  in  and  out  of  time,  and  even  when  awake 
preserve  an  aspect  of  impassiveness  as  if  they  pursued  a  reverie.  They  are  not 
much  given  to  gaiety,  and,  though  neighbours  of  Andalusia  and  La  Mancha,  do 
not  dance.    They  are  full  of  rancour  and  savage  hatred  when  ofiended,  and  have 

Fig.  169. — Thk  Palm  Ouuvb  of  Elchi.. 


exercised  but  small  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  Spain.  They  cannot  compare  in 
industry  with  Catalans,  Navarrese,  and  Galicians,  nor  in  intelligence  with  natives 
of  any  other  part  of  Spain.  The  Yalencians,  on  the  other  hand,  are  an  industrious 
race.  They  not  only  cultivate  their  plains,  but  scale  the  barren  slopes  uf  the  rocks 
with  their  terraced  gardens.  They  are  a  gay  people,  famous  for  their  dances. 
Ferocious  instincts  are  assorted  to  underlie  this  outward  gaiety,  and  a  proverb  says 
that  "  the  paradise  of  La  Huerta  is  inhabited  by  demons."    Human  life  is  held  very 


.J^.^.iuOiiliP*"" 


nMimilJlUp 


MUBCIA  AND  VALENCIA. 


419 


cheaply  at  Valencia.  Formerly  that  town  supplied  the  courtiers  of  Madrid  with 
hired  assaMins,  and  the  numerous  crosses  in  and  around  it  are  evidence  of  so  many 
mun  <rs  committed  in  the  heat  of  passion.  In  Valencia,  however,  the  use  of  the 
kniie  is  a  tradition  of  chivalry,  as  are  duels  in  some  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
conscience  of  the  murderer  is  perfectly  at  ease ;  he  wipes  the  blood-stained  knife 
upon  his  girdle,  and  immediately  afterwards  outs  his  bread  with  it.  The  dress  of 
the  Valencians  consists  of  loose  drawers  confined  round  the  waist  by  a  red  or  violet 
scarf,  velvet  waistcoats  with  pieces  of  silver,  white  linen  gaiters  leaving  the  knees 
and  ankles  bare,  a  bright  kerchief  wrapped  round  the  shaved  head,  and  a  low  hat 

Fig.  160.— Tub  Palm  Ohovb  or  Elchb  and  tkb  Hubrtas  or  Orihvbla. 

SmUa  1  :  400,000. 


lOMllM. 


with  brim  tamed  up  and  ornamented  with  ribbons.  A  many-coloured  cloak  with 
a  broad  fringe  completes  this  costume,  and,  draped  in  it,  even  the  meanest  beggar 
possesses  an  air  of  distinction.  In  their  customs  and  modes  of  thought  the 
Valencians  differ  equally  from  their  neighbours.  They  speak  a  Proven9al  dialect, 
mixed  with  many  Arabic  words,  but  more  closely  related  to  the  language  of  the 
troubadours  than  the  dialect  of  the  OataUms. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  pursuit  of  Valencia  and  Mdroia,  and  a  few  branches 
of  industry  are  carried  on.  Many  hands  are  occupied  in  making  the  white  wines 
of  Alicaut«  and  the  red  ones  of  Viuaroz  and  Benicurlo ;  the  grapes  of  the  vine- 
yards of  D4nia.  J&vea,  and  Gandia,  to  the  north  of  Cabo  de  la  N&o,  are  converted 


Sip 


480 


SPAIN. 


by  a  complicated  process  into  raisins ;  and  the  aparto  grow  growing  abundantly  on 
the  sunny  slopes  of  Albacete  and  Muroia  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  mats, 
baskets,  sandals,  and  a  variety  of  other  objects.*  There  are  hundreds  of  metal- 
liferous lodes,  but  only  the  lead  mines  in  the  hills  of  Herrerias,  to  the  east  of 
Cartagena,  are  being  worked  on  a  large  scale,  and  that  by  foreigners.  Zinc  has 
been  worked  since  1861,  and  mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  mercury,  and  rook-salt 

Fig.  161— RuiNi  or  thi  Dtxi  or  thb  Rribhvoik  abovi  Lorca. 


abound  at  some  distance  from  the  coast ;  bat,  hum  want  of  means  of  oommuDMWtion, 
their  exploitaticm  would  not  pay. 

Valencia  is  the  more  industrial  province  of  the  two.  Albacete  manufactures 
the  dreaded  natx^'as,  or  long  knives ;  M6roia  has  silk-mills ;  Cartagena  Tope*walkB 
and  other  establishments  connected  with  shipping ,  Jfttiva  has  a  few  paper-mills ; 
but  Valencia  and  Alcoy  are  now  the  great  centres  of  industry.    The  former  manu- 

•  82,000  tons  of  apnrto  gnu*  are  Mtimatod  to  have  been  collected  in  1873,  of  which  07.000  tonsxrere 
exported  to  Kngland, 


tHwSv 


rowing  abundantly  on 
manufacture  of  mats, 
B  hundreds  of  metal* 
rrerias,  to  the  east  of 
'  foreigners.  Zinc  has 
aercury,  and  rock-salt 

■  LOBCA. 


means  of  oommunioation, 

Albaoete  manufaetures 
»;  Cartagena  rope-walks 
k  has  a  few  paper-mills ; 
Btry.  The  former  naanu- 
1873,  of  which  67,000  ton*  were 


MUECIA  AND  VALENCIA.  4ti 

faotures  the  plaids  worn  by  the  peasantry,  silks  and  linens,  rartheuware  and 

Fig.  162.— P«AB*NW  «p  MuRcu. 


tiles.    Alc(^y  supplies  moat  of  the  paper  for  making  Spanish  cigarettes. 


■I 


422 


SPAIN. 


The  towna  of  Albacete  und  Almansa  are  important,  as  lying  on  the  great  high- 
road which  connects  the  plateau  of  La  Mancha  with  the  Mediterranean  seaboard. 
Rut  they  cannot  vie  in  wealth  and  population  with  the  towns  situated  on  the  coast, 
or  within  twenty-five  miles  of  it.  Lnrca,  the  southernmost  of  these  towns,  lies 
picturesquely  on  the  slopes  and  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  crowned  by  a  Moorish  citadel. 
The  old  town,  with  narrow  tortuous  streets  and  the  remains  of  Arab  palaces,  has 
been  given  up  to  Gitanos,  and  a  new  town  with  wide  and  straight  streets  built 
in  the  fertile  plain  irrigated  by  the  Guadalentin.  A  fine  road  joins  Lorca  to  the 
small  harbour  of  Aguilas,  twenty  miles  to  the  south. 

In  descending  the  valley  of  the  Guadalentin  we  pass  Totana,  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Gitanos  of  the  country,  and  Alham&,  well  known  on  account  of  its  hot 
springs,  and  finally  enter  the  mulberry  and  orange  groves  which  surround  the 
capital  of  the  province.  Muroia,  though  an  extensive  city,  hnrdly  looks  like  it,  for 
its  streets  are  deserted,  its  houses  without  beauty,  and  the  only  objects  of  interest 
are  the  cathedral,  the  shady  walks  along  the  banks  of  the  Segura,  and  the  canals 
irrigating  the  terrace  gardens.  Far  more  interesting  is  the  neighbouring  Carta- 
gena, which  was  destined  by  its  Punic  founders  to  become  a  second  Carthage 
in  truth,  and  its  magnificent  harbour  certainly  affords  great  advantages  for  com- 
mercial and  military  purposes.  The  discovery  of  the  rich  lead  and  silver  mines 
near  the  town  contributed  much  towards  its  prosperity.  Successive  Spanish 
Governments  have  attempted  to  restore  to  Cartagena  its  ancient  strategical  impor- 
tance. They  have  constructed  docks  and  arsenals,  and  erected  impregnable 
fortifications,  but,  in  spite  of  this,  the  population  of  the  town  is  hardly  a  third  of 
what  it  was  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  character  of  its 
commerce  is  almost  local,  notwithstanding  its  excellent  port,  and  sparto  grass, 
mats,  fruits,  and  ore  constitute  the  leading  articles  of  export. 

Alicante,  though  far  less  favoured  by  nature,  is  a  much  busier  place,  thanks  to 
the  fertility  of  the  huertas  of  Elohe,  Orihuela,  and  Alcoy,  and  the  railway  which 
connects  it  with  Madrid.  Only  small  vessels  can  approach  the  quays  and  piers  of 
the  town,  nestling  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  rook  crowned  by  a  dismantled  citadel. 
Larger  vessels  are  compelled  to  anchor  in  an  open  roadstead.  Other  coast  towns 
of  Valencia,  such  as  D4nia  and  CuUera,  offer  still  less  shelter,  but  are  nevertheless 
much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels.  Formerly  vessels  which  entered  the  Bay 
of  Valencia  during  winter  were  bound  to  exercise  the  greatest  caution,  owing  to 
violent  easterly  and  north-north-easterly  winds  and  fogs,  for  there  existed  not 
a  single  port  of  refuge.  This  want  has  now  been  supplied  by  the  construction 
of  a  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gtiadalaviar,  known  as  El  Gr&o  (strand)  de  Valencia. 

Valencia,  the  fourth  city  of  Spain  in  population,  is  the  natural  oeni^re  of  the  I 
most  fertile  huertas.  The  "  City  of  the  Cid  "  still  preserves  its  crenellated  walls, 
turrets,  gates,  narrow  and  tortuous  streets,  balconied  houses,  the  windows  of  which  I 
are  shaded  by  blinds,  and  awnings  spread  over  the  streets  to  protect  passers-by  I 
from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Amongst  its  numerous  buildings  there  is  but  one  whichi 
is  really  curious  :  this  is  the  Lonja  de  Seda,  or  silk  exchange,  a  graceful  structurel 
of  the  fifteenth  century.     Gardens  constitute  the  real  delight  of  Valencia,  andl 


■'^|i^**i^ 


--au 


MURCIA  AND  VAI,ENCIA. 


428 


ig  on  the  great  high- 

sditerranean  seaboard- 
situated  on  the  coast, 

t  of  these  towns,  lies 
hj  a  Moorish  citadel, 
of  Arab  palaces,  has 
straight  streets  built 

cad  joins  Loroa  to  the 

tana,  the  head-quarters 
on  account  of  its  hot 
Bs  which  surround  the 
hirdlv  looks  like  it,  for 
only  objects  of  interest 
I  Segura,  and  the  canals 
;he  neighbouring  Carta- 
)me  a  second  Carthage 
at  advantages  for  com- 

!i  lead  and  silver  mines 
J.  Successive  Spanish 
loient  strategical  impor- 
d  erected  impregnable 
bown  is  hardly  a  third  of 
.     The  character  of  its 

port,  and  sparto   grass, 
jrt. 

}h  busier  place,  thanks  to 
%  and  the  railway  which 
ih  the  quays  and  piers  of 
by  a  dismantled  citadel, 
lead.     Other  coast  towns 
altw,  but  are  nevertheless 
i  which  entered  the  Bay 
greatest  caution,  owing  to 
gs,  for  there  existed  not 
plied  by  the  constmction 
?r4o  (strand)  de  Valencia, 
the  natural  oen:.re  of  the 
erves  its  crenellated  walls, 
ses,  the  windows  of  which 
eets  to  protect  passers-by 
ags  there  is  but  one  which 
ange,  a  graceful  structure 

delight  of  Valencia,  and 


the  Alameda,  which  extends  along  the  banks  of  the  Ouadalaviar,  is,  perhaps,  the 
finest  city  promenade  in  Europe.  The  commerce  of  Valencia  rivals  that  of  C&diz.* 
To  the  north  of  Valencia  the  cultivable  country  along  the  coast  is  narrow,  and 
incapable  of  supporting  large  towns.  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mijaros,  has  attained  a  certain  importance,  but  farther  north  we  only  meet  with 
small  places  inhabited  by  fishermen  and  vine-growers.  Formerly  the  coast  road 
was  defended  by  castles,  chief  among  which  was  Saguntum,  famous  for  its  glorious 

Fig,  163. — Tub  Harbmvr  op  Cahtaoina. 
Scale  1 :  04.000. 


IMlle. 


defence  agnfnst  Hannibal.    Its  site  is  occupied  by  the  modem  town  of  Murviedro, 
i-e.  "  old  walls,"  and  its  ruins  are  not  very  imposing.! 

V. — The  Balearic  Iklands. 
The  Balearic  Islands  are  attached  to  the  mainland  of  Spain  by  a  submarine 

*  Value  o'r  exports  and  imports  in  1867,  £2,707.000. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Mediterranean  slope  between  Cabo  de  Gata  and  the 
Kbro :— Valencia,  108,000;  Mfiroia,  56,000;  Lorca,  40,010;  Alicante,  31,000;  Caifagena,  25,000;  Ori- 
Imela,  21,000;  Castellon  de  la  Pinna,  20,000;  Alc6y,  16,000;  Albncete,  15,000;  J&tiva,  13.000;  Alciim, 
13,000 ;  Almansa,  9,000. 


'^S0^^'-'J^  -mi^mmfl'W- 


424 


SPAIN. 


plateau,  and  are  goographioally  as  well  as  historically  a  dependency  of  Valencia 
and  Catalonia.  The  ranges  of  hills  traversing  these  islands  have  the  same  direction 
as  those  of  Murcia  and  Valencia.  On  the  other  hand,  the  peninsula  of  La  Baila, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  extends  beneath  the  sea  in  the  direction  of  Ibiza,  and 
from  this  submarine  tongue  of  land  rises  a  group  of  volcanic  rocks.  These  are  tho 
Oolumbretes,  from  the  Latin  colubraria,  signifying  "  serpents'  islets." 

The  Baleares  are  small  in  area,  but  favoured  by  climate,  productiveness,  and 
natural  beauty.  They  are  the  "  Happy  Islands  "  of  the  ancients,  and,  compared 
with  many  of  the  coast  lands,  are  indeed  a  favoured  region.    War  and  pestilence 

FiK.  164.— El  Obao  di  Valbxcm. 


BOO  Yards. 


have  been  no  strangers  to  them,  but  continual  troubles  have  not  interfered  with 
their  development. 

The  islands  consist  of  two  groups,  the  Pytiuses  and  the  Baleares  proper.  The 
name  of  the  latter  is  said  to  refer  to  the  expertness  of  the  natives  as  slingers ;  and, 
when  Q.  Metellus  prepared  to  land  upon  them,  he  took  care  to  shelter  his  men 
beneath  an  awning  of  hides.  The  climate  is  moister  and  more  equable  than  that 
of  neighbou;  ing  Spain.     Violent  storms  occur  frequently. 

The  structures  called  talayott  (watch-towers)  prove  that  the  islands  were 
inhabited  before  the  historic  epoch.  These  were  built  probably  by  the  same  race 
to  whom  the  nuraghi  of  Sardinia  owe  their  existence ;  but  the  present  population  is 
a  very  mixed  one,  for  every  nation  of  antiquity  has  successively  invaded  the  island. 


.!<MMUI 


ifi 


il* 


lendency  of  Valencia 
ave  the  aame  direction 
eninsiila  of  La  Bafia, 
irection  of  Ibiza,  and 
rocks.  Thew  are  tho 
'  islets." 

e,  productiveness,  and 

icients,  and,  compared 

War  and  pestilence 


have  not  interfered  with 

le  Baleares  proper.    The 

» natives  as  sUngers ;  and, 

care  to  shelter  his  men 

1  more  equable  than  that 

* 

e  that  the  islands  were 
trobably  by  the  same  race 
t  ihe  present  population  is 
ssively  invaded  the  island. 


•"^*MXu. »-: 


THE  DALBABIO  ISLANDS. 


The  language  upoken  it  a  Catalan  dialect  reaembling  that  of  Limouain.  The 
Majorcans  are  generally  small  of  stature,  but  well  proportioned,  and  the  women  of 
tome  of  the  distriots  are  famed  for  their  beauty  and  ezpreaaive  features.  The 
peasantry  are  suspicious  and  thrifty,  but  honest  and  hospitable ;  and  their  dress, 
consisting  of  loose  breeches,  a  belt,  a  bright-coloured  vest,  and  a  goa(«kin  cloak,  is 
picturesque.    Dancing  to  the  music  of  a  guitar  or  flute  is  their  favourite  amusement. 

Ibiza  (Iviza),  the  largest  island  of  the  Pytiuses,  is  hardly  more  than  fifty  miles 
from  Cabo  de  la  N&o.  Its  surface  is  hilly  and  intersected  by  numerous  torrent  beds. 
Puerto  Magno  (Pormany,  or  Orand  Port)  lies  on  the  west  side,  and  a  similar  bay, 
the  trysting-place  of  numerous  fishing-smacks,  on  the  south  side.  On  its  sliore 
stands  the  capital  of  the  island,  an  ancient  Carthaginian  colony.  A  chain  of  islets 
and  rocks,  similar  to  the  Adam's  Bridge  of  Oeylon,  joins  the  southernmost  cape  of 
Ibiza  to  Formentera  Island.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  so  salubrious  that  neither 
serpents  nor  other  noxious  reptiles  can  bear  it.  The  population  is  small,  in  spite  of 
the  fertility  of  the  island.  Watch-towers  and  castles  of  refuge  near  every  village 
recall  the  time  when  the  inhabitants  suffered  from  Moorish  pirates.  The  islanders 
are  happy,  for  the  central  Government  leaves  them  pretty  much  to  themselves. 

Mallobca,  or  Majorca,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  the  only  one  which  can 
boast  of  a  regular  range  of  mountains  rising  precipitously  along  the  north-western 
coast,  and  culminating  in  the  twin  peaks  of  Silla  de  Torrella  (4,940  feet)  and 
Puig  Mayor  (4,920  feet).  These  mountains  are  amongst  the  most  picturesque  in 
all  Europe,  and  from  their  summits  may  be  enjoyed  a  magnificent  prospect.  The 
mufflon  ia  said  still  to  haunt  their  pine  woods  and  recesses.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  island  consists  of  a  plain  lying  at  an  elevation  of  150  feet  above  the  sea- 
level,  and  dotted  over  with  isolated  puig$,  or  conical  peaks,  surmounted  in  many 
instances  by  an  old  church  or  castle.  The  eastern  extremity  of  the  island  is  hilly, 
and  the  Bee  de  Farruch  (1,863  feet)  still  bears  its  old  Arabic  name.  Near  it  are 
the  wonderful  stalactite  caverns  of  Arta,  which  extend  beneath  the  sea.  The 
eztremitieB  of  the  most  depressed  portion  of  the  island  open  out  towards  two  great 
bays,  one  in  the  north-east,  the  other  in  the  south-west.  Palma,  the  capital  of  the 
island,  lies  on  the  former  of  these,  though  the  other,  known  as  Puerto  de  Alcudia, 
would  ofier  greater  advantages  were  it  not  for  the  pestilential  swamps  which 
surround  it.  On  the  ironrbo'und  northern  coast  there  are  no  harbours,  but  coast- 
ing vessels  frequent  the  creek  of  Soller,  whence  they  export  oranges. 

The  peasants,  or  pageies,  of  Majorca  have  the  reputation  of  being  good  agricul- 
turists, but  much  of  the  progress  made  is  due  to  Oatalan  immigrants.  The  island 
produces  delicious  winds  (Benisalem),  olive  c  1,  oranges,  vegetables,  and  pigs,  all 
of  which  find  a  market  at  Barcelona  or  in  France.  The  com  grown  is  not, 
however,  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  population,  and  Majorcans  as  weU  as 
"  Mahonian  "  gardeners  are  met  with  in  every  town  of  the  Mediterranean.  Bay- 
salt  is  made  at  Cape  Salinas.  Shoes,  cottons,  linens,  baskets,  and  porous  vases  are 
produced ;  but  the  manufacture  of  mt^oliea  has  ceased.  Palma  is  a  busy  place  of 
40,000  inhabitants,  and  its  bastioned  wallr  castle,  cathedral,  and  amphitheatrically 
built  houses  present  a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea.    The  inhabitants  are  proud  of 


l»iW!t»»BW«W4i(B^.';>i.-.  ■,*t«,V>:-«K3 


426 


flFAIN. 


their  public  buildings,  unci  aHuert  that  thoir  lot\ia  is  auporior  to  thut  of  Valencia. 
The  Chuctaa,  or  converted  Jewi,  are  a  ourioua  oleniont  of  the  population.  Thoy 
occupy  a  separate  quarter,  marry  amongst  themselves,  and  have  preserved  their 
race  distinctions  and  mercantile  genius.  A  large  portion  of  the  landed  property 
of  the  island  has  paused  into  their  hands.  A  railway  traversing  the  rich  districts 
of  Santa  Maria  and  Benisalem,  to  the  south  of  the  populous  towns  of  Manacor 
and  Felanitx,  connects  Palma  with  Alcudia.* 

Menori'a,  or  Minorca,  twenty-four  miles  to  the  east  of  Majorca,  is  generally 

Fig.  164.— Thi  Daliahii;  Inlands. 
So«la  I  :  S,700,000. 


kit  r«k< 


flO 


level,  its  culminating  point,  Monte  Toro,  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  only  attaining 
a  height  of  1,171  feet.     The  strong  northerly  winds  which  sweep  over  its  plains 
cause  the  trees  to  turn  their  branches  in  the  direction  of  Africa,  and  orange- trees 
find  shelter  only  in  the  barrancos,  or  ravines,  which  intersect  them.   The  climate  isl 
less  pleasant  than  that  of  the  neighbouring  island,  and  the  soil  less  fertile,  for,| 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  limestone,  it  rapidly  absorbs  the  rain.    There  ar 
two  ports  and  two  cities,  one  at  each  extremity  of  the  island,  which  from  time 

*  Towns  of  Mttjurca :— Pslma,  40,000;  Mans(»r,  16.000;  Felanitx,  10,<(00;   Llnchmsyor,  8,800 1 
Follensa,  8,000 ;  loca,  8,000 ;  Solier,  8.000 ;  Santafly,  8.000 


V^  £>5t**s^#S«r^^*i 


ARAOON  AND  PATAI-ONIA. 


m 


r  to  thut  of  Vftlenoin. 
10  population.  Thoy 
httvo  prfeaerved  their 
(f  the  landed  property 
■sing  the  rich  diatricts 
ous  towns  of  Manacor 

Majorca,  ia  generally 


■^mi 


*i         I 


'  the  island,  only  attaining 
dob  sweep  over  its  plains 
:  Africa,  and  orange-trees 
sect  them.  The  climate  is 
the  soil  less  fertile,  for, 
jrbs  the  rain.  There  are 
)  island,  which  from  time 

itat,  lO.flOO;  Lluchmayor,  8,800; 


immemorial  have  claimwl  procfxlunoe.  Ciududulu  (7,000  iuhul)itttuti4)  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  cIorov  proximity  to  Mujbi'ca,  but  its  harbour  is  bad.  Port  Muhon 
(15,000  inhabitants),  on  the  other  hund,  |M)hNOMos  an  udmirublo  port,  und  Androiis 
Doria  says  with  refoi*enoe  to  it  that  "  June,  July,  and  Muhon  uro  the  bvnt  ports 
of  the  Mediterranean."  The  English  made  Muhun  a  wealthy  city,  but  its  trade 
fell  off  immediately  when  they  abandoned  it  in  1802. 

IHg.  166.-- Vmw  1)1'  Ibi».a. 


VI. — The  Valley  of  the  Ebro.     Aragon  and  Catalonia. 

The  central  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  is  as  distinctly  separated  from  the 
remainder  of  Spain  as  is  that  of  the  Guadalquivir.  It  forms  a  Tiist  depression, 
bounded  by  the  midland  plateau  of  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  if  the  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean  were  to  rise  1,000  feet,  this  ancient  lake,  which  existed  until 
its  pent-up  waters  had  forced  tliemselves  a  passage  through  the  mountains  of 


Hg'^l'ff'.y; 


428 


SPAIN. 


Catalonia,  would  be  converted  into  a  gulf  of  the  sea.  The  Pyrenees  in  the  north, 
the  barren  slopes  of  the  plateaux  to  the  south  and  south-west,  form  well-defined 
boundaries,-  but  in  the  norlh-west  the  plain  of  the  Ebro  extends  beyond  Aragon, 
into  a  country  inhabited  by  men  of  a  different  race. 


Fig.  167.— Ths  Pttiubbb. 
So  Je  1 :  400,000. 


6Mite«. 

Historically  and  geographically,  Aragon  and  Catalonia  form  one  of  the  great 
natural  divisions  of  Spain,  less  extensive  than  the  Castiles,  but  hardly  less  impor- 
tant»  and  far  more  densely  populated.*  The  political  destinies  of  Aragon  and 
Catalonia  have  been  the  same  for  more  than  seven  centuries,  but,  in  spite  of  this> 

•  Catalonia,   12,483  equare   milen,   1,778,408  inhnbitantB^  Aragon,  17,676  square  milM,  928,718 
inhabitants. 


AEAGON  AND  CATALONIA. 


429 


Tenoes  in  the  north, 
8t,  form  well-defined 
mds  beyond  Aragon, 


f  *•• 


Nf- 


r  to- 


form  one  of  the  great 

but  hardly  less  impor- 

atinies  of  Aragon  and 

38,  but,  in  spite  of  this, 

17,676  square  milM,  928,718 


there  exist  great  contrasts,  which  have  not  been  without  their  influence  upon  the 
character  of  the  population.  Aragon,  a  country  of  plains  surrounded  by  moun- 
tains, is  an  inland  province,  and  its  inhabitants  have  remained  for  the  most  part 
herdsmen,  agriculturists,  and  soldiers.  Catalonia,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  an 
admirable  seaboard.  Its  natural  wealth,  joined  to  favourable  geographical  position, 
has  developed  commerce  with  neighbouring  countries,  and  more  especially  with 
Roussillon  and  Languedoc.  Indeed,  seven  or  eight  centuries  ago,  the  Catalans 
were  Proven9al8  rather  than  Spaniards,  and  in  their  language  and  customs  they 
wore  closely  related  to  the  people  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees. 

In  the  course  of  the  great  political  revolution,  the  most  terrible  feature  of 
which  was  the  war  of  the  Albigenses,  Catalonia  became  a  prey  to  the  Castilians. 
As  long  as  the  Proven9al  world  maintained  its  natural  centre  between  Aries  and 
Toulouse,  the  populations  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  as  far  as  the  Ebro,  Valencia, 
and  the  Baleares,  were  attracted  towards  it  as  to  their  natural  centre.  Those 
Christian  populations  who  foimd  themselves  placed  between  Provence  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Arab  kingdoms  on  the  other,  naturally  gravitated  towards  the 
former,  with  whom  they  possessed  community  of  race,  religion,  and  language. 
Hence  the  wide  range  of  the  idiom  known  as  Limousin,  and  its  flourishing 
literature.  But  when  an  implacable  war  had  converted  several  towns  of  the 
Albigenses  into  deserts;  when  the  barbarians  of  the  North  had  destroyed  the 
civilisation  of  the  South,  and  the  southern  slopes  of  the  C^vennes  had  been  reduced 
by  violence  to  the  position  of  a  political  dependency  of  the  valley  of  the  Seine, 
Catalonia  was  forced  to  look  elsewhere  for  natural  allies.  The  centre  of  gravity 
was  shifted  from  the  north  to  the  south,  from  Southern  France  to  the  peninsula  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  Castile  secured  what  Provence  had  lost. 

The  plateau  to  the  south  of  the  Ebro  has  been  cut  up,  th  ough  the  erosive 
action  of  rivers,  into  elongated  sierra^  and  isolated  muefas  (molars),  and  its  edge  is 
marked  by  numerous  notches,  through  which  these  rivers  debouch  upon  the  plain. 
The  Sierra  de  San  Just  (4,967  feet),  now  separated  from  that  of  Oiidar  by  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Guadalope,  is  a  remnant  of  this  ancient  plateau,  as  are  the 
Sierras  de  Cucalon  (4,284  feet),  de  Vicor,  and  de  la  Yirgen,  which  join  it  to 
the  superb  mass  of  the  Monoayo,  in  the  north-west ;  and  the  same  applies  to  the 
Sierra  de  Almenara  (4,687  feet),  which  rises  to  the  west  of  them. 

The  granitic  mountain  mass  of  the  Moncayo  (7,705  feet)  has  offered  greater 
resistance  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  waters  than  have  the  cretaceous  rocks  of  the 
plateau  to  the ;  east  of  it.  The  Moncayo  is  the  storm-breeder  of  the  plains  of 
Aragon,  and  from  its  summit  the  Castilian  can  look  down  upon  the  wide  valley  of 
the  Ebro.  To  the  Aragonese  the  plateau  is  accessible  only  through  the  valleys 
of  the  Guadalope,  Martin,  and  Jiloca,  and  it  is  these  which  have  enabled  them  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  upland  of  Teruel,  which  is  of  such  strategical  importance, 
from  its  commanding  position  between  the  basins  of  Guadalaviar,  Jdcar,  and  Tejo. 

To  the  north  of  the  Ebro  rises  the  snow-ulad  range  of  the  Pyrenees,  which 
separates  Spain  from  the  rest  of  Europe.     Several  spurs  descend  from  this  master 
range  into  Aragon.    But  there  are  also  independent  ranges,  one  of  which,  that  of 
81 


fwWil'^ 


\fm.. '  :iMmwm^ 


480 


SPAIN. 


the  Bardenas,  rises  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Ebro,  right  opposite  to  the 
gigantic  Moncayo.  The  parallel  ridges  of  the  Castellar  and  of  the  "  district  of  the 
Five  Towns"  form  a  continuation  of  these  hillocks  to  the  east  of  the  Arba,  and 
then,  crossing  the  valley  of  the  Gallego,  we  reach  the  barren  terraces  of  the 
Mon^gros,  upon  which  rises  the  insular  Sierra  de  Alcubierra,  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  ancient  lake  of  Aragon.  A  saddle,  elevated  only  1,247  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  connects  the  latter  with  the  mountains  of  Huesca  in  the  north. 

Several  mountain  masses  of  considerable  height  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
country,  and  separate  these  riverine  hills  from  the  main  range  of  the  Pyrenees. 
They  consist  for  the  most  part  of  chalk,  through  which  the  bounteous  rivers 


Fig.  168.— Port  Mahon. 
Sealel :  00,000 


lllile. 


descending  from  the  Pyrenees  have  excavated  their  beds.    These  channels,  with  I 
their  precipices,  defiles,  and  cascades,  form  one  of  the  most  picturesque  mountain 
districts  of  Spain.     The  most  famous  of  these  Pyreneon  foot-hills  is  the  Sierra  del 
la  Pena,  which  is  separated  from  the  Pyrenees  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Arogon.| 
At  the  eastern  extremity  of  this  chain,  high  above  the  ancient  city  of  Jaoa, 
the  pyramidal  sandstone  mass  of  the  Pefia  de  Oroel  (5,804  feet),  from  which  wd 
are  able  to  embrace  an  immense  horizon,  extending  from  the  Pyrenees  to  th^ 
Moncayo.     The  wild  district  which  occupies  the  centre  of  this  magnificent  pane 
rama  is  the  famous  country  of  Sobrarbe,  held  in  high  veneration  by  patriotif 
Spaniards,  for  it  was  there  they  commenced  their  struggles  against  the  Moors. 


ads.    These  channels,  with 
most  picturesque  mountain 
a  foot-hills  is  the  Sierra  de 
deep  valley  of  the  Aragon. 
e  ancient  city  of  Jaca,  rises 
(5,804  feet),  from  which  we 
f^m  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
re  of  this  magnificent  pano- 
igh  veneration  by  patriotic 
jgles  against  the  Moors. 


"~~"'^'^'r-ilMr    '*^'  '    '■•'»"- -a^' 


ARAOON  AND  CATALONIA. 


481 


An  elevated  saddle  connects  the  Sierra  de  la  Pefia  with  the  irregular  mountain 
mass  of  the  Sierra  de  Santo  Domingo,  to  the  south  of  it,  whose  spurs  descend  in 
terraces  into  the  rugged  plain  of  the  Five  Towns.  It  is  separated  hy  a  narrow 
cleft,  through  which  passes  the  Gallego  from  the  Sierra  de  Guara,  which  extends 
to  the  river  Cinca  in  the  east,  and  several  minor  chains  run  parallel  with  it.  This 
parallelism  in  the  mountain  ranges  may  be  traced,  likewise,  as  far  as  the  river  Segre. 

The  Monsech,  thus  called  from  its  arid  calcareous  ravines,  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  an  unbroken  rampart  from  the  south,  but  is  intersected  at  right  angles  by 
the  gorges  of  two  Nogueras — the  Ribagorzana  and  Pallaresa.  The  Pena  do  San 
Gervas  and  the  Sierra  de  Boumort,  which  rise  to  the  north  of  it,  are  much  less 
regular  in  their  contours,  but  exceed  it  in  height. 

The  Pyrenees  terminate  with  the  gigantic  mountains  surrounding  the  valley  of 
Andorra,  and  with  the  Peak  of  Carlitte  (9,583  feet).  The  Sierra  del  Cadi  (8,322 
feet)  belongs  to  a  detached  chain  hardly  inferior  to  them  in  height,  and  culminat- 
ing on  French  soil  in  the  superb  pyramid  of  the  Canigou  (9,140  feet).  Numerous 
spurs  extend  from  this  sierra  towards  the  sea. 

In  this  rugged  mountain  region  we  meet  with  geological  formations  of  every 
age,  from  the  Silurian  to  the  cretaceous.  Iron,  copper,  and  even  gold  abound, 
and  might  be  worked  with  great  profit  if  roads  and  railways  penetrated  into  the 
upper  valleys.  A  coal-field  on  the  Upper  Ter,  near  San  Juan  de  las  Abadesas, 
is  being  worked  very  sluggishly,  and  others  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cadi 
have  uot  even  been  touched.  The  famous  rocks  of  salt  at  Solsona  and  Cardona  lie 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  del  Cadi,  and  that  of  Cardona  alone,  though  it  has  been 
worked  for  ceqturies,  is  estimated  to  contain  nearly  400,000,000  cubic  yards. 

The  abundance  of  mineral  veins  is  due,  perhaps,  to  the  existence  of  subter- 
ranean lava  lakes.  The  only  volcanic  hills  in  the  north  of  Spain  are  those  near 
Olot  and  Santa  Pau,  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Fluvia.  Immense  sheets  of  basaltic 
lava  have  been  ejected  there  during  the  tertiary  age  from  fourteen  craters,  one  of 
them,  upon  which  stands  the  old  town  of  CastelfoUit,  forming  a  huge  rampart  of 
picturesque  aspect.  Jets  of  steam  issue  even  now  from  many  fissures  in  the 
rocks. 

The  mountains  along  the  coast  of  Catalonia  resemble  in  every  rei^ct  those  of 
Valencia,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the  gorge  of  the  Ebro.  Near  the 
mouths  of  that  river  the  rugged  and  mountainous  region  extends  about  thirty  miles 
inland,  as  far  as  the  Llanos  del  TJrgel ;  but  farther  north  it  widens,  until  it  finally 
merges  in  the  spurs  descending  from  the  Pyrenees.  The  principal  summits  are 
the  Mont  Sant  (3,513  feet),  the  Puig  de  Montagut  (2,756  feet),  the  Monserrat 
(4,057  feet),  and  Monseny  (5,276  feet).  The  best-known  passes  are  at  the  head 
of  the  Franooli,  through  which  runs  the  railway  from  Tarragona  to  L^rida,  the 
pass  at  the  head  of  the  Noya,  and  the  Pass  of  Calaf. 

Of  the  last-named  mountains  that  of  Monserrat  is  the  most  fomous,  for 
suspended  upon  one  of  its  flanks  hang  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  monastery 
m  which  Loyola  deposited  his  sword.  Monserrat  has  lost  its  prestige  as  a  holy 
place,  but  still  remains  one  of  the  most  interesting  subjects  for  the  study  of 


482 


SPAIN. 


geologists.  It  oonsists  of  conglomerate,  and  has  been  worn  by  atmoapberio 
agencies  into  innumerable  pillars,  pinnacles,  and  earth  pyramids  surmounted  by 
huge  boulders.  Hermitages  and  the  ruins  of  castles  abound,  and  the  prospect 
from  the  highest  summit  extends  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Balearic  Isles. 

Croseing  the  valleys  of  the  Llobregat  and  Ter,  we  reach  the  swampy  plain  of 
Ampurdan,  an  old  gulf  of  the  sea,  and  with  it  the  north-eastem  extremity  of 
Spain,  separated  from  France  by  the  Albdres  Mountains.  The  surrounding  hills 
abound  in  the  remains  uf  ecclesiastical  buildings.  One  of  these,  near  Cabo  de 
Creus,  the  easternmost  promontory  of  Spain,  and  the  Aphrodision  of  the  ancients, 
marks  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Venus. 

The  basin  of  the  Ebro  forms  a  huge  triangle,  the  mountains  of  Catalonia  being 
the  base,  whilst  its  apex  lies  in  the  hills  of  Cantabria,  close  to  the  Atlantic.  The 
surrounding  hills  differ  much  in  height,  but  the  nucleus  of  all  consists  of  granite, 
upon  which  have  been  deposited  sedimentary  strata,  the  silent  witnesses  of  the 
gradual  filling  up  of  the  old  inland  lake.  The  river  itself  traverses  the  very  centre 
of  this  triangle,  at  right  angles  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  only  when  it  reaches  the 
mountain  barrier  separating  it  from  the  sea  does  it  wind  about  in  search  of  an  outlet. 

The  Fontibre,  or  "fountain  of  the  Ebro,"  gives  birtb  at  once  to  a  considerable 
stream,  which,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Peoa  Labra,  rushes  with  great  impetuosity 
past  Reinosa  (2,687  feet),  then  passes  through  a  succession  of  defiles,  and  finally, 
having  received  the  Ega  and  Arag^n  with  the  Argo  from  the  north,  emerges  from 
Navarra  a  great  river.  Below  Tudela  (800  feet)  it  is  large  enough  to  feed  two 
canals,  viz.  that  of  T&uste,  which  carries  fertility  into  the  once- sterile  tracts  at 
.  the  foot  of  Bardenas,  and  the  navigable  Imperial  Canal,  which  follows  the  valley 
down  to  S^agoza.  The  ordinary  volume  of  the  latter  amounts  to  no  less  than  494 
cubic  feet  per  second,  but  much  of  this  water  is  sucked  up  by  the  calcareous  soil. 

The  tributary  rivers  which  enter  the  Ebro  in  the  plains  of  Aragon  compensate 
for  the  loss  sustained  through  canals  of  irrigation.  The  Jalon,  Huerva,  Martin, 
and  Guadalope  join  on  the  right ;  the  Arba,  Gallego,  and  Segre  on  the  left.  This 
last  is  the  most  important  of  all,  for  it  drains  the  whole  of  the  Pyrenean  slope 
from  Mont  Perdu  to  the  Carlitte. 

The  Ebro,  after  its  junction  with  the  Segre,  immediately  plunge  into  the 
coast  ranges  of  Catalonia,  and  though  the  fall  thence  to  the  sea  amounts  to 
183  feet  in  96  miles,  no  rapids  or  cataracts  are  met  with.     The  suspended  matter  I 
brought  down  by  the  river  has  been  deposited  in  the  shapo  of  a  delta  which  juts 
out  fifteen  miles  into  the  Mediterranean,  covers  an  area  of  150  square  miles,  and  I 
abounds  in  salt  marshes,  lagoons,  and  dead  river  arms.    A  canal,  twenty-two  milesl 
in  length,  connects  the  harbour  of  refuge  at  Alfaques  with  the  Ebro,  but  is  noti 
available  for  ships  of  great  draxight,  owing  to  the  bar  which  closes  its  mouthl 
The  other  embouchures  of  the  river  are  likewise  closed  by  bars. 

The  volume  of  the  Ebro*  decreases  annually,  on  account  of  the  increasing 

*  Area  of  the  basin  of  the  Ebro,  25,100  Bqnare  miles ;  discharge  during  floods,  175,000  cubic  feeij 
average,  7,100  cubic  feet ;  during  summer,  1,760  cubic  feet ;  annual  rainfall,  18  inches ;  surface 
1*4  inches ;  proportion  between  the  two,  13:1. 


«^*^*wii?Sis^iaste^^;ss 


ARAGON  AND  CATALONU. 


488 


orn  by  atmoapberio 
mids  Burmounted  by 
id,  and  tbe  prospect 
(aleario  Islea. 

the  Bwampy  plain  of 

eastern  extremity  of 

Tbe  surrounding  bills 

tbese,  near  Cabo  de 
dision  of  tbe  ancients, 

ains  of  Catalonia  being 
)  to  tbe  Atlantic.    The 
all  consists  of  granite, 
silent  witnesses  of  the 
raverses  tbe  very  centre 
mly  when  it  reaches  tbe 
at  in  search  of  an  outlet, 
t  once  to  a  considerable 
I  vnth  great  impetuosity 
1  of  defiles,  and  finally, 
the  north,  emerges  from 
irge  enough  to  feed  two 
he  once- sterile  tracts  at 
which  follows  the  valley 
lounts  to  no  less  than  494 
p  by  tbe  calcareous  soil, 
ins  of  Aragon  compensate 
Le  Jalon,  Huerva,  Martin, 
id  Segre  on  the  left.    This 
le  of  the  Pyrenean  slope 

ediately  plunges  into  the 
)e  to  the  sea  amounts  to 
u  The  suspended  matter 
ape  of  a  delta  which  juts 

of  150  square  miles,  and 
A  canal,  twenty-two  miles 

with  the  Ebro,  but  is  not 
r  which  closes  its  mouth. 

by  bars. 

account  of  the  increasing 

«  during  floods,  m.000  cubic  feet, 
inlall,  18  inches;  surface  dnunage, 


quantities  of  water  which  it  is  called  upon  to  furnish  for  purposes  of  irrigation, 
and  sooner  or  later  it  will  be  reduced  to  the  condition  of  the  rivers  of  Valencia. 

The  productiveness  of  the  irrigated  fields  of  Aragon  and  Catalonia  bears 
witness  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Even  saline  tracts  have  been  converted  into 
gardens.  Tropical  plants,  agaves,  cacti,  and  a  few  feathery  pnlms  on  tbe  coast  to 
the  south  of  Barcelona  recall  tbe  beautiful  landscapes  of  Southern  Spain.  Tbe 
valley  of  tbe  Ebro  holds  an  intermediate  position  between  Murcia  and  Valencia 
and  the  bleak  plateau  and  mountains  of  the  interior ;  but  water,  except  in  tbe 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  tbe  rivers,  is  nowhere  abundant.  On  some  of  the 
hill-tops  may  be  seen  houses  the  walls  of  which  are  dyed  red,  because  it  was  found 
more  economical  to  mix  the  mortar  with  wine  than  to  convey  thither  water  for  that 
purpose.  This  deficiency  of  moisture  is  a  great  drawback  to  certain  districts  in 
the  lower  valley  of  tbe  Ebro.  The  greater  portion  of  B&rdenas,  the  Mon^gros,  and 
the  terraces  of  Calauda  are  treeless  steppes.  Cold  and  heat  alternate  abruptly, 
without  reference  to  seasons,  and  the  climate,  in  spite  of  tbe  proximity  of  tbe  sea,  is 
quite  continental  in  its  character.  The  hot  wind^,  so  much  dreaded  ou  tbe  coast 
of  Catalonia,  do  not  blow  from  Africa,  but  from  the  parched  plains  of  Aragon. 

The  climate  of  Catalonia,  owing  to  the  breezes  blowing  from  the  Mediterranean, 
is  fur  more  equable  than  that  of  Aragon,  and  to  this  circumstance,  no  less  than  to 
differences  of  race  and  greater  facilities  i'or  commerce,  this  province  is  indebted 
for  its  distinct  individuality.* 

Catalonia,  ].«ing  open  to  invasions  from  the  sea  as  well  as  by  land,  has  a  much 
more  mixed  population  than  its  neighbour  Aragon.  On  tbe  other  band,  a  con- 
queror once  in  possession  of  the  latter  had  but  little  to  fear  expulsion  at  the 
hands  of  new-comers,  and  the  Moors  maintained  themselves  in  Arugon  three 
hundred  years  after  they  bad  been  expelled  from  Barcelona. 

The  inhabitants  of  tbe  valley  of  the  Ebro  are  ofiensively  haughty,  of  sluggish 
minds,  g^ven  to  old  customs  and  superstitions,  but  they  are  at  tbe  same  time 
singularly  persistent,  and  their  bravery  does  credit  to  their  Celtiberian  ancestors. 
These  fine  broad-shouldered  men,  who  follow  their  donkeys  along  the  high-roads, 
the  bead  enveloped  in  a  silken  kerchief,  and  the  waist  confined  by  a  violet-coloured 
helt,  are  at  all  times  ready  for  a  fight.  Up  to  the  close  of  last  century  it  was 
customary  to  get  up  fights  between  villages  in  mere  wantonness,  and  tbe  rondallas, 
a  term  now  employed  for  open-air  concerts,  scarcely  ever  terminated  without 
hloodsbed.  In  trifles  tbe  Aragonese  are  as  stubborn  as  in  matters  of  importance, 
and  they  are  said  to  "  drive  in  nails  with  their  head."  For  several  centuries  tbe 
Aragonese  struggled  with  the  Moors,  and  the  kings,  dependent  us  they  were  upon 
the  support  of  the  people,  felt  constrained  to  submit  to  a  considerable  limitation 
of  their  power.  It  was  Philip  II.  of  Castile  who  suppressed  these  ancient  pro- 
vincial privileges,  and  condemned  Aragon  to  lead  a  life  of  intellectual  stagnntion. 

The  Catalans  are  as  self-opinionated  as  their  neighbours  tbe  Aragonese ;  noisy 
quarrels  frequently  take  place  amongst  them ;  but  they  rarely  come  to  blows.   They 

*  il(>r<ri7«M ;— Mean  temperature,  61';  extremes,  106°  and  21*;  difference,  85° ;  rainfall,  13-6  inches. 
Bnrctlona : — Mean  temperature,  63°;  extremes,  88"  and  32°;  difference,  66°;  rainiall,  lA-7  inches 


^.^i^.i^-' 


484 


8PAIN. 


are  said  to  be  less  firm  of  character  than  the  Aragonese,  yet  they  succeeded  in 
maintaining  their  provincial  independence  much  longer.  Few  towns  have  stotxl 
more  sieges  than  Barcelona,  and  fewer  still  have  offered  a  more  valiant  defence. 
The  Catalans  are  undoubtedly  industrious.  They  have  not  only  converted  the 
irrigable  valleys  facing  the  sea  into  gardens,  but  have  likewise  attacked  the  arid 
mountains,  and,  by  triturating  the  rocka  and  carrying  thither  soil  from  the  plain, 
have  made  them  produce  grapes,  olives,  and  corn.  Hence  the  proverb,  "A 
Catalan  can  turn  stones  into  bread."  Agriculture,  however,  does  not  wholly 
supply  the  wants  of  so  dense  a  population,  and  Barcelona  with  its  suburbs  has 
become  a  huge  manufacturing  centre,  where  cottons,  woollens,  and  other  textile 
fabrics,  hardware,  chemical  preparations,  glass,  paper,  and  various  articles  are  pro< 
duced.  The  province  of  Barcelona  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  cotton  industry  in  Spain, 
and  fully  deserves  to  be  called  the  Spanish  Lancashire.*  The  Catalans  are  a 
migratory  race.  Tbey  are  met  with  not  only  in  every  other  province  of  Spain,  but 
in  all  the  Spanish  colonies.  Everywhere  they  are  reputed  for  their  thrift,  and  in 
Cuba  are  hated  as  rivals  or  masters  by  Creoles  and  blacks. 

The  towns  of  Aragon  and  Catalonia  present  the  same  contrasts  as  do  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  two  provinces.  Those  of  the  former  are  of  solemn  and  even  gluomy 
aspect,  whilst  the  picturesque  cities  of  the  maritime  province  are  full  of  bustle 
and  mirth.    The  former  represent  the  Middle  Age,  the  latter  our  modem  era. 

Zaragoza  (Saragossa)  is  most  favourably  situated  in  the  very  centre  of  the  plain 
of  Aragon.  It  has  its  Moorish  alcazar  (the  Aljaferia),  now  used  as  a  barrack; 
a  curious  leaning  tower  similar  to  that  of  Pisa ;  and  fine  jiromenades,  including 
the  Coso  and  shaded  walks.  But  prouder  than  of  all  thei>e  attractions  are  the 
inhabitants  of  the  epithet  "  heroic,"  which  was  bestowed  upon  their  city  in  con- 
sequence of  the  valiant  resistance  it  offered  in  1808  and  1<^9,  when  they  not] 
only  defended  their  homes,  but  also  their  patron  saint,  the  Virgen  del  Pilar. 

At  Zaragoza  a  few  wide  avenues  have  been  cut  through  the  labryinth  of  tor- 
tuous streets,  but  the  other  towns  of  the  province  have  preserved  their  physiognomy 
of  former  days.  Jaca,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Aragon,  between  the  Fyrene 
and  the  Sierra  de  la  Pefia,  with  its  grey  houses,  still  retains  its  turreted  walls  and 
ancient  citadel.  It  is  the  old  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sobrarbe,  but  would  hardl^j 
be  mentioned  now  if  it  were  not  for  its  position  at  the  foot  of  the  Pass  of  Oanfranc 
and  the  neighbouring  monastery  of  La  Pena.  Huesoa,  at  the  base  of  the  hills,  tl 
Osca  of  the  Romans,  recalls  the  dominion  of  the  Ausks,  or  Euskarians.  Standing  iJ 
the  midst  of  an  irrigated  plain,  it  still  enjoys  a  certain  importance.  It  boasts  of  [ 
richly  decorated  cathedral,  deserted  monasteries,  an  old  royal  palace  now  occupifi 
by  the  university,  and  the  remains  of  a  turreted  wall.  Barbastro,  near  the  rivJ 
Cinca,  occupies  a  position  similar  to  that  of  Huesca.  The  carriage  road  over  tl 
Somport  connects  it  with  France. 

The  Arab  city  of  Colatayud,  on  the  river  Jalon,  is  commercially  the  secoJ 
city  of  Aragon,  and  replaces  Bilbilis  of  the  Iberians,  which  stood  on  a  hill  near  [ 

*  In  1873  there  were  700  cotton-milla,  with  104,000  hands  and  1,400,000  spiniUet,  conauming  67,20oJ 
lbs.  of  cotton. 


AllAOON  AND  CATALONIA. 


yet  they  succeeded  in 
Tew  towns  have  stocMl 
more  valiant  defence, 
lot  only  converted  tlie 
iwise  attacked  the  arid 
;her  soil  from  the  plain, 
ence  the  proverb,  "A 
ever,  does  not  wholly 
la  with  its  suburbs  has 
(oUens,  and  other  textile 
various  articles  are  pro- 
cotton  industry  in  Spain, 
*      The  Catalans  are  u 
er  province  of  Spain,  but 
>d  for  their  thrift,  and  in 

contrasts  as  do  the  inha- 
solemn  and  even  glvX)my 
rovince  are  full  of  bustle 
attei"  our  modem  era. 
le  very  centre  of  the  plain 
I,  now  used  as  a  barrack; 
ine  jiromenades,  including 
thei'e  attractions  are  the 
jd  upon  their  city  in  con- 
and  liW9,  when  they  not 
the  Virgen  del  Pilar, 
mgh  the  labryinth  of  tor- 
reserved  their  physiognomy 
gon,  between  the  Pyrenees 
tains  ito  turreted  walls  and 
Sobrarbe,  but  would  hardly 
bot  of  the  Pass  of  Oanfranc, 
,  at  the  base  of  the  hills,  the 
or  Euskarians.   Standing  in 
importance.    It  boasts  of  a 
1  royal  palace  now  occupied 
.    Barbastro,  near  the  river 
The  carriage  road  over  the 

is  commercially  the  second 
ifhich  stood  on  a  hill  near  it. 

10,000  spiudlM,  conmuning  87,200,000 


One  of  its  most  nauseous  suburbs  is  wholly  inhabited  by  mendicants.  Tcruel,  on 
the  Ouadalaviar,  the  chief  town  of  the  Maeztrazgo,  with  its  crenellated  wulls  and 
turrets,  resembles  a  mediioval  fortress.  The  Arab  tower  of  its  church  is  one  of  the 
curiosities  of  '*  untrodden  "  Spain,  and  its  aqueduct,  which  crosses  a  valley  on  140 
arches,  is  a  remarkable  work  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Several  towns  of  the  interior  of  Catalonia  are  equally  venerable  in  their  aspect. 
"Proud  "  Puigoerda  (P  rcerda), close  to  the  French  frontier,  on  the  Upper  Segre, 
is  hardly  more  than  a  collection  of  hovels  surrounded  by  a  rampart.     The  Sio  de 

Fig.  160.— Thi  Dilta  or  thi  Ebho. 

ftinle  1  :  87^000. 


'SMilM. 


Urgel,  in  a  fertile  portion  of  the  same  valley,  is  no  doubt  of  some  importance  as  a 
fortress,  but  its  streets  are  dirty,  its  houses  mean,  and  its  mud  walls  dilapidated. 

Still  lower  down  the  Segre  we  meet  with  the  ancient  city  of  li^iida,  whose 
origin  dates  back  to  prehistoric  times,  and  which,  owing  to  its  strategical  position, 
has  at  all  times  played  a  pruininent  part  in  military  history.  The  gardens  of 
L^rida  supply  much  produce  for  exportation,  but  the  place  cannot  rise  into  impor- 
tance until  the  Franco- Spanish  coast  railway  shall  have  been  completed. 

Tortosa,  a  picturesque  city  just  above  the  delta  of  the  Ebro,  and  formerly 
the  capital  of  an  Arab  kingdom,  commands  one  of  the  passages  over  the  Ebro, 


486 


SPAIN. 


and  its  coinroeroe  would  inoreaae  if  tbe  river  offered  greater  facilities  for  navi* 
gation. 

Tarragona  in  tbe  time  of  the  Romans  was  the  great  maritime  outlet  of  the 
Talley  of  the  Ebro.  Tbe  oity  was  then  nearly  forty  miles  in  circumference,  with 
arenas,  amphitheatres,  palaces,  temples,  and  aqueducts,  and  a  population  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands.  The  ruins  of  this  ancient  Tarraoo  have  been  made  use  of  in 
the  construction  of  the  modern  city,  with  its  clumsy  cathedral,  towers,  decayed 
rampnrts,  and  Roman  aqueduct  intersecting  tbe  suburban  orange  groves.  The 
manufacturing  town  of  R^us  may  almost  be  looked  upon  as  a  suburb  of  it,  and  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  population.  Near  it  is  the  monastery  of  PoUet,  in  which 
are  depoaited  the  remains  of  tbe  Kii      of  Aragon. 

Fig.  170. — Thb  Stuppu  op  Araoon. 
Aeooidint  to  WUlkomm.    SoU*  I  t  tfiOMW. 


fUtOm. 


The  country  between  Tarragona  and  Barcelona  is  densely  populated.  We  pass 
through  tbe  fertile  district  of  El  Panadas,  the  equally  fertile  valley  irrigated  by 
the  reddish  waters  of  the  Llobrcgat,  with  towns  and  villages  in  rapid  succession, 
until  we  reach  the  suburbs  of  Barcelona.  The  city  proper  lies  on  the  sea,  at  the 
foot  of  the  fortifications  crowning  the  steep  heights  of  Monjuich.  There  is 
another  citadel  of  immense  size  to  the  east  of  the  city,  yet  this  latter  reposes  gaily 
beneath  its  batteries,  which  could  easily  reduce  it  t.o  ashes.  Barodona  boasts  oi^ 
being  the  great  pleasure  town  of  Spain.  Its  peculation  is  less  than  that  oj 
Madrid,  but  there  are  more  theatres  and  concert  haUs.  I'he  dramatic  performance] 
are  of  a  superior  class,  and  the  taste  of  the  people  is  nuHre  refined.  The  publij 
promenades,  such  as  the  Rambla,  occupying  the  bed  of  an  ancient  torrent,  thi 


,' ' -^i  ^.;7«:f  y)i-^Mawiiteft^s»S«f^a:^>\  V 


Bter  facilities  for  navi- 

naritime  outlet  of  the 
in  circumference,  with 
1  a  population  of  huii- 
e  been  made  uae  of  in 
hedral,  tower«,  decayed 
1  orange  grovea.  The 
» a  suburb  of  it,  and  is 
iry  of  Poblet,  in  which 


'<^j 
'"^J 


AUAOON  AND  CATALONIA. 


487 


■  ;'f.  -y 


lee'Wallt,  and  the  uvonuei  of  treot  which  wparute  B«ro«lona  from  the  oiuuiol  and 
the  luburb  of  Buroelonetu,  uru  crowded  on  Kne  ovontnga.  Lnrcelona  is  no  doubt 
the  "  unique  city  "  of  Cervantes,  and  porhapa  "  the  li  tme  of  courtesy  and  of  valiant 
men;"  but  we  doubt  its  being  the  "common  centre  of  all  sincere  friendships." 
Raroclona  exceeds  all  other  towns  of  Spain  by  its  commerce.*  The  harbour  is 
exposed  to  southerly  winds,  and  somewhat  difficult  of  access.  Barcelona  is  ever 
renewing  itself.  There  are  brood  streets  of  uniformly  built  houses,  and  some 
quarters,  as  that  of  Barcelonetu,  on  a  tongue  of  land  to  the  east  of  the  port,  ore 
laid  out  with  all  the  regularity  of  an  American  city.  The  only  architectural 
monuments  of  note  are  a  Gothic  cathedral  and  the  old  palace  of  the  Inquisition. 
But  all  around  the  town,  beyond  the  suburbs  with  their  factories  and  workmen's 
dwellings,  we  meet  with  numerous  villas,  oocupjring  delightful  nooks  in  verdant 
valleys  or  the  steep  hill-alopes.  No  more  charming  district  exists  in  Spain  than 
that  to  the  north  of  Barcelona  and  Badalona,  extending  as  for  as  Masnuu,  Matar6, 
and  the  river  Tordera.  Promontories  covered  with  vines,  pines,  and  cork'Oaks, 
and  sometimes  crowned  by  the  ruins  of  n  castle,  project  into  the  sea  ;  the  valleys 
are  laid  out  in  gurdent.  enclosed  with  eloc  hedges ;  towns  and  villages  follow  in 
rapid  succession  ;  and  il' o  boats  and  n*^ts  oit  fishermen  are  seen  on  the  beaches. 

Most  towns  of  the  province  of  Barcelona  emulate  the  manufacturing  industry 
of  the  capital.  Igualada,  at  the  f.ot  of  the  Monserrat;  Sabadell,  in  a  valley, 
full  of  factories ;  Tarrasa,  the  old  iloman  y,  neu  :■  which  are  the  famous  baths 
of  La  Puda;  Manresa,  on  the  Oardoner  ri  .  ^.et;  Vich,  the  old  primatial  city  of 
Catalonia;  and  Matur6,  on  the  coast,  a.  ^  all  distinguished  for  the  manufacture 
of  cloth,  linens,  silks,  cotton  »iuo^,  ribbons,  lace,  ..  .ither,  hats,  faience,  glass,  or 
paper.  Manufacturing  industry  has  ^l^tewise  spread  into  the  neighbouring  province 
of  Qerona,  and  notably  to  the  city  of  Olot ;  but  the  vicinity  '  f  'lo  French  frontier, 
the  practice  of  smuggling,  and  the  presence  of  large  garrisons  in  the  fortresses 
of  Gteroua  and  Figueras  have  hindered  its  development.  Gerona  has  sustained 
many  a  siege,  and  Figueras,  in  spHe  of  its  huge  citadel,  has  been  repeatedly  captured. 
The  walla  of  Rosas  are  crumbling  to  pieces,  and  every  vestige  of  the  Greek  city 
of  Emporion  has  been  buried  beneath  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  river 
Fluvia,  but  it  still  lives  in  the  name  of  the  surrounding  district  of  Ampurdan.f 


The  crest  of  the  Pyrenees  constitutes  for  the  most  part  the  political  boundary 
between  France  tt^,  ."pain,  but  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  At  the  western 
extremity  of  the  chain  Spain  enjoys  the  advantage,  for  the  valley  of  the  Bidassoa, 
on  the  French  slopes,  belongs  to  it ;  but  France  is  compensated  in  the  east  by  the 
possession  of  Mount  Canigou  and  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Segre.  As  a  rule, 
howeve, ',  Tpain  has  the  best  of  the  bargain,  and  this  is  only  natural,  as  the  Pyrenees 
are  most  accessible  from  the  south,  and  the  population  there  is  more  dense.    The 

*  Value  of  exports  and  imports  in  1867,  £10,691,000. 

t  Populationof  the  principal  towns:— i4ra<7on.-  Zaragoza, 66,000  ;  Calatajad,  12,000;  Huesca,  10,000; 
Terael,  7,000.  Catalonia  (Cataluila) :  Barcelona,  180.000 :  R^ns,  26,000 ;  Tortosa,  22,000 ;  Matar6, 17,000 ; 
Sabadell,  16,000;  Manresa,  14,000;  Tarragona,  13,000;  L^rida,  12,000;  Vich,  12,000  ;  Badalona,  11,000 
Igualada.  10,600;  Olot,  10,000;  Tarrasa,  9,000;  Oerona,  8,000;  Figueras,  8,000. 


488 


SPAIN 


herdsmen  of  Aragon  and  the  Basque  provinces  never  missed  an  opportunity  of 
taking  possession  of  pastures  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  these 
encroachments  were  subsequently  ratified  by  international  treaties. 

The  valley  of  Ar4n,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  one  of  these  bloodless 
conquests  of  Spain.  The  French  Garonne  rises  in  that  valley,  but  the  defile 
through  which  it  leaves  it  is  very  narrow  and  easily  obstructed.  Up  to  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Ar&nese  enjoyed  virtual  independence;  and  as  they  are  shut 
ofi*  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  mountains  covered  with  snow  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  these  21,000  mountaineers  would  appear  to  possess  more  claim  to 
constitute  themselves  an  independent  republic  than  any  other  people  in  Europe. 

Farther  east  there  is  another  mountain  valley  which,  nominally  at  least,  forms 
an  independent  republic.  This  is  Andorra,  a  territory  of  230  square  miles,  with 
6,000  inhabitants.  A  few  pastures  on  the  French  slope  excepted,  the  whole  of 
this  valley  is  drained  by  the  beautiful  stream  of  Embalira,  or  Yalira,  which  joins 
the  Segre  in  the  smiling  plain  of  S^o  de  Urgel.  Most  of  the  mountains  of 
Andorra  have  been  robbed  of  their  trees,  and  the  destruction  of  the  few  remaining 
forests  is  still  going  on.  The  vegetable  soil  is  being  rapidly  washed  away,  and 
the  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers  gradually  slide  down  the  mountain  slopes. 

The  republic  of  Andorra  is  said  to  owe  its  existence  to  a  defeat  of  the  Saracens 
by  Charlemagne  or  Louis  le  Ddbonnaire,  but  in  reality  up  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion the  valley  enjoyed  no  sovereign  rights  whatever.  It  was  a  barony  of  the 
Counts  of  Urgel  and  of  Aragon.  In  1278  it  was  decided  that  Andorra  should  be 
held  jointly  by  the  Bishops  of  Urgel  and  the  Counts  of  Foix.  In  1793  the  French 
republic  declined  to  receive  the  customary  tribute,  and  in  1810  the  Spanish 
Cortes  abolished  the  feudal  regime.  Andorra  thus  became  an  independent  state. 
The  inhabitants,  however,  continue  to  govern  themselves  in  accordance  with  old 
feudal  customs,  which  are  not  at  all  reconcilable  with  the  principles  of  modem 
republics.  The  land  belongs  to  a  few  families.  There  is  a  law  of  entail,  and 
younger  brothers  become  the  servants  of  the  head  of  the  &mily,  whose  hospitality 
they  enjoy  only  on  condition  of  their  working  for  him.  The  tithes  were  only 
abolished  in  1842.  The  "liberty"  of  these  mduntaineers  consists  merely  in  exemp- 
tion from  the  Spanish  conscription  and  impunity  in  smuggling ;  and,  to  increase 
their  revenues,  they  have  recently,  established  a  gambling-table.  Their  legitimate 
business  consists  in  cattle-breeding,  and  there  are  a  few  forges  and  a  woollen  factory. 

The  republic  of  Andorra  recognises  two  suzerains,  viz.  the  Bishop  of  Urgel, 
who  receives  an  annual  tribute  of  £25,  and  the  French  Govemnaent,  to  whom 
double  that  sum  is  paid.  Spain  and  France  are  represented  by  two  provosts,  the 
commandant  of  G^o  de  Urgel  exercising  the  functions  of  viceroy.  The  provosts 
command  the  militia  and  appoint  the  bailiffs,  or  judges.  They,  together  with  a 
judge  of  appeal,  alternately  appointed  by  France  and  Spain,  and  two  rahonadores, 
or  defenders  of  Andorran  privileges,  form  the  Cort«s.  Each  parish  is  governed  by 
a  consul,  a  vice-consul,  and  twelve  councillors  elected  by  the  heads  of  families.  A 
General  Council,  of  which  the  consuls  and  delegates  of  the  parishes  are  members, 
meets  at  the  village  of  Andorra.     But  in  spite  of  these  fictions  Andorrta  is  an 


~JW^~' 


rsw^S-t 


BASQUE  PROVINCES,  NAVAHRA,  AND  LOGEOSo. 


480 


)d  an  opportunity  of 
mountains,  and  these 
;atiea. 

one  of  tbese  bloodless 

ralley,  but  tbe  defile 

tructed.     Up  to  the 

and  as  tbey  are  shut 

iw  during  tbe  greater 

possess  more  claim  to 

people  in  Europe. 

ninally  at  least,  forms 

130  square  miles,  with 

ixcepted,  tbe  wbole  of 

or  Valira,  wbich  joins 

of  tbe  mountains  of 

1  of  tbe  few  remaining 

dly  wasbed  away,  and 

ountain  slopes. 

defeat  of  tbe  Saracens 

to  tbe  Frenob  Revolu- 

I  was  a  barony  of  tbe 

ibat  Andorra  shduld  be 

L.    In  1793  tbe  Frencb 

in  1810  tbe  Spanisb 

)  an  independent  state. 

in  accordance  witb  old 

i  principles  of  modern 

.8  a  law  of  entail,  and 

imily,  wbose  hospitality 

Tbe  titbes  were  only 

usist-s  merely  in  exemp- 

gling ;  and,  to  increase 

iable.    Their  legitimate 

3S  and  a  woollen  factory. 

!.  tbe  Bisbop  of  Urgel, 

Govermaent,  to  wbom 

«d  by  two  provosts,  tbe 

viceroy.    Tbe  provosts 

Tbey,  together  with  a 

in,  and  two  rahonadores, 

lb  parish  is  governed  by 

le  beads  of  families.    A 

e  parishes  are  members, 

e  fictions  Andorra  is  an 


integral  part  of  Spain,  and  tbe  carabineers  never  hesitate  to  cross  the  frontiers  of 
this  sham  republic.  By  language,  manners,  and  customs  tbe  Andorrans  are 
Catalans.  Exemption  from  war  has  enabled  them  to  grow  comparatively  rich. 
Tbey  are  intelligent  and  cunning,  and  well  know  bow  to  assume  an  air  of  astonish- 
ment when  their  interests  are  at  stake.  Acting  tbe  fool,  in  order  to  take  some 
one  in  or  avoid  being  ensnared,  is  called  by  their  neighbours  "  playing  the 
Andorran."  Andorra,  a  neat  village,  is  tbe  capital  of  the  territory,  but  San  Julia 
de  Loria  is  the  most  important  place,  and  tbe  head^quarters  of  the  smugglers. 

VII. — Basque  Provinces,  Navarra,  and  LooroSo.* 

The  Basque  provinces  (Yascongades)  and  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Navarra,  though 
scarcely  a  thirtieth  part  of  Spain,  constitute  a  separate  region,  not  only  on  account 
of  geographical  position,  but  also  because  tbey  are  inhabited  for  the  most  part  by 
a  distinct  race,  having  its  owh  language,  manners,  and  political  institutions. 

Looked  at  from  a  commanding  position,  the  bills  connecting  the  Pyrenees 
with  the  Castilian  plateau  resemble  a  sea  lashed  by  contrary  winds,  for  there  are  no 
prominent  mountain  ranges.  Even  the  Pyrenees  have  sunk  down  to  a  mean  height 
of  3,000  feet,  and  the  Lohihulz  (3,973  feet),  where  tbey  cease  to  form  the  frontier, 
scarcely  deserves  to  be  called  a  mountain.  Tbey  extend  thence  to  the  Pass  of 
Azpiroz  (l,8f)0  feet),  where  they  terminate.  The  vague  range  beyond  is  known  as 
Sierra  de  Aralar  (4,330  feet),  and  still  farther  west  by  a  variety  of  local  names. 
These  mountains  are  traversed  by  several  low  passes,  facilitating  communication 
with  the  valley  of  the  Ebro,  the  most  important  of  which  is  tbe  Pass  of  Orduna 
(2,134  feet),  which  is  crossed  by  the  railway  from  Bilboa  to  Miranda,  and  dominated 
by  the  Pena  Gorbea  (5,042  feet)  and  the  Sierra  Salvada  (4,120  feet). 

Tbe  spurs  which  descend  from  these  mountains  towards  the  Bay  of  Biscay  are 
likewise  very  irregular  in  their  features.  Most  of  them  are  connected  by  trans- 
versal chains,  through  which  the  rivers  have  only  with  difficulty  forced  for  them- 
selves an  outlet  towards  the  sea.  The  Bidassoa,  for  instance,. sweeps  far  to  the 
south,  through  tbe  valley  of  Baztan,  before  it  takes  its  course  to  the  northward,  in 
the  direction  of  its  estuary  at  Fuenterrabia.  Within  its  huge  bend  it  encloses  a 
detached  portion  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  principal  summit  of  which  is  the  famous 
Mont  La  Rhune  (2,954  feet),  on  the  Frencb  frontier.  Equally  isolated  is  the 
Jaizquibel  (1,912  feet),  which  rises  from  the  plains  of  Irun,  close  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Bidassoa,  and  from  whose  summit  there  is  a  view  of  incomparable  beauty. 
It  terminates  in  Cape  Higuer,  or  Figuer,  tbe  northernmost  point  of  Cantabria. 

The  maritime  slope  of  the  Basque  countries  presents  a  great  variety  of  geolo- 
gical formations,  including  Jurassic  limestones  and  chalk,  granites  and  porphyries. 
The  mineral  resources  are  immense ;  copper  and  lead  abound,  but  tbe  great  wealth 
consists  in  iron.  The  mines  of  Mondragon,  in  Guipfizcoa,  have  long  been  famous, 
but  the  most  productive  minipg  district  is  Sommorostro,  to  the  west  of  Bilbao. 

*  Navam  and  Basque  provinces,  6,828  square  milea,  790,676  inhabitants ;  Logrofio,  1,9M  square  miles, 
182,941  inhaUtants. 


WMiOi8M 


IM* 


440 


SPAIN. 


The  sierras  of  Aragou  running  parallel  with  the  Pyrenees  extend  also  into 
Navarra  and  the  Yascongades,  and  are  frequently  connected  with  the  main  range  by 
lateral  branches.  To  the  west  of  Pamplona  they  spread  out  into  a  rugged  plateau, 
surmounted  by  the  Sierra  de  Andia  (4,769  feet),  the  labyrinthine  ramifications  of 

Fig.  171.— Thb  Emtiboni  or  Bahcblona. 
8«le  1 :  100,000. 


which  occupy  the  district  of  Am^zcuas,  a  region  offeriug  great  advantRges  to  partisan 
warfare.  The  southern  chain,  not  so  well  defined,  bouhds  the  Garrascal,  or  "  country 
of  evergreen  oaks,"  in  the  south.  This  region,  too,  has  frequeuily  been  the  scene  of 
civil  war.     Farther  west  the  famous  defile  of  Pancorbo  leads  through  the  Montes 


s 


s 


;*STPW<WA*#i*^>*! 


BASQUE  PB0V1NCE8,  NAVAREA,  AND  LOGEOSO. 


441 


Obordnes  (4,150  feet)  to  the  plateau  of  Castile.  The  saddle  of  Als&sua  (1,955  feet), 
over  which  passes  the  railway  from  Yitoria  (1,684  feet)  to  Pamplona  (1,378  feet), 
connects  the  Pyrenees  with  the  Sierra  de  Andia,  whilst  as  to  the  mountains  of  the 
province  of  Logrofio,  they  are  spurs  of  the  mountain  masses  forming  the  northern 
edge  of  that  plateau,  viz.  the  Sierra  de  la  Demanda  in  the  west,  and  the  Sierra  de 
CeboUera  in  the  east,  the  latter  giving  birth  to  the  Sierras  de  Camero. 

Several  of  the  mountain  districts  are  quite  Castilian  in  their  asperity  and 
nakedness,  for  the  forests  have  been  cut  down  to  feed  the  iron  furnaces.  In  Southern 
Navarra  we  meet  with  veritable  deserts.  But  in  the  Basque  countries  and  Western 
Navarra,  where  it  rains  copiously,  the  hills  are  clad  with  forests,  the  valleys  with 
turf,  end  rivulets  wind  amongst  groves  of  elder<tree8.    Naked  precipices  of  sand  or 

Fig.  172. — Tub  Sand-banks  op  Hatahu. 
Soalr  1  :  ISft.OOO. 


.#?- 

^f^-:' 


» 


I'lit 


SIUm. 


limestone  contrast  well  with  this  verdure,  from  which  peep  out  the  small  white 
houses  of  villages  embosomed  in  orchards,  and  scattered  in  the  valleys  and  hill-sides. 
Moist  north-westerly  winds  are  frequent  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  account  for 
the  equable  temperature  of  the  country.  It  rains  abundantly,  and  in  all  seasons. 
The  climate  resembles  that  of  Ireland,  and,  though  damp,  it  is  healthy  and  most 
conducive  to  the  growth  of  vegetation.  The  country  is  rich  in  com,  wine,  oil, 
and  cattle ;  the  northern  slopes  are  covered  with  fruit  trees  of  every  kind,  and 
sagardua,  or  cider,  is  a  favourite  drink ;  and  in  the  more  remote  valleys  of  the 
Pyrenees  we  meet  with  some  of  the  most  magnificent  forests  in  Spain.  That  of  Yal 
O&rlos  (valley  of  Charlemagne),  near  the  famous  Pass  of  Boncevaux,  or  Roncesvalles, 
though  none  of  the  largest,  is  reputed  for  its  beauty  and  legendary  associations. 


( •" 


B>!^U»!i;jlM.!iJWIWMM*/tlWU»8aj«WK«l'!Bi.'Ji»Ui<W^ 


442 


SPAIN. 


Who  are  the  Basques,  whose  bravery  is  traditional  ?  What  is  their  origin  ? 
What  their  relationship  to  the  other  peoples  of  Europe  P  All  these  questions  it  i^ 
impossible  to  answer.  The  Basques  are  a  mysterious  race,  and  can  claim  kinship 
with  no  other  nation.  It  is  not  even  certain  whether  all  those  who  p^ss  by  thai 
name  are  of  the  same  race.  There  is  no  typical  Basque.  No  doubt  most  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  are  distinguished  by  finely  chiselled  features,  bright 
and  firm  eyes,  and  well-poised  bodies,  but  the  differences  in  stature,  form  of  skull* 
and  features  are  very  considerable.     Between  Basque  and  Basque  the  differences 

as  great  as  between  Spaniards,  Frenchmen,  and  Italians.  There  are  tall  men 
uad  short,  brown  and  fair,  long  skulls  and  broad,  and  almost  every  district  has  its 
distinct  type.  The  solution  of  this  problem  is  daily  becoming  more  difficult,  for, 
owing  to  a  continual  intermixture  with  their  neighbours,  the  original  type,  if  there 
really  existed  one,  is  gradually  being  obliterated.  It  is  possible  that  at  some  remote 
time  the  remnants  of  various  races  occupied  this  country,  and  adopted  the  language 
of  the  most  civilised  among  them.     Instances  of  this  kind  abound  in  every  people. 

Leaving  out  of  sight  the  differences  existing  between  the  Basques  of  Spain  and 
those  of  French  Navarro,  the  Basques  may  be  described  as  having  broad  foreheads, 
straight  noses,  finely  shaped  mouths  and  chins,  and  well-proportioned  figures. 
Their  features  are  exceedingly  mobile,  and  every  sentiment  is  reflected  upon  them 
by  a  lighting  up  of  the  eyes,  a  movement  of  the  eyebrows,  or  a  trembling  of  the 
lips.  The  women  especially  are  distinguished  by  the  purity  of  their  features;  their 
large  eyes,  smiling  lips,  and  small  waists  axo  universally  admired.  Even  in  the 
towns,  where  the  race  is  least  pure,  most  of  them  are  strikingly  beautiful  and  full 
of  grace.  There  are  districts  where  obesity  is  a  veritable  phenomenon.  Men  and 
women  carry  themselves  nobly ;  they  are  polite  to  strangers,  but  always  dignified. 

The  Basques  call  themselves  Euskaldunao,  or  Euskarians,  and  their  language 
Euskara,  or  Eskuaro.    The  exact  meaning  of  these  terms  is  not  known,  but  in  all 
probability  it  is  "  speech."     This  speech  of  the  Basques  differs  in  its  words  and 
structure  from  every  other  language  of  the  world ;  but  many  words  have  been 
borrowed  from  neighbouring  language.     Everything  with  which  they  became 
acquainted  through  foreigners,  all  ideas  imported  since  prehistoric  times,  are 
designated  by  words  not  forming  part  of  the  original  stock  of  the  language.   Even 
the  names  of  domestic  animals  and  metals  are  of  foreign  origin.     The  lan- 
guage may,  perhaps,  be  classed  with  the  polysynthetic  languages  of  the  American 
Indians,  or  with  the  agglutinant  idioms  of  the  Altai,  and  belongs,  consequently,  to  I 
the  most  remote  period  of  human  history.     As  to  the  Basques  themselves,  they  [ 
declare  their  speech  to  be  superior  to  every  other,  and  according  to  some  it  was! 
in  Euskara  that  man  first  saluted  the  sim. 

For  the  present  we  are  compelled  to  look  upon  the  Basques  as  the  last! 
remnant  of  an  ancient  race.    There  are  not  wanting  proofs  that  the  EuskaldunacI 
formerly  occupied  a  far  wider  territory.    No  monuments,  no  inscriptions,  nor  evenl 
legends  give  a  clue  to  this ;  but  we  find  it,  .after  thousands  of  years,  in  the  names  o^ 
mountains,  rivers,  and  towns.     Euskarian  names  abound  in  the'  Fyrenean  valleys 
of  Ar&n,  Bastan,  Andorra,  and  Querol,  and  in  the  plain  to  the  north  of  them. 


What  is  their  origin  'i 

Ul  these  questions  it  i^ 

and  can  claim  kinshi]) 

hose  who  p^ss  hy  that 

No  doubt  most  of  the 

iiselled  features,  bright 

stature,  form  of  skulL 

Basque  the  differences 

There  are  tall  men 

>8t  every  district  has  its 

ming  more  difficult,  for, 

le  original  type,  if  there 

ible  that  at  some  remote 

id  adopted  the  language 

abound  in  every  people. 

he  Basques  of  Spain  and 

having  broad  foreheads, 

ell-proportioned  figures. 

it  is  reflected  upon  them 

rs,  or  a  trembling  of  the 

;y  of  their  features;  their 

r  admired.     Even  in  the 

ikingly  beautiful  and  full 

I  phenomenon.     Men  and 

ers,  but  always  dignified. 

rians,  and  their  language 

I  is  not  known,  but  in  all 

I  differs  in  its  words  and 

I  many  words  have  been 

vith  which  they  became 

36  prehistoric  times,  are 

;k  of  the  language.   Even 

sreign  origin.     The  lan- 

mg^ges  of  the  American 

belongs,  consequently,  to 

Basques  themselves,  they 

Eu;cording  to  some  it  was 

the  Basques  as  the  last 
wfs  that  the  Euskaldunac 
,  no  inscriptions,  nor  even 
s  of  years,  in  the  names  of 
in  the  Fyrenean  valleys 
to  the  north  of  them. 


BASQUE  PHOVINCES,  NAVAllRA.  AND  LO()R()?Jo. 


Most  writers  on  Spain  identify  these  Euskuriana  with  the  Iberians  of  the 
ancients,  and  they  have  been  credited  with  being  the  authors  of  various  inscriptiuns 
upon  coins  written  in  unknown  characters  which  have  been  discovered  in  Spain 


m^mm\ 


448 


and  Southern  France,  and  which  M.  Boudard  has  shown  to  be  really  in  Euskarian. 
They  must  thus  have  occupied  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  and  Southern  Franco, 
and  even  in  Africa  traces  of  their  presence  have  been  discovered. 


dte'i,lti,iiijijiiii 


444 


SPAIN. 


The  extent  of  territory  occupied  by  Basque-speaking  populations  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans  is  not  known,  but  probably  it  was  not  any  greater  than  it  is 
now,  for  the  Euskarians  have  ever  since  maintained  their  independence,  and 
nothing  compelled  them  to  adopt  the  language  of  their  despised  neighbourH. 
Bilbao  has  almost  become  Spanish,  as  have  also  the  towns  in  the  plain  of  Alavu. 
Pampeluna,  the  Irun  of  the  Iberians,  is  Euskarian  merely  by  historical  tradition, 
whilst  farther  east  Basque  is  only  spoken  in  the  upper  valleys  of  Roncevaux, 
Orbaiceta,  Ochagavia,  and  Roncul.  The  Peak  of  Anie  marks  the  extreme  limit  of 
Basque  on  both  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees.  Out  of  four  Euskarian  provinces  there  is 
only  one — viz.  Quipdzcoa — where  Basque  predominates ;  but  even  in  that  province 
the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  of  St.  Sebastian  and  Irun  speak  Oaatilian.  In  the  south 
of  Navarra  and  of  the  so-called  Basque  provinces  the  inhabitants  have  spoken  a  Latin 
dialect  from  time  immemorial.  Spanish  and  French  are  slowly  but  surely  supersed- 
ing the  Basque,  and  the  time  when  it  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past  is  not  very  distant.* 

Striibo  speaks  of  the  Gantabrians,  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  Basques,  with  an 
admiration  akin  to  horror.  Their  bravery,  love  of  freedom,  and  contempt  of  life  he 
looked  upon  as  superhuman  qualities.  In  their  wars  against  the  Romans  they  killed 
each  other  to  escape  captivity,  mothers  strangled  their  children  to  spare  them  the 
indignities  of  slavery,  and  prisoners  nailed  to  the  cross  burst  into  a  chant  of  victory. 
The  Basques  have  never  been  wanting  in  courage.  History  shows  that  they  were 
superior  to  the  surrounding  nations  in  uprightness,  generosity,  love  of  independence, 
and  respect  for  personal  liberty.  The  serfs  of  the  neighbouring  provinces  looked 
upon  them  as  nobles,  for  in  their  abject  condition  they  fancied  that  personal  liberty 
was  a  privilege  of  nobility.  This  equality,  however,  existed  only  in  Guipdzooa  and 
Biscay,  whilst  in  A  lava  and  Navarra,  where  the  Moors  gained  a  footing,  and  Oastilian 
influences  made  themselves  felt  later  on,  there  originated  a  feudal  nobility,  with 
its  usual  train  of  vassals  and  serfs.  However,  all  the  provinces  have  jealously 
watched  over  their  local  privileges.  At  a  period  when  European  history  was 
one  continual  series  of  wars,  the  Baaques  lived  in  peace.  Their  small  common- 
wealths were  united  into  a  fraternal  confederation,  and  enabled  to  resist  invaders. 
They  were  bound  to  sacrifice  life  and  property  in  the  defence  of  their  common 
fatherland,  and  their  standards  were  emblazoned  with  three  hands  joined,  and 
the  motto,  Irurak  bat,  i.e.  "  The  three  (provinces)  are  but  one." 

Nothing  exhibits  more  strikingly  the  comparative  civilisation  of  these  Euska- 
rians than  their  respect  for  personal  liberty.  The  house  of  a  Basque  was 
inviolable,  and  he  could  not  be  deprived  of  his  horse  or  his  arms.  At  their 
national  meetings  all  voted,  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  even  the  wovzba  were 
permitted  to  take  part  in  the  discussions.  It  was  not,  however,  customary  for  the 
women  to  sit  down  at  the  same  table  with  the  etcheco-jauna,  or  nuister  of  the 
house,  and  his  sons^;  they  took  their  meals  separately  by  the  side  of  the  hearth. 
This  old  custom  is  still  observed  in  country  districts  ;  and  so  strong  is  the  force 
of  tradition,  that  the  wife  would  almost  consider  it  a  disgrace  to  be  seen  sitting  by 

*  In  1875  Basque  was  spoken  by  666,000  individiials,  vis.  by  116,000  in  France,  by  340,000  in  th( 
tb^ee  Basque  provinces  of  Spain,  and  by  100,000  in  Navarra. 


Mi 


BASQUE  I'BOVINCES,  NAVARRA,  AND  LOOROSo. 


445 


lopulationi  in  the  time 

\ay  greater  than  it  w 

eir  independence,  and 

r  despised  neighbourH. 

in  the  plain  of  Alavu. 

by  historical  tradition, 

valleys  of  Roncevaux, 

ks  the  extreme  limit  of 

arian  provinces  there  in 

lit  even  in  that  province 

Oaatilian.    In  the  south 

ants  have  spoken  a  Latin 

wly  but  surely  supersed- 

past  is  not  very  distant.* 

of  the  Basques,  with  an 

,  and  contempt  of  life  he 

it  the  Romans  they  killed 

lildren  to  spare  them  the 

it  into  a  chant  of  victory. 

)ry  shows  that  they  were 

ity,  love  of  independence, 

souring  provinces  looked 

cied  that  personal  liberty 

ed  only  in  Guip<izcoa  and 

ed  a  footing,  and  Oaatilian 

3d  a  feudal  nobility,  with 

provinces  have  jealously 

n  European  history  was 

i.     Their  small  common- 

)nabled  to  resist  invaders. 

lefence  of  their  common 

three  hands  joined,  and 

;  one." 

rilisation  of  these  Euska- 
house  of  a  Basque  was 
)  or  his  arms.  At  their 
jrs  everv  the  women  were 
wever,  customary  for  the 
y-jauna,  at  master  of  the 
by  the  side  of  the  hearth, 
and  so  strong  is  the  force 
;race  to  be  seen  sitting  by 

00  in  France,  by  340,000  in  the 


the  side  of  her  husband  on  any  other  occasion  than  her  wedding-duy.  On  f6te- 
days  the  women  keep  apart ;  they  dance  amongst  themselves,  allowing  the  men 
to  engage  in  ruder  sports.  If  a  nation  may  be  judged  from  its  pastimes,  the 
Basques  deserve  ti>  rank  high  in  our  estimation.  They  are  fond  of  athletic  sports, 
und  mysteries  and  pastoral  pieces  are  still  performed  in  the  open  air. 

Fig.  174. — JAiZQViHitin 
Sotte  1 !  MiMno. 


M 


%4 


n 


>r^-' 


SI: 


,CP' 


^<Uyi 


.tUt 


>iS? 


.sr 


'-#^Jt%-'T\ 


5>v  /'.  i 


im 


-^  t: 


But  the  Basques  have  their  faults.  Anxious  to  retain  their  ancient  privileges, 
or  Juero9,  they  have  become  the  champions  of  despotism.  These  fueros  date  frwn 
1332,  when  deputies  from  the  provinces  went  to  Burgos,  and  offered  the  title  of 
Lord  to  Alfonso  the  Judge,  King  of  Castile.    In  accordance  with  the  treaty  then 


~^i)mmmm>si.-ms 


SPAIN. 


concluded,  the  loyereign  is  pruhibited  from  poMeMing  any  fortreu,  villitge,  or 
even  house  within  the  territory  of  the  KuBkarians.  The  BaHquet  are  exempt  from 
the  conBcription,  and  their  militiamen,  or  miqueletea,  remain  within  the  provinccN 
except  in  time  of  war.  The  taxes  can  only  be  levied  with  the  consent  of  the  pro- 
vincial juntaa,  and  must  be  expended  within  the  provinces,  except  what  may  be 
granted  as  a  "  gift."  Commerce  is  not  subjected  to  the  same  restrictions  as  in  the 
rest  of  Spain,  and  there  are  no  monopolies.  The  municipalities  enjoy  absolute  self- 
government,  carried  on  by  an  alcalde,  an  ayuntatniento,  or  town  council,  and  parientvn 
mayoren,  or  elders.  In  appearance  this  organization  is  qu'^e  democratic,  but  in 
reality  there  exist  many  feudal  usages.  In  some  places  the  town  councils  are  self- 
elected ;  in  others  they  are  elected  by  persons  poying  a  specified  amount  in  taxes, 
or  by  nobles  of  a  certain  category;  in  others,  ag^n,  they  are  appointed  by  the  lord 
of  the  manor.  The  provincial  juntas  are  elected  in  most  diverse  ways.  The 
franchise,  far  from  being  universal,  is  a  privilege,  and  its  exercise  is  attended  with 
puerile  formalities.     The  laws  of  precedence  are  rigidly  adhered  to. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  the  exceptional  position  of  the  Basque  provinces  cannot 
be  maintained.  Navarra  was  assimilated  with  the  rest  of  Spain  in  1839,  and  this 
process  is  progressing  irresistibly  in  the  other  provinces.  If  the  descendants  of  the 
Euskariuns  decline  to  share  free  institutions  with  the  rest  of  Spain,  they  can  never 
maintain  them  on  their  own  behalf.  Twice  already  have  they  been  defeated  on  an 
appeal  to  arms;  but  more  powerful  than  war  is  the  influence  exercised  by  industry, 
commerce,  and  increased  facilities  for  intercommunication.  This  fusion  is  being 
hastened  by  emigration  and  migration,  for  the  Basques  not  only  seek  work  during 
winter  m  tbe  more  hospitable  lowland  districts,  but  they  also  emigrate  in  thousands. 
They  are  very  clannish,  and  at  Madrid  and  elsewhere  have  founded  "  Patriotic 
Societies,"  but  in  spite  of  these  they  soon  become  merg^  with  the  rest  of  the 
population.  The  few  towns  are  principally  inhabited  by  strangers,  for  the  Basques  i 
prefer  a  country  life.  Their  homesteads  are  scattered  over  hill-slopes  and  through 
the  valleys,  and  beneath  the  oaks  in  front  of  them  the  inmates  mdet  after  the] 
day's  labour  to  pass  their  time  in  music  and  dancing. 

Bilbao,  the  largest  town  of  the  Basque  provinces,  has  at  all  times  proved  al 
rival  of  Valencia,  Santander,  and  C&diz.     Its  exports  consist  principally  of  ironi 
ores  from  neighbouring  mines.    Most  of  its  inhabitants  are  Spaniards,  and  during 
the  Carlist  wars  the  environs  of  the  town  were  frequently  stained  with  blood.    M 
was  under  its  walls  that  Zumalacareguy,  the  Carlist  leader,  received  his  deadl} 
wound.    The  river  Nervion  connects  Bilbao  with  its  harbour  at  Fortugalet«. 

St.  Sebastian,  the  largest  city  of  Ouipiizcoa,  is  likewise  Spanish.     A  seapor 
and  fortress  defended  by  a  Costilian  garrison,  it  resembles  in  aspect  and  languag 
the  towns  of  the  interior  of  the  peninsula.     Monte  Orgullo  (475  feet),  crowned  bj 
the  Castle  de  la  Mota,  and  bristling  with  fortifications ;  the  beautiful  Bay  of 
Concha,  to  the  west  of  the  town,  with  its  fine  beach ;  the  river  TJrumea,  whic| 
flows  to  the  east  of  the  citadel,  and  struggles  at  its  mouth  with  the  foam  of  tl 
sea;  shady  walks  and  an  amphitheatre  of  verdant  hills  dotted  with  villages,  rendJ 
St.  Sebastian  a  delightful  spot,  the  favourite  resort  of  worn-out  and  idle  cosmj 


'k^4jtt'/i   .    --niilHiW 


ly  fortresa,  villug©,  or 
iHquei  are  exempt  from 
iu  within  the  province 
the  consent  of  the  pro- 
as, except  whftt  may  hv 
ne  restrictionB  an  in  the 
itie«  enjoy  absolute  self- 
vu  council,  and  parienUx 
^u'^e  democratic,  but  in 
e  town  councils  are  self- 
ecified  amount  in  taxes, 
re  appointed  by  the  lord 
lOHt  diverse  wuyB.     The 
exercise  is  attended  with 
ihered  to. 

Basque  provinces  cannot 
f  Spain  in  1839,  and  this 
If  the  descendants  of  the 
;  of  Spain,  they  can  never 
they  been  defeated  on  au 
Qce  exercised  by  industry, 
)n.    This  fusion  is  being 
lot  only  seek  work  during 
Jso  emigrate  in  thousands, 
have  founded  "Patriotic 
.ged  with  the  rest  of  the 
strangers,  for  the  Basques 
rer  hill-slopes  and  through 
le  inmates  meet  after  the 

,  has  at  all  times  proved  a 
consist  principally  of  iron 
I  are  Spaniards,  and  during 
ttly  stained  with  blood.    It 
leader,  received  his  deadly 
irbour  at  Portugalet«. 
cewise  Spanish.     A  seaport 
bles  in  aspect  and  language 
jullo  (475  feet),  crowned  by 
B ;  the  beautiful  Bay  of  La 
l;  the  river  Urumea,  which 
nouth  with  the  foam  of  the 
,  dotted  with  viUages,  render 
f  worn-out  and  idle  cosmo- 


BARQUE  PROVINCES.  NAVABRA,  AND  LOORoSo. 


447 


poUtans.  The  towu  itaclf  in  devoid  nf  interest,  fur  since  its  dvrttruotion  by  the 
Knglish  ill  1813  it  bait  been  rnbuilt  with  monotonoun  regularity.  Its  hurbour, 
though  frequented  by  coasting  vessels,  in  NhuUow  and  insocun^  The  mttgniHcent 
Bay  of  Possges,  to  the  east  of  the  town,  i/r>;ht  have  been  converted  into  a  splendid 
harbour,  but  its  great  advantages  have  never  been  uppreoiatod,  and  its  mouth 
is  now  closed  by  u  bar  of  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  Oyurzun. 

Delightful  Fuenterrabia  (Fontarubie),  with  its  esoutoheonod  houses,  in  likewise 
shut  off  from  the  sea  by  a  bar,  and  is  indebted  for  such  importance  as  it  possesses 
to  its  sou  bathi  and  the  vicinity  of  France,  which  iit  visible  from  its  battered 
walls.  Irun,  the  terminal  station  of  the  Spanish  ruilwoys,  close  to  the  French 
frontier,  is  an  important  strategical  position  ;  and  Tolosu,  with  its  factories,  is  the 
capital  of  Quipdiuoa.  Zaraus,  Ouetaria  (on  the  neck  of  a  peninsula),  tmd  Lequeytio 
are  seaside  resorts.    Zumaya,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Urola  valley,  has  quarries  of 

Fig.  17l!l«— AiooiTM  ANii  AiriiTU. 


I  Id*. 


gypram,  which  furnish  excellent  cement.  Near  Yergara  are  ferruginous  springs, 
and  a  famous  college  found'ed  in  1776  by  the  Basque  Society.  The  convention 
which  put  a  stop  to  the  first  Carlist  war  in  1839  was  signed  hero.  Durango,  like- 
wise, has  frequently  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  civil  wars  carried  an 
in  the  north  of  Spain.  Guernica,  in  Biscay,  boasts  of  a  palace  of  justice  and  an 
old. oak  beneath  which  the  legislature  is  in  the  habit  of  meeting;  but,  like  all 
other  Basque  towns,  it  is  hardly  more  than  a  village. 

The  centres  of  population  are  not  more  numerous  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Pyrenees.  Yitoria,  the  capital  of  Alava,  on  the  railway  connecting  Madrid  with 
Paris,  is  a  commercial  and  manu&cturing  town.  Pamplona,  or  Pampeluna,  recalls 
the  name  of  Pompey,  who  rebuilt  it.  It  is  a  fortress,  often  besieged  and  captured. 
Its  cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Spain.  Tafalla,  faflor  de  Navarra,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  has  the  ruins  of  a  palace,  which  Carlos  the  Noble,  who 


448 


SPAIN. 


built  it,  desired  to  unite  by  means  of  a  covered  gallery  with  the  palace  of  Olite, 
three  miles  lower  down  in  the  same  valley.  Fuente  la  Beina  is  celebrated  for  its 
wines.  Estella,  one  of  the  most  charming  towns  of  Navarra,  commands  several  roads 
leading  to  Castile  and  Aragon,  and  its  strategical  importance  is  consequently  consider- 
able. The  Oarlists,  during  the  late  war,  transformed  it  into  a  formidable  fortress. 
Tudela,  abounding  in  wines,  Oolahorra,  and  Logroilo,  all  in  the  adjoining  province 
of  Logroilo,  are  likewise  of  some  value  from  a  military  point  of  view,  for  they  com- 
mand the  passages  over  the  Ebro.  Calahorra,  with  its  proud  motto,  "I  have  prevailed 
over  Carthage  and  Rome,"  was  the  great  bulwark  of  defence  when  Sertorius  fought 
Pompey,  but  was  made  to  pay  dearly  for  its  heroism.  Besieged  by  the  Romans,  its 
defenders,  constrained  by  hunger,  fed  upon  their  women  and  children,  and  moat  of 
them  perished.  Though  situated  in  th^  fertile  district  of  Rioja,  beyond  the  frontiera 
of  the  Euskarian  language,  the  history  of  Calahorra  is  intimately  connected  with  that 
of  the  Basque  provinces,  for  upon  its  ancient  laws  were  modelled  the  fueros  of  Alava.* 

VIII. — Santandek,  the  Asturias,  and  Galicia. 

The  Atlantic  slope  of  the  Cantabrian  Pyrenees  is  a  region  completely  distinct  from 
the  rest  of  Spain.  Mountains,  hills,  valleys,  and  running  waters  succeed  each  other 
in  infinite  variety,  and  the  coast  throughout  is  steep,  with  bold  promontories  and 
deep  inlets,  into  which  flow  rapid  torrents.  The  climate  is  moist  and  salubrious. 
The  Celto-IbeHan  inhabitants  of  the  country  have  in  most  instances  escaped  the 
commotions  which  devastated  the  other  provinces  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  popu- 
lation, in  proportion  to  the  cultivable  area,  is  more  dense  than  elsewhere.  This 
region,  being  very  narrow  compared  with  its  length,  has  been  split  up  into  several 
political  divisions,  in  spite  of  similarity  of  physical  features.  The  old  kingdom 
of  Galicia  occupies  the  west,  the  Asturias  the  centre,  and  Santander  the  east.t 

The  mountain  region  of  Santander  begins  immediately  to  the  east  of  the 
Sierra  Salvada  and  the  depression  known  as  Talle  de  Mena.     The  Cantabrian 
Mountains  slo^  down  steeply  there  towards  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  whilst  their 
height  above  the  upland,  through  which  the  Ebro  has  excavated  its  bed,  is  but 
trifling.  The  Puerto  del  Escudo  attains  an  elevation  of  3,241  feet  above  Santander,! 
its  southern  descent  to  the  valley  of  the  Yirga  hardly  exceeding  500  feet.  The  PassI 
of  Reinosa  (2,778  feet),  farther  west,  through  which  runs  the  railway  horn  MadridI 
to  Santander,  is  eveti  more  characteristic.    An  almost  imperceptible  height  oi 
l&nd  there  separates  the  plateau  from  the  steep  declivity  which  leads  down  to  the 
coast,  and  by  means  of  a  canal  sixty  feet  deep,  and  a  mile  in  length,  the  waters 
of  the  Ebro  might  be  diverted  into  the  river  Besaya,  which  enters  the  AtUutid 
at  San  Martin  de  Su&nces.      This  height  of  land  forms  the  natural  outlet  o| 

*  Population  of  principal  towns  (approximately)  •.—Bucay  (Yiacaya) :  Bilbao,  80,000.    CMpi 
St.  Sebaatian,  16,000;  Toloaa,  8,000.    ^Awa  ;  Vitoria,  12,500.     Nmarr»  :  Pamplona,  22,000; 
6,000.    Zoyrono;  Logrofio,  12,000;  Calahona,  7,000. 

t  Santander    ....    2,113  sq.  m.        241,S81  inhaUtanta        lUtoasq.  m. 
Aaturiaa       ....    4,091    „  610,883        „  162        „ 

Oalida        ....  11,344    „  1,989,281       „  176       „ 


SANTANDEE,  THE  ASTUBIAS,  AND  (JALIOIA. 


449 


th  the  palace  of  Olite, 
ina  is  celebrated  for  its 
commands  several  roads 
s  consequently  consider- 
0  a  formidable  fortress, 
n  the  adjoining  province 
It  of  view,  for  they  com- 
motto,  "  I  have  prevailed 
e  when  Sertorius  fought 
[eged  by  the  Romans,  its 
ad  children,  and  most  of 
ioja,  beyond  the  frontiera 
ately  connected  with  that 
jUed  the  fueros  of  Alava  * 

Galicia. 

completely  distinct  fi-om 
waters  succeed  each  other 
th  bold  promontories  and 

is  moist  and  salubrious, 
ost  instances  escaped  the 
peninsula,  and  the  popu- 
se  than  elsewhere.  This 
been  split  up  into  several 
tures.  The  old  kingdom 
Santander  the  east.t 
Ltely  to  the  east  of  the 
I  Mena.    The  Oantabnan 

of  Biscay,  whilst  their 

excavated  its  bed,  in  but 
1,241  feet  above  Santander, 
seeding  500  feet.  The  Pass 
s  the  railway  from  Madrid 
it  imperceptible  height  of 
y  which  leads  down  to  the 
mile  in  length,  the  waters 

which  enters  the  Atlautic 
trms  the  natural  outlet  of 

iya) :  Klbeo,  80,000.    Ouipiuteo*, 
rr»:  Pamplona,  22,000;  Estella, 

ta       114  to  a  sq.  m. 
162       „ 
176       „ 


the  Castiles  to  the  sea,  and  its  possession  is  as  important  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
plateau  as  is  that  of  the  mouth  of  a  river  to  a  people  dwelling  on  its  upper  course. 
Immediately  to  the  east  of  this  pass  the  aspect  of  th    mountains  changes.   They 
rise  to  a  great  height,  piercing  the  zbne  of  perennial  snow,  and  their  southern 
cjarpments  are  of  great  steepness.     The  Fena  Labra  (8,295  feet)  dominates  the 

Fig.  176.— Twa  Entirons  of  Bilbao. 
Soale  1 :  SOO.OOO. 


M"^ 


#«^i^ 


mw>.- 


4'^i:^'|- 


SWilM. 


first  of  these  mountain  massee.  Rivers  descend  from  it  in  all  directions :  the  Ebro 
in  the  east,  the  Fisuerga  in  the  south,  and  the  Nansa,  or  Tinamenor,  in  the  north- 
west. Farther  west  the  Pefia  Prieta  rises  to  a  height  of  8,296  feet,  its  snows 
feeding  the  Oarrion  and  Esla.  It  is  joined  in  the  north  to  a  mountain  mass  even 
more  considerable,  which  bears  the  curious  name  of  Penas  de  Europa,  or  "  rocks 


i'SvMi'SIRsasSSffi 


iW 


SPAIN. 


of  Europe,"  and  culminates  in  the  Torre  de  Cerredo  (8,784  feet),  covered  with 
snow  throughout  the  year,  end  boasting  even  of  a  few  glaciers,  due  to  the  excessive 
amount  of  precipitation. 

The  yalley  of  La  Li^bana,  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  PeAas  de  Europa,  resembles 
a  vast  caldron  of  extraordinary  depth.  Shut  in  on  the  west,  south,  and  east  by 
huge  precipices  rising  to  a  height  of  6,500  feet,  it  is  closed  in  on  the  north  by  a 
transversal  chain,  through  which  the  waters  of  the  Li^bana  have  excavated  for 
themselves  a  narrow  passage.  The  village  of  Fotes,  in  the  centre  of  this  valley, 
lies  at  an  elevation  of  only  981  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  Santander  and 
the  Asturias,  even  more  frequently  than  in  the  Basque  country,  we  meet  with 
secondary  chains  running  parallel  with  the  coast.    These  are  composed  of  triassic. 

Fig.  177-— St.  Sibabtiam. 
Soale  1 :  SOyOOO. 


€ii^: 


m^  w  -A-  it 


mm 


Jurassic,  and  cretaceous  rocks,  and  rise  Hke  advanced  walla  of  defence  in  ftont  o^ 
the  main  ran'^e  of  the  mountains,  wMoh  conaiBt  of  Silurian  slates  upheaved  hy 
granite.  It  results  from  this  thai^  the  course  of  the  rivers  is  most  erratic.  Oi 
leavirg  their  upper  valleys,  where  they  frequently  form  cascades,  their  farthej 
progress  is  arrested  by  these  parallel  ranges,  and  they  twist  about  to  the  east  an| 
west  until  they  find  an  outlet  through  which  they  m^y  escape. 

The  two  funnel-shaped  valleys  of  Yaldeon  (1,529  feet)  and  Sajambre  ar 
enolosed  between  -spurs  of-  the  Fefias  de  Europa.  Their  torrents  drain  into  tl 
Bay  of  Biscay,  but  they  are  most  readily  accessible  from  the  plateau.  Farthe 
west  the  mountains  decrease  in  height,  and  their  main  ciest  gradually  reoed^ 
from  the  coast.  They  are  crossed  here  by  the  Pass  of  Pajaree  (4,471  feet 
which  connects  Leon  with  Oviedo. 


/^. 


SANTANDER,  THE  ASTUEIAS,  AND  GALICIA. 


451 


tM  feet),  covered  with 
era,  due  to  the  excessive 

ias  de  Europa,  resembles 
west,  south,  and  east  by 
ed  in  on  the  north  by  a 
)ana  have  excavated  for 
le  centre  of  this  valley, 
sea.  In  Santander  and 
country,  we  meet  with 
are  composed  of  triassic, 


The  Asturian  Mountains  are  objects  of  veneration  to  every  patriotic  Spaniard. 
Beautiful  as  they  are,  their  lower  slopes  being  covered  with  chestnut-trees,  walnut- 
trees,  and  oaks,  whilst  higher  up  forests  of  beeches  and  hazel  alternate  with 
meadows,  their  beauty  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  of  their  having  afforded  a  refuge  to 
the  Christians  whilst  the  Moors  held  the  rest  of  the  country.  Mount  Ansena 
sheltered  St.  Pelagius  and  his  flock,  and  at  Oovadonga  he  built  himself  an  abbey. 
These  "  illustrious  mountains  "  do  not,  however,  merely  boast  of  historical  associa- 

Fig.  178.— St.  Sbbastun. 


"'■•(tV, 


>l  i  I 


'*-^' 


^ 


1  '.;«;: 


-?%;.^:-  •?,jp»T*'^ 


'^""^■^P 


rails  of  defence  in  front  of 
lurian  slates  upheaved  by 
ivers  is  most  erratic.  On 
rm  cascades,  their  farther 
twist  about  to  the  east  and 
escape. 

9  feet)  and  Sajambre  are 
dr  torrents  drain  into  the 
om  the  plateau.  Farther 
lin  ciest  gradually  recedes 
8  of  Fajaree  (4.471   feet), 


tions,  delightful  villages,  herds,  and  pastures;  they  hide  within  their  bowels  a  rich 
store  of  coal,  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  wealth  to  the  Asturias. 

Galioia  is  separated  f^m  the  Castilian  plateau  by  a  continuation  of  the  Can- 
tabrian  Pyrenees,  which  here  swerve  to  the  south,  and  through  which  the  Sil  has 
excavated  its  bed.  To  tho  north  of  that  river  they  culminate  in  the  Pico  de 
Miravalles  (6,362  feet),  and  are  crossed  by  the  Pass  of  Fredrafita  (3,600  feet), 
through  which  runs  the  main  roaJ  from  Leon  to  Qalioia. 

In  Galioia  the  hills  rarely  foric  well-defined  chains,  and  mostly  consist  of 


ixtudSHcM^aiJcaaSffi^^^i- 


ts  rising  a  few  hundred 
ion  of  the  small  ranges 


(Minho)  terminate  in  the  famous  promontories  of  Toriilana  and  Finisterre,  or 
"  land's-end."    This  latter,  a  steep  cliflf  rising  boldly  above  the  waters  to  the  west 
of  the  wide  Bay  of  Corcubion,  formerly  bore  a  temple  of  the  ancient  gods,  since 
replaced  by  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgia. 
33 


:i 


.'"i 


464 


SPAIN. 


The  coast  of  the  Asturias  abounds  in  small  bays,  or  riaa,  bounded  by  steep  cliffs. 
In  Galiuia  these  rias  assume  vast  proportions,  and  are  of  g^eat  depth.  They  may 
fitly  be  likened  to  the  fiords  of  Northern  Europe,  and  their  origin  appears  to  be 
the  same.  The  marine  fauna  of  these  Galician  rias  is  Britauuio  rather  than  Lusi- 
tanian,  for  amongst  two  hundred  species  of  testacea  collected  by  Mr.  MacAndrew 
there  are  only  twenty-five  which  were  not  also  found  on  the  coasts  of  Britain. 
Moreover,  the  flora  of  the  Asturian  Mountains  is  very  much  like  that  of  Ireland ; 


Fig.  181.— Pass  of  Rbinosa. 
SeeOe  1 :  800,000. 


1 

^^^i^ 

!i|i 

"M^ 

til    -^. .  -^     ■_.   , 

^S 

3m 

V!»\  '<w:  s,v    '1:1%  & 

HiV 

K^r^-^ifi'L/fi^.  H 

1                                                                        J 

SlOlas. 


and  these  )';?7t5  go  far  in  support  of  the  hypothesis,  started  by  Forbes,  tnat  tl 
Azores,  Ireland,  and  Galicia,  anterior  to  the  glacial  epoch,  were  connected  by  lanj 
The  climate,  too,  resembles  that  of  Great  Britain.    The  rainfall  on  the  exteri{ 
slopes  of  the  mountains  is  abundant,  whilst  to  the  south  of  them,  in  the  arid  ] 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  it  hardly  rains  at  all.     There  are  localities  in  the  Astui 
where  the  rainfall  amounts  to  more  than  six  feet  annually,  a  quantity  only  aga 
met  with  on  the  western  mountain  slopes  of  Scotland  and  Norway,  and  on 
southern  declivities  of  the  Swiss  Alps.     There  is  no  season  without  rain, 


SANTANDEB,  THE  ASTURIAS,  AND  GALICIA. 


456 


bounded  by  steep  cliffs, 
reat  depth.  They  may 
,eir  origin  appears  to  bo 
,annio  rather  than  Lusi- 
sted  by  Mr.  MacAndrew 
tt  the  coasts  of  Britain, 
uoh  like  that  of  Ireland ; 


itarted  by  Forbes,  that  the 
ch,  were  connected  by  land. 
The  rainfall  on  the  exterior 
h  of  them,  in  the  arid  plains 
e  localities  m  the  Asturias 
aally,  a  quantity  only  again 
d  and  Norway,  and  on  the 
lO  season  without  rain,  and 


droughts  are  exceedingly  rare.  Equinoctial  storms  are  frequent  m  autumn,  and 
render  the  Bay  of  Biscay  dangerous  to  mariners.  The  temperature  is  equable, 
and  fogs,  locally  known  as  bretimaa,  are  as  frequent  as  in  the  British  Islands. 
These  fogs  exercise  a  strong  influence  upon  the  superstitious  minds  of  the  Oalicians, 
who  fancy  they  see  magicians,  or  nuveiros,  ride  upon  the  clouds,  expand  into  mists, 
and  shrink  back  into  cloudlets.  They  also  believe  that  the  bodies  of  the  dead  are 
conveyed  by  the  mists  from  cemetery  to  cemetery,  these  fearful  nocturnal  proces- 
sions being  known  to  them  as  eatadeaa,  or  estadhinaa* 

In  spite  of  an  abundancu  of  running  water,  the  Cantabriun  provinces  cannot 
boa''t  of  a  single  navigable  river.  In  the  Asturias  the  littoral  zone  is  too  narrow, 
and  the  slope  too  coi.siderable,  to  admit  of  torrents  becoming  tranquil  rivers.  Nor 
are  the  Tambre  and  UUa,  in  Galicia,  of  any  importance  ;  and  the  only  true  river  of 
the  country  is  the  Mino,  called  Minho  by  the  Portuguese  on  its  lower  course,  where 
it  forms  the  boundary  between  the  two  states  of  Iberia.  The  MiAo  is  fed  from 
both  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  the  Miiio  proper  rising  on  the  western 
slope,  whilst  the  Sil  comes  from  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  latter  is  the 
main  branch.  "The  Mino  has  the  reputation,"  say  the  Spaniards,  "but  the  Sil 
has  the  water."  The  Sil,  before  leaving  the  province  of  Leon,  passes  through  the 
ancient  lake  basin  of  the  Yierzo,  now  shrunk  to  a  small  sheet  of  water  known  as 
the  Lago  de  Oarrocedo.  It  then  passes  in  succession  through  a  wild  gorge,  a 
second  lake  basin,  the  tunnel  of  Monte  Furado  ("pierced  mountains  "),  excavated  by 
the  Bomans  to  facilitate  their  mining  operations,  and  finally  rushes  through  a 
gorge  intersecting  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  and  one  of  the  wildest  in  all  Spain, 
with  precipitous  walls  more  than  1,000  feet  in  height.  Immediately  below  the 
confluence  with  the  Miuo  a  second  gorge  has  to  be  passed,  but  then  the  waters  of 
the  river  expand,  and  flow  into  the  sea  through  a  wide  estuary.  Below  Tuy,  for  a 
distance  of  about  twenty  miles,  the  river  is  navigable.  But  though  of  small  service 
to  navigation,  the  Mino  is  nevertheless  one  of  the  eight  great  riveia  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  and  proportionately  to  the  extent  of  its  basin  it  is  the  most  copious,  t 

The  water  of  this  and  other  rivers  is  not  needed  for  agricultural  purposes,  for  it 
rains  abundantly  in  Galicia  and  the  Asturias,  aad  the  emerald  meadows  of  these 
provinces  are  as  famous  as  those  of  England.     The  flora,  however,  is  upon  the 

*  Climate  in  1858  : — Ovitdo :  750  feet  above  the  sea-leyel,  mean  temperature,  40-4A''  F. ;  extremes,  23-9* 
and  82°;  rainfall,  81-3  inches.  Santiago :  720  feet  above  soa-level,  mean  ten.perature,  59-07° ;  extremes,  28° 
and  95° ;  rainfall,  42-7  inches. 


Area  of 

LeDgOiof 

Catohnwnt 

Main 

Baidn. 

Bnsch. 

8q.  m. 

HUei. 

t  Mifio  (and  SO)     .    .       9,650 

190 

Duero 38,610 

W7 

Tejo(Tagu8)    .     .     .      28,960 

M6 

Ouadiana  (andZfincara)23,170 

US 

Goadalqaivir  .    .    .     21,240 

M8 

Segura        ....       8,500 

817 

Jficar 5,800 

818 

Ebro 26,100 

4M 

Total 


161,080 


Avetase 

Inches. 
47 
20 
16 
14, 
19 
12 
18 
18 

16 


Average 

Diaotiug*. 

Cub.  {t.  peraec. 

17,700 

2-2,050 

11,600 

5,680 

9,220 

710 

880 

7,100 


Soi&oe  Dninag* 
in  Froporticm  to 

Bainfall. 

Percent. 

60 

40 

33 

25 

30 

10 

15 

20 


76,810 


•an^^ 


466 


SPAIN. 


whole  more  southerly  in  its  features  than  that  of  the  countries  to  the  north  of  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  The  orchards  produce  not  only  apples,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts, 
but  also  oranges,  and  in  a  garden  at  Oviedo  dates  ripen  in  the  open  air.  The 
great  moisture,  however,  prevents  certain  plants  from  attaining  the  commercial 
importance  they  would  otherwise  possess.  The  mulberry  flourishes,  but  the  culture 
of  silk-worms  has  only  yielded  indifferent  results,  and  even  the  grapes,  except  iu 
a  few  favoured  localities,  yield  but  sour  wine  of  disagreeable  flavour.  Cider,  on 
the  other  hand,  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  is  even  exported  to  America. 

Fig.  182.— Thi  Fbnab  db  Eubofa. 
soOa  1 :  aao,ooo.. 


?^-;S^^'^^  b-^ ^- 


^^i^^>|^s^^^^^^^^~=^^S 


lOlCiles. 


The  Asturian  boasts  of  having  never  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  Mussulman 
Some  of  the  mountain  districts  preserved  their  independence  throughout,  ai 
nowhere  could  the  Arabs  maintain  themselves  fox-  any  length  of  time.  Ovie 
was  called  the  "  city  of  bishops,"  from  the  groat  number  of  prelates  who  found 
refuge  there.  The  Galiciaus  were  equally  successful  in  their  resistance  to  tl 
Moors,  and  the  blood  of  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  these  remote  provinces  is  tl 
purer  than  anywhere  else  in  Spain. 

In  some  districts  the  customs  are  said  to  have  remained  unchanged 


SANTANDER,  THE  A8TUBIA8,  AND  OALICIA. 


467 


fries  to  the  north  of  the 

chestnuts,  and  walnuts, 

in  the  open  air.    The 

taining  the  commercial 

ourishes,  but  the  culture 

en  the  grapes,  except  iu 

Bttble  flavour.     Cider,  on 

irted  to  America. 


to  the  yoke  of  Mussulmans. 
Ippendence  throughout,  and 
ly  length  of  time.  Oviedo 
her  of  prelates  who  found  a 
il  in  their  resistance  to  the 
ise  remote  provinces  is  thus 

)  remained  unchanged  since 


the  time  of  the  Romans.  The  herdsmen,  or  raqiieroH,  of  Leitiiriegos,  on  the  Upper 
Narcea,  form  almost  a  distinct  tribe.  They  keep  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  Astu- 
rians,  and  always  marry  amongst  themHelvoH.  Old  dialects  maintain  their  ground. 
The  peasants  on  the  coast  of  Guntabria  talk  their  hable,  and  in  Galicia  the  dialects 
differ  even  from  village  to  village.  The  gallego,  especially  as  spoken  near  the 
Miilo,  is  Portuguese  rather  than  Spanish,  but  a  Lusitunian  is  nevertheless  unable 
to  understand  a  Galician,  owing  to  the  curious  sing-song  intonation  of  the  latter. 

The  country  supports  a  dense  population,  but  there  are  few  towns.  Many  of 
these  consist  merely  of  a  church,  a  town-hall,  and  an  inn.  The  homesteads  are 
scattered  over  the  whole  country.  This  may  be  due  to  an  innate  love  of  nature, 
or  perhaps,  as  in  the  Basque  provinces,  to  the  security  which  the  country  has 
enjoyed  during  centuries.  Foreign  and  civil  wars  have  scarcely  ever  affected  these 
outlying  provinces  of  Spain.  The  manners  are  gentle,  and  the  bloodthirsty  buU- 
iights  of  the  Oastilians  unknown.  •  The  isolation  and  peace  in  which  the  Cantubrians 
were  permitted  to  exist  did  not,  however,  prove  of  advantage  in  all  respects. 
Elsewhere  in  Europe,  nobles,  priests,  citizens,  and  the  peasantry,  when  threatened 
by  danger,  felt  constrained  to  make  concessions  to  each  other.  Not  so  in  the 
Asturias,  where  the  peasants  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfs,  and  sold  with 
the  land.  At  the  commencement  of  this  century  nearly  the  whole  of  the  land  in 
the  two  Asturias  was  in  the  hands  of  twenty-four  proprietors,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
ing Galicia  the  conditions  were  not  much  more  favourable.  Matters  have  changed 
since  then.  The  lords  have  grown  poor,  the  monasteries  have  been  suppressed, 
and  the  industrious  Asturians  and  Ghilicians  have  invested  their  hard-earned  savings 
in  land.  Formerly  the  feudal  lords  leased  the  land  to  the  cultivators,  who  rendered 
homage  and  paid  a  quit-rent,  the  lease  remaining  in  force  during  the  reign  of  two  or 
three  kings,  for  a  hundred  years,  or  even  for  three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  years, 
according  to  the  custom  of  different  districts.  These  leases,  however,  frequently 
led  to  disputes ;  the  leaseholders,  on  the  expiration  of  their  leases,  often  refused  to 
surrender  possession,  and  in  numerous  instances  the  law  courts  sustained  them 
in  this  refusal. 

The  Gtdioians  on  the  coast  divide  their  time  between  the  cultivation  of  the 
land  and  fishing.  During  the  scnason  no  less  than  20,000  men,  with  3,000  or  4,000 
boats,  spread  their  nets  in  the  Bays  of  La  Corufia,  Arosa,  Pontevedra,  and  Vigo, 
where  tunny-fish  and  sardines  abound.  .i.he  local  consumption  of  sardines  is  enor- 
mous, and  Xa  Cornna  alone  exports  about  17,000  tons  annually  to  America.  These 
pursuits,  however,  are  not  capable  of  supporting  an  increasing  population,  and 
thousands  of  Galicians  emigrate  annually.  Thrifty  and  clannish,  they  usually 
succeed  in  amassing  a  small  competency,  and  those  among  them  who  return  exercise 
a  civilising  influence  upon  their  less-cultivated  countrymen.  Ignorance  and  poverty, 
with  all  their  attendant  evils,  are  great  in  Galiciu,  and  leprosy  and  elephantiasis 
are  common  diseases. 

One  great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country  consists 
in  the  paucity  of  roads  and  railways.  A  beginning  has  been  made,  but,  looking 
to  the  financial  condition  of  Spain,  progress  will  hardly  be  rapid. 


468 


BPAIN. 


Moat  of  the  towns  of  th^.-  Aaturlafl  arc  close  to  the  coast.  Cattro-TJrdialcs, 
Laredo,  and  Santonu,  immecivately  to  the  west  of  the  Basque  provinces,  hiivo 
frequently  served  as  na/al  stations.  The  roadstead  of  Santoila  is  one  of  the  most 
oommod  ious  and  best  sheltered  of  the  peninsula,  and  when  Napoleon  gave  Spain 
to  his  brother  Joseph  he  retained  possession  of  that  place,  and  began  fortifications 
which  would  have  converted  it  into  a  French  Gibraltar. 

The  grout  oommeroial  port  of  the  country  is  Suntander,  with  its  excellent 
harbour,  quays,  docks,  and  war  ^Louses,  built  upon  land  won  from  the  sea.  San- 
tander  is  the  natural  outlet  of  (.}ic  Ciistiles,  and  exports  the  flour  of  Yalladolid  and 

Fig.  183.— Bias  or  La  Cosvma  and  Fshbol. 

SiMla  1  :  110,40^  / 


SMUat. 


jPrtlencia,  as  well  as  the  woollen  stuffs  known  as  sorianaa  and  koneaas  from  t£ 
placo.1  where  they  are  manufactured.     It  supplies  the  interior  with  the  colonu 
produce  of  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico,  and  its  merchants  keep  up  regular  intercom 
with  France,  England,  Hamburg,  and  Scandinavia.*      The  ship-building  ya 
at  the  head  of  the  bay  have  lost  their  former  importance,  and  the  manufacture  | 
cigars  is  now  the   great  industry  of  th<>  country.     Rardinero,  a  bathing- pla 
to  the  north  of  the  town,  and  the  hot  springs  of  Aloedo,  Ontaneda,  Las  Cal^ 
de  Besaya,  in  the  hills  to  the  south,  are  favourite  places  of  resort. 

Along  the  coast  to  the  west  of  Santander,  as  far  sua  GKjon,  we  only  meet 

*  Imports  (1873),  <2,348,720;  exports,  £2,341,360. 


coast.  Castro-TTrdialos, 
Basque  provinces,  hiivo 
intofta  is  one  of  the  most 
len  Napoleon  gave  Spain 
and  began  fortifications 


nder,  with  its  excellent 
,..  from  the  sea.  San- 
flour  of  Valladolid  and 


won 


le 


Oh. 


rianas  and  konesas  from  the 
e  interior  with  the  colonial 
keep  up  regular  intercourse 
•  The  ship-building  yards 
ance,  and  the  manufacture  of 

Pardinero,  a  bathing-place 
Llcedo,  Ontaneda,  Las  Caldas 
ces  of  resort. 

as  Gijon,  we  only  meet  with 

S2,34l,360. 


8ANTANDEB,  THE  A8TUBIAS,  ANa>  OALICIA. 


469 


villages,  such  as  San  Martin  de  la  Arena  (the  port  of  the  decayed  town  of  Santillana), 
Hun  Vicente  de  la  Durquera,  Llanes,  Rivadcsella,  and  L&strvs.  Nor  is  Qijon,  with 
its  huge  tobacco  factory,  a  place  of  importance,  though  formerly  it  was  the  capital 
of  all  Aflturias.  It  exports,  however,  the  coal  brought  by  rail  from  Sumu  (Langres), 
and  with  Aviles,  on  the  other  side  of  the  elevated  CbIk)  de  I'oilas,  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  being  the  port  of  Oviodo,  si^.uated  in  a  tributary  valley  of  the  Nulon, 
fifteen  milus  in  the  interior.  Oviedo  has  flourishing  iron-works,  a  university,  and  a 
fine  Gothic  cathedral,  said  to  be  richer  in  relics  t'lan  any  other  church  in  the 
world.  The  mountain  of  Naronca  shelters  the  town  against  northerly  winds,  and 
its  climate  is  delicious.  The  environs  abound  in  delightful  spots.  At  Cangas  de 
Onis,  which  was  the  first  capital  of  the  kingdom,  founded  by  St.  Polagius,  but 
now  merely  a  village  in  a  charming  valley,  are  the  caverns  of  Covadonga,  in  which 
the  ashes  of  the  saint  have  found  a  Inst  resting-place,  and  which  are  consequently 
objects  of  the  highest  veneration  to  patriotic  Spaniards.  Trubia,  the  Government 
gun  and  small-ai-ms  factory,  lies  seven  miles  to  the  west  of  Oviodo. 

Cudillero,  Luaroa,  Navia  (a  place  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Hum,  the 
son  of  Noah),  CuHtr'  ',  and  Galioian  Rivad^a  are  mere  fishing  villages,  and  only 
when  we  reach  tl  „'nificent  rias  opening  out  into  the  Atlantic  do  we  again 

meet  with  real  towns.  The  first  of  these  is  Ferrol,  which  was  only  a  village 
up  to  the  middle  of  last  century,  but  has  since  been  converted  into  a  great  naval 
station  and  fortress,  bristling  with  guns,  and  containing  dockyards  and  arsenals. 

La  Coruila,  the  Groyne  of  English  sailors,  depends  rather  upon  commerce,  manu- 
factures, and  fishing  than  upon  its  military  establishments  and  fortifications.  It 
is  ono  of  the  most  picturesque  towns  qf  Spain,  and  its  favourable  geographical 
position  will  enable  it,  on  the  cc  ipletion  of  the  railway  now  building,  consider- 
ably to  extend  its  oommeroe,  which  at  present  is  almost  confined  to  England.* 
On  a  small  island  near  it  stands  the  Tower  of  Hercules,  the  foundations  of 
which  date  back  to  the  Romans,  if  not  Phoenicians.  It  was  from  the  ria  of  Coruila 
that  the  "  Invincible  Armada  "  set  out  upon  its  disastrous  expedition. 

Each  of  the  rias  of  Southern  Galiola  has  its  port  or  ports.  That  of  Corcubion 
is  sheltered  by  the  Cape  of  Finisterre  ;  on  the  ria  of  Noya  are  the  small  towns  of 
Noya  and  Muros;  that  of  Arosa.is  frequented  by  vessels  which  convey  emigrants 
from  the  ports  of  Padron  and'Carril  to  La  Plata;  the  ria  of  Pontevedra  extends 
to  the  town  after  which  it  is  named ;  and  farther  south  still,  the  towns  of  Vigo 
and  Bayona  rise  on  the  shore  of  a  magnificent  bay,  protected  by  a  group  of 
islands  known  to  the  ancients  as  "  Isles  of  the  Gods."  Vigo,  with  its  excellent 
harbour,  has  become  the  great  commercial  port  of  the  country,  t  but  is,  perhaps, 
better  known  on  account  of  the  galleons  sunk  by  Dutch  and  English  privateers. 

Three  of  the  principal  inland  towns  of  Galioia — viz.  Lugo,  Orense,  and  Tuy — 
rise  on  the  banks  of  the  Miiio.  The  old  Roman  city  of  Lugo  (Lucus  Augusti) 
is  enclosed  within  medisBval  walls,  and  has  warm  sulphur  springs.  Orense,  with  its 
superb  old  bridge,  is  likewise  celebrated  for  its  hot  springs,  or  burgcu,  which  are 

*  Imports  (1873),  £310,227;  exports,  £210,S32. 
t  Imports  (1873),  £873,286 ;  Exports,  £381,636. 


460 


SPAIN. 


mid  to  ruiiH)  Honsibly  tho  temix'  lure  of  the  plain  in  wintor,  und  supply  tho  whol 
town  with  water  for  domeHti  purponeii.  Tuy,  opposite  the  Portuguese  town  c 
Yalen^u  do  Minho,  is  iiiipc  •  >unt  only  us  a  frontier  fortress.  Hantiugo  do  Com 
postela,  tho  famous  old  capital  of  Qalicia,  on  a  hill  near  the  winding  banks  of  th 
Saria,  in  tho  most  populous  town  of  North-western  Spain.  It  was  here  the  grave  c 
St.  Jumcs  tho  apostle  was  discovered  in  tho  ninth  century.  The  attraction  whici 
it  formerly  exorcised  upon  pilgrims  was  immense.* 

IX. — Thk  Prksbnt  and  Futdhr  op  Spain. 

CoNTEMPORANBOUM  Spain  is  full  of  disorder.  The  political,  financial,  and  socio 
machinery  is  out  ct'  joint,  and  civil  war,  active  or  latent,  is  can'  1  on  almost  ii 
every  province.   The  ruin  wrought  by  these  incessant  domestic  war.;      '  iralcultiMt 

Fig.  184.— Santona  ani>  Hantamdbb. 
Sealt  1  :  MO.OOO. 


Successive  (iovemments  have  lad  recourse  to  miserable  expedients  without  beij 
able  to  disguise  the  bankrupt  c<  tndition  of  the  country.    The  creditors  of  the  St 
no  less  than  the  Government  officials,  remained  unpaid,  and  even  schools  had  I 
be  closed  because  the  pittance  d  ue  to  the  schoolmaster  was  not  forthcoming. 

But  in  spite  of  this  apparent  ruin  real  progress  has  been  made.     In  orderl 
fairly  judge  Spain  we  must  remember  that  the  period  when  the  Inquisition 
permitted  to  commit  its  judicial  murders  is  not  very  remote.     In  1780  a  woi 
of  Seville  was  burnt  at  the  stake  for  "  sorcery  and  witchcraft."     At  that  time 
greater  part  of  Spain  was  held  in  mortmain,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  remaii 

*  Population  of  towns:— Santander,  21,000;  Oviedo,  9,000;  Gijon,  6,000;  Santiago  de  Comp 
20,000 ;  La  CoruRa,  20,000 ;  Ferrol,  17,000 ;  Lugo,  8,000 :  Vigo,  6,000 ;  Orenae,  6,000 ;  Pontevedra.  4,1 


itor,  und  supply  the  wholo 
the  Portugueao  town  of 

ItroiM.     Santiago  de  Cum* 

the  winding  banks  of  the 

It  was  hero  the  grave  of 

Lry.    The  attraction  which 


Spain. 

itioal,  financial,  and  social 
it,  is  oair'  1  on  almost  in 
imesticwai-i  .     iralcuiublo. 


lonoKff 


ft*:.\i 


le  expedients  without  being 
,  The  creditors  of  the  State, 
id,  and  even  schools  had  to 
was  not  forthcoming. 
18  been  made.  In  order  to 
)d  when  the  Inquisition  was 
remote.  In  1780  a  woman 
chcrafb."  At  that  time  the 
3ukivation  of  the  remainder 

jon,  6,000 ;  Santiago  de  Compooteia,  i 
D ;  Oreiue,  6,000  ;  Pontevedra.  4,200. 


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THE  PEESENT  AND  FUTURE  OF  SPAIN. 


461 


was  very  indifferently  attended  to.  Ignorance  was  universal,  more  especially  at 
the  universities,  where  science  was  held  in  derision. 

The  great  events  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  roused  the 
Spaniards  from  their  torpor,  and  the  country,  in  spite  of  temporary  checks,  has 
increased  in  population  and  wealth.  Labour  is  more  highly  respected  now  than  it 
was  formerly,  and  whilst  monasteries  and  convents  have  been  emptied,  the  factories 
are  crowded  with  workmen.  For  much  of  this  progress  Spain  is  indebted  to 
foreigners.  Millions  have  been  invested  by  them,  and,  though  the  expected  profits 
have  scarcely  ever  been  realised,  the  country  at  large  has  permanently  profited  from 
this  inflow  of  capital.  The  English  have  given  an  immense  impetus  to  agriculture 
by  buying  the  wines  of  Andalusia,  the  com  and  flour  of  the  Castilians,  and  the 
cattle  of  the  Galicians.  They  have  likewise  developed  the  mining  industry  of 
Huelva,  Lin  ires,  Cartagena,  and  Sommorostro.  The  French  have  vastly  aided 
the  manufacturing  industry.  Foreign  capitalists  and  engineers  have  established 
steamboat  lines  and  railways.  The  small  towns  of  the  interior  are  awakening 
from  their  lethargy,  and  modern  life  is  beginning  to  pulsate  through  their  veins.* 

In  intellectual  matters  Spain  has  made  even  greater  progress.  Ignorance  is 
still  a  great  power,  especially  in  the  Castiles,  where  schoolmasters  are  little 
respected,  populous  towns  are  without  libraries,  and  catechisms  and  almanacs  are 
the  only  literature  of  the  peasantry.  But  the  position  which  Spain  now  holds  in 
literature  and  the  arts  sufficiently  proves  that  the  country  of  Cervantes  and 
Velasquez  is  about  to  resume  its  place  amongst  the  other  countries  of  Europe.  In 
science,  however,  Spain  lags  far  behind,  and  Michael  Servetus  is  the  only  Chris- 
tian Spaniard  whose  works  mark  an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  human  knowledge. 
But  the  spirit  of  inquiry  at  one  time  alive  amongst  the  Afoors  of  Andalusia  may 
possibly  revive  amongst  their  descendants. 

It  is  very  much  to  be  desired  that  intellectual  progress  should  mollify  the 
manners  of  the  people. t  It  is  a  scandal  that  the  "  noble  science  of  bull-baiting" 
should  still  meet  with  so  large  a  measure  of  support  in  Spain.  These  bull-fights,  as 
well  as  the  cock-fights  so  popular  in  Andalusia,  are  sports  unworthy  a  great  nation, 
and  should  be  put  down,  just  as  the  auto-da-fia  have  been  put  down. 

Since  a  generation  or  two  Spain  has  got  rid  of  most  of  her  colonies,  which  only 

•  Of  the  total  area  26-1  per  cent,  consists  of  arable  land,  2-8  of  vineyards,  1-7  of  olive  plantation,  13-7 
of  meadows  and  pasture,  16'3  per  cent,  of  woods :  3»-4  per  cent,  are  uncultivated.  The  total  value  of 
agricultural  produce  is  estimated  at  £80,000,000. 

The  produce  of  the  mines  i  i  1871  represented  a  value  of  £6,271,000. 

In  1866  there  were  enumerated  680,373  horses,  1,020,612  mules,  1,298,334  asses,  2,967,303  heads  of 
homed  cattle,  22,468,969  sheep,  4,631,736  goats,  4,631.228  pigs,  and  3,104  camels. 

The  producU  of  manufactures  are  estimated  by  Oarrido  at  £63,480,000  :— Imports  (1871),  £22,780,000, 
(1874)  £15,280,000  ;  exports  (1871),  £17,688,000,  (1874)  £16,120,000. 

Commenial  marine  (1874),  2,836  sea-going  vessels  (inclusive  of  212  steamers),  of  626,184  tons,  besides 
6,498  lighters  (26,000  tons)  and  12,000  fishing-boats. 

Railways,  3,602  miles  in  1876. 

t  Educational  statistics  (1870)  :—  _     . 

Hen.  Women.  Total. 

Able  to  read  and  write    ....    2,414,000  716,000  3,130,000 

Able  to  read  only 317,000  389,000  706,000 

Illiterate 6,036,000  6,803,000  11,838,000 


m  SPAIN. 

hindered  her  moral  and  material  progress.     The  metropolis  is  no  longer  called 

Fig.  186.— OviEDo  AND  Gmon. 
Boole  1  :  800,000. 


SMilM. 


upon  to  uphold  slavery,  the   Inquisition,   commercial  monopolies,   and   similar 
institutions,  "  devised  to  insure  the  happy  government  of  these  colonies."     These 


4M 


SPAIN. 


as  adding  to  the  wealth  of  Spain,  and  large  sums  have  certainly  been  paid  by 
them  into  the  treasury.  But  these  results  have  been  achieved  at  the  cost  of 
fearful  suffering  and  demoralisation  to  governors  and  governed,  and  unless  Spain 
adopts  the  colonial  system  of  England,  by  granting  self-government  to  i  ilouies,  it 
will  to  a  certainty  lose  the  last  shreds  of  its  colonial  empire,  after  having  exhausted 
its  strength  in  vain  efforts  to  maintain  it. 

But  though  the  colonies  be  lost,  the  influence  of  Spain  upon  the  rest  of  the 
world  will  endure  for  centuries.     Spain  has  impressed  her  genius   upon  every 


Fig.  187.— RiA  DH  Vioo. 

flcsle  1 :  »0,000. 


ft«lfe'1l.*flr 


TS^ 


MMd-  ,       ^^ 


SMilM. 


country  subjected  at  one  time  or  other  to  her  power.  Sicily,  Naples,  Sardinia, 
and  even  Lombardy  still  exhibit  traces  of  Spanish  influence  in  their  architecture 
and  customs.  Tn  Spanish  America  we  find  towns  inhabited  by  Indians  which 
iare  quite  Spanish  in  their  aspect,  and  almost  resemble  detached  portions  of  Badajoz 
and  ValladoUd.  The  Indians  themselves  have  adopted  the  Castilian  tongue,  and 
with  it  Oastilian  manners  and  modes  of  thought.  A  vast  territory,  twice  the  size 
of  Europe,  and  capable  of  supporting  millions  of  inhabitants,  is  occupied  now  by 
Spanish-speaking  peoples. 


==w; 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


465 


y  been  paid  by 
at  the  cost  of 
[id  unless  Spain 
nt  to  I  ilouies,  it 
taving  exhausted 

the  rest  of  the 
iiu8  upon  every 


ly 


y,  Naples,  Sardinia, 
a  their  architecture 
I  by  Indians  which 
[  portions  of  Badajoz 
iastilian  tongue,  and 
itory,  twice  the  size 
is  occupied  now  by 


X. — GoVERNMKXr     ANn     Am  rNISTRATION. 

SiNCK  September,  1868,  when  u  revolution  upset  tho  Government  of  Isabella  II., 
Spain  has  passed  through  a  series  of  revolutions  and  convulsions,  terminating  in 
December,  1874,  in  the  accession  of  Alfonso  XII.,  a  son  of  Isabella.  Soon  after- 
wards the  revolt  in  the  Basque  provinces  raised  by  Don  Curios,  the  "  legitimate  " 
king  of  the  country,  was  suppressed,  und  the  work  of  internal  organization  could 
begin.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  King  and  the  Cortes.  These  latter 
include  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Deputies.     The  Senate  consi&ts  of  hereditary 

Fig.  188. — Railboads  or  thr  Ihrkian  Peninsvla. 
Scale  1  :  10,800,000. 


MKfHCr 


0*Cr. 


members  (such  as  royal  princes  and  grandees),  of  life  members  chosen  by  the 
King,  and  of  senators  elected  by  corporations.  The  members  of  the  House  of 
Deputies  are  elected  for  five  years.  The  President  and  Y ice-President  of  the  Senate 
are  appointed  by  the  King,  who  enjoys  the  right  of  dissolving  the  Cortes  on  con- 
dition of  fresh  elections  being  ordered  within  three  months. 

These  governmental  revolutions  scarcely  affected  the  administration  of  the 
cotmtry.  The  treasury  is  always  empty,  the  annual  receipts  do  not  suffice  to  pay 
the  interest  upon  the  national  debt,  taxes  have  increased,  the  conscription  demands 
more  men  than  ever,  and  the  schools  diminish  in  numbers.* 

*  Revenue  (1876-7),  £26,300,069 ;  estimated  expenditure,  £26,251,518,  of  which  more  than  half  is  for 
army  and  navy ;  national  debt,  £420,322,000. 


lllliaMiiiniBHaal 


466 


SPAIN. 


The  political  and  administrativo  divisions  of  tho  country  have  remained  tho 
same  since  1841.  Spain  is  divided  into  forty>nine  provinces,  including  tho 
Canaries.  Each  province  is  subdivided  into  didtricts,  and  has  its  civil  governor. 
The  communes  are  governed  by  an  alcalde,  or  mayor,  assisted  by  an  ayuutamiento,  or 
municipal  council,  of  from  four  to  twenty-eight  members.  The  judicial  adminis- 
tration is  modelled  on  that  of  France.  There  are  9,400  justices  of  the  peace  (one 
for  each  commune),  about  500  inferior  courts,  15  courts  of  appeal,  and  a  supreme 
court  sitting  at  Madrid. 

For  military  purposes  continental  Spain  is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  each 


Fig.    180.— FORBION   COMMIKCB  OF  THB  IbIRIAN  FbNINBVLA. 


•  I  I  •  •    HUliM*  (T  lb«a  Hidkj. 

under  a  captain-general.  These  are  New  Castile,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Andalusia, 
Valencia  with  Muroia,  Oalioia,  Granada,  Old  Castile,  Estremadura,  Bdrgos, 
Navarra,  and  the  Basque  provinces.  The  Balearic  Isles,  the  Canaries,  Cuba, 
Puerto  Bico,  and  the  Philippines  constitute  five  additional  districts.  Military 
service  is  compulsory,  but  substitutes  are  admitted  on  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom. 
The  annual  levy  varies  exceedingly,  and  as  many  as  80,000  men  are  officially  stated 
to  have  been  levied  in  a  single  year,  though  60,000  would  appear  to  be  the  utmost 
the  population  can  supply.  Tho  term  of  service  is  seven  years  in  the  cavalry  and 
artillery,  eight  years  in  the  infantry,  of  which  three  are  passed  in  the  "  provincial 
militia."    About  100,000  men  are  supposed  to  be  actually  under  arms  in  the 


'.^.kujmii 


#— 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTBATION. 


467 


^e  remained  tho 
,  including  tho 
i  civil  governor. 
I  ayuntamicnto,  or 
judicial  adminis- 
j£  the  peace  (one 
I,  and  a  supreme 

ve  districts,  each 


(•rcflloi 


;'^ 


Aragon,  Andaluna, 
tremadura,  Burgos, 
the  Canaries,  Cuba, 

districts.  Military 
t  of  a  heavy  ransom. 
m  are  officially  stated 
pear  to  be  the  utmost 
rs  in  the  cavalry  and 
jd  in  the  "  provincial 
'  under  arms  in  the 


peninsula,  130,000  are  on  furlough, -und  70,000  men  are  stationed  in  the  colonies, 
mostly  in  Cuba,  where  about  one- fourth  of  the  total  strength  perish  annually. 

The  principal  fortresses  are  St.  Sebastian,  Suntoila,  and  Santunder,  on  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  ;  Ferrol,  Lu  Oorufia,  and  Vigo,  on  the  rius  of  Galicia  ;  Ciudad  Rodrigo, 
on  tho  Portuguese  frontier;  C&diz  and  Tarifa,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar ;  Mklaga,  Cartagena,  Alicante,  and  Barcelona,  on  the  Mediterranean ; 
Figueras,  Pamplona,  and  Zaragoza,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  navy  consists  of  123  steamers,  propelled  by  engines  of  24,694  horse-power, 
armed  with  755  guns,  and  manned  by  14,000  sailors  and  5,500  marines.  Six 
of  these  vessels  are  ironclad  frigates.  The  number  of  superior  officers  is  exceed- 
ingly large,  and  their  salaries  weigh  heavily  upon  the  treasury. 

Fig.    190. — DiAORAX   EXHIBITING   THE   EXTBNT   OF  THE   CaSTILIAN    LaNOUAOE. 

Boale  1 .-  8e,00OiX)O. 


Officially  tl  privileges  of  the  nobility  have  been  abrogated.  The  number  of 
"  noblemen  "  is,  t-  jrhaps,  larger  in  Spain  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe,  for  the 
population  of  entire  provinces,  such  as  the  Vascongades  and  the  Asturias,  claims 
to  have  "blue  blood"  in  its  veins.  In  1787  no  less  than  480,000  "gentlemen" 
were  enumerated,  not  including  minors,  and  if  the  proportion  is  the  same  now, 
there  must  exist  at  the  least  3,000,000  Spaniards  who  claim  to  be  hidalgos,  or 
"  sons  of  somebody."  About  1,500  grandees  are  privileged  by  custom  to  remain 
covered  in  the  presence  of  the  King,  and  about  200  of  these  belong  to  the  highest 
rank.  All  of  these  do  not,  however,  owe  their  rank  to  birth,  for  many  plebeians, 
taking  advantage  of  the  financial  miseries  of  the  country,  have  succeeded  in  getting 
themselves  ennobled.  The  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  founded  in  1431  by  Philip 
the  Good,  is  one  of  the  distinctions  most  coveted  by  princes  and  diplomatists. 


mmm 


408 


SPAIN. 


The  Roman  Catholio  religion  is  that  of  the  State,  and  its  prelates  enjoy  great 
privileges,  but  all  other  confessions  are  supposed  to  be  tolerated.  The  sohoolH, 
unfortunately,  still  remain  in  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics,  who  likewise  exercise  a 
censorship  with  respect  to  pieces  to  be  produced  on  the  stage.  Formerly  Spain 
was  the  most  priest-ridden  country  in  Europe.  At  the  close  of  last  century  there 
were  144,000  priests,  71,000  monks,  and  35,000  nuns,  but  only  34,000  merchants. 
War  and  revolutions  played  havoc  with  the  conventual  institutions,  but  as  recently 
as  1H35  thoy  still  harboured  50,000  inmates.  Subsequently  the  whole  of  them 
were  suppressed,  and  in  180'J  the  last  Spanish  monk  retired  from  the  Charter- 
house of  Qranada  to  Hnd  a  refuge  in  Belgium.  Since  then,  however,  the  laws  of 
the  land  have  again  been  relaxed  in  favour  of  monks  and  priests.  There  are  0 
archbishops  and  54  bishops. 


w 


^I 


AuiA 

AKD  Population  of 

Shaw  and  m  Colonikr. 

Area. 
Bq.  m. 

FopnUtion 

(1870). 

DeMtty. 

Area. 

N<].  m. 

Populntlon 

(IWO). 

Dwui 

Nkw  Castilc 

Caitilla)  :- 

Catalonia  (Cataluflii) :  - 

Miidrid .     . 

.    .    2,907 

487,482 

162 

L^rida  .    .     . 

.    4,776 

330,348 

60 

Tolodo  .     . 

.     .     6,686 

342,272 

61 

Gorona .    .     . 

.     2,272 

.326,110 

143 

Ouadalttjiti'ii 

.     .     4,870 

208,638 

41 

Uaruvlona  .     . 

.     2,986 

762,565 

266 

Cuonca .     . 

.     .     6,726 

238,731 

36 

Tarragona 

.     2,461 

350,80J 

118 

Ciudad  Real 

.     .     7,840 

264,649 

34 

Akaoon:— 

Oi-ii  Castile  ;- 

- 

Iluomui .     .     . 

.     6,878 

274,623 

47 

Bantandor  . 

.     .     2,113 

241,681 

114 

/uragoza    (Sara 

liCirgoB  .     . 

.     .     0,660 

353,660 

62 

goMa)     .     . 

.    6,607 

401,804 

61 

Logroflo     . 

.     .     1,946 

182,041 

04 

Toruel  .     .     . 

.    6.401 

252.201 

46 

Avila     .     . 
Sogoviu 
86ria      .     . 

.     .     2.981 
.     .     2,714 
.     .     3,836 

176,219 
150,812 
168,699 

60 
63 
41 

Navauha  and  Basque  Phovincih  (Va*- 
congados) : — 

Paloncia     . 

.     .     3,126 

184,668 

50 

Kavarra    .     . 

.     4,046 

318,687 

80 

ValladoUd . 

.     .     3,043 

242,384 

80 

Vizeaya  (Biscay 

840 

187,026 

221 

Leon:— 

Guip6zcoa 

728 

180,743 

248 

Salamanca 

.     .     4,940 

280,870 

67 

Alava    .    .     . 

.     1,206 

103,320 

86 

Zamora 

.     .     4,136 

260,068 

61 

ASTUHIAS  : — 

Leon      .     . 

.     .     6,167 

360,092 

66 

Oviodo  .     .     . 

.    4,001 

610,883 

152 

ESTIIEMADUKA 

— 

G  ALICIA : — 

C&ceros 

.     .     8,013 

302,466 

34 

Orense  .    .     . 

2,739 

402,796 

147 

Badajoz 

.     .     8,687 

431,022 

40 

Pontevedra    . 

.     1,739 

480,146 

282 

Akiialvsia  : — 

La  Corufla 

.    3,079 

630,604 

210 

Almeria 

.     .     3,802 

361,553 

110 

Lugo    .     .     . 

3,787 

476,836 

126 

C&diz     .    . 

.     .     2,809 

426,400 

162 

Total  Spain 

192,959 

16,835,606 

87 

C6rdova     . 

.     .     6,190 

382,662 

73 

Granada    . 

.     .     4,937 

485,346 

08 

Afhica  : — 

Huelva .    . 

.     .     4,122 

106,460 

48 

Canaries    .     . 

2,808 

283,859 

101 

Jaen      .    . 

.     .     5,184 

302,100 

75 

West  Coast    . 

850 

36,000 

41 

Mfilaga .    . 

.     .     2,824 

606,010 

130 

Ambrica  : — 

Seville  .     . 

.     .     6,295 

616,011 

07 

Valencia  :  — 

Cuba     .     .    . 

.  46,983 

1,400,000 

30 

Pucito  Rico   . 

3,696 

626,000 

178 

Castellon    d 

B    la 

Plana     . 

.     .     2,446 

206,222 

121 

OCBAMU : — 

Valencia    . 

.     .     4,362 

665,141 

163 

Philippines 

66,870 

6,000,000 

91 

Alicante    . 

.     .     2,098 

440,470 

210 

Carolinas  .    . 

634 

18,800 

36 

Murcia:— 

Pelew  Islands 

346 

10,000 

20 

Albacete    . 

.     .    6,972 

220,073 

37 

Marianas  .    . 

417 

8,000 

10 

Miircia .    . 

.     .     4,478 

430,067 

98 

Total  Colonies 

120,403 

8,380,669 

70 

Baleakic  Iblb 
Baleares    . 

s: — 
.     .     1,860 

280,225 

166 

Spain  and    '^ 
Colonies   > 

313,362 

25,216,166 

80 

'TsiSRai^ 


elates  onjoy  greot 
od.     The  nchoolH, 
ikewiao  exorcise  a 
Formerly  Spuiii 
last  century  there 
34,000  merchants, 
ons,  but  as  recently 
he  whole  of  them 
from  the  Charter- 
jwever,  the  laws  of 
•iestB.    There  are  {» 


PORTUGAL.* 


I. — Genrrai.  Aspects. 


m.     (1870). 


I7« 


330,348  69 

3'2fi,llO  143 

762,666  266 

360,39)  113 

274,623  47 


307  401,894  61 

491  262,201  46 

KOVINCI8  (Vas- 

,046  318,687  80 

849  187,926  221 

728  180,743  248 

,206  103,320  86 

,091  610,883  162 


!,739 
1,739 
},079 

vr87 

J^59 


2,808 
860 


402,796 
480,146 
630,604 
476,836 


l(i,83d,606 

283,869 
36,000 


16,983     1,400,000 
3,696        626,000 


6,000,000 

18,800 

10,000 

8,000 

liaSoiMo 


.20,403 


J13,362  26,216,166         80 


ORTUQAL,  one  of  the  smallest  states  of  Europe,  was  nevertheless 
during  a  short  epoch  one  of  the  most  powerful. 

It  might  appear  at  the  first  glance  that  Portugal  ought  to  be  a 
member  of  a  state  including  the  whole  of  the  Iberian  peninsula ; 
but  it  is  neither  to  chance  nor  to  events  purely  historical  that 
Portugal  owes  its  separate  existence.  The  country  is  one  by  its  climate,  fuuna,  and 
vegetation,  and  the  inhabitants  dwelling  within  it  naturally  adopted  the  same  sort 
of  life,  nourished  the  same  ideas,  and  joined  in  the  same  body  politic.  It  was  by 
advancing  along  the  coast,  from  river  to  river,  from  the  Douro  to  the  Minho  and 
Tejo,  from  the  Tejo  to  the  Guadiana,  that  Portugal  constituted  itself  an  independent 
state. 

Soil  and  climate  mark  off  Portugal  very  distinctly  from  the  rest  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula.  Speaking  generally,  that  country  embraces  the  Atlantic  slopes  of  the 
plateau  of  Spain,  and  the  limit  of  the  heavy  rains  brought  by  westerly  winds 
coincides  very  nearly  with  the  political  boundary  between  the  two  countries.  On 
one  side  of  the  line  we  have  a  humid  atmosphere,  frequent  rains,  and  luxuriant 
forests ;  on  the  other  a  brazen  sky,  a  parched  soil,  naked  rocks,  and  treeless  plains. 
These  abundant  rains  convert  the  feeble  streams  flowing  from  the  plateau  into  great 
rivers.  The  natural  obstacles,  such  as  rapids,  which  obstruct  the  principal  amongst 
them,  are  met  with  near  the  political  frontier  of  the  country.  The  harbour  of 
Lisbon  was  the  kernel,  as  it  were,  around  which  the  rest  of  the  country  has  become 
crystallized.  Its  power  of  attraction  proved  equal  to  that  which  caused  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula  to  gravitate  towards  Madrid  and  Toledo. 

As  frequently  happens  where  neighbouring  nations  obey  different  laws  and 
are  made  to  fight  eaoh  other  at  the  caprice  of  their  sovereigns,  there  is  no  love 
lost  between  Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  The  former,  being  the  stronger,  sneer  at 
"Portugueses  pocos  y  locos"  (small  and  crack-brained).  The  Portuguese  are  far 
more  demonstrative  in  giving  expression  to  their  aversion.     Formerly  "  Murderer 

*  link  und  Hoffmaniuegg,  "Voyage  en  Portugal;"  Minutoli,  "Portugal  nnd  leine  Kolonien;" 
Vogel,  "Le  Portugal  et  im  Colonies;"  Lady  Jaokion,  «Fair  Luutania;"  Latouohe,  "Traveli  in 
Portugal" 

84 


410 


rOUTUOAn. 


of  the  Ca»tuiuin  "  wu»  a  favourite  ■ign-bourd  of  houws  of  entertainment,  and  thf 
national  pnotry  broathca  pauionato  hatred  of  the  Spaniard.  This  animosity  must 
interfere  with  the  Iberian  union,  advocttto<l  only  by  a  handful  of  people. 

Ancient  liUsitaniu  wha  inhabited  by  Coltio  and  Iberian  tribea,  who  resisted  for 
a  considerable  time  the  conquering  arms  of  Rome.  Those  dwelling  near  the  couHt 
had  been  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Greek,  Phconician,  and  Curthuginiun 
colonists  ;  but  the  influen<-o  exercised  by  the  Romans,  who  forced  their  language 
and  form  of  government  upon  the    people,  was  far  more  durable.     Suevi  and 

Fig,  101.— RArxrALL  or  tiir  Ihrhian  P*Nii««t-LA. 
AooordloK  to  Jdlnek  and  Hum.    Buid*  1  :  10,800,000. 


krlWrfCr 


CSi3  Ul  fO   J,,  uu 


Visigoths  have  left  but  few  traces  of  their  presence.  The  Mohammedans  of 
various  races  have  largely  modified  the  blood  and  manners  of  the  inhabitants, 
especially  in  Algarve,  where  they  maintained  themselves  to  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  numerous  ruin  -  of  fortresses  existing  throughout  the 
country  bear  witness  to  the  severe  struggk  ^  which  took  place  between  these  races 
before  uniformity  of  government  and  religion  was  established. 

The  Kings  of  Portugal,  taking  the  advice  of  the  Inquisition,  expelled  all  heretics. 
The  persecution  of  the  Moors  was  pitiless,  but  the  Jews  were  occasionally  granted 
a  respite.    The  Spanish  Jews  settled  near  the  frontier,  having  outwardly  embraced 


OENKRAIi  ABPKCTS. 


471 


(rtainmcnt,  and  th- 
his  animosity  muBt, 
f  jHJoplo. 

,«8,  who  roiintcd  for 
'lling  neur  tho  couHt 
und  Curthoginiuii 
reed  their  lunguago 
uroble.     Suevi  und 


■MV 


tw 


.M 


Itar—UnA, 


t  V 


^ 


The  Mohammedans  of 
era  of  the  inhabitants, 
B  to  tho  middle  of  the 
ixisting  throughout  the 
ace  between  these  races 

led. 

ion,  expelled  all  heretics, 
ere  occasionally  granted 
ring  outwardly  embraced 


tho  Christian  religion,  wore  p<<nnitt«d  to  romiiin ;  but  tho  more  connoiontious 
Jews  kvpt  true  to  thoir  fiiith,  and  carried  tho  knowledge  they  poNHOHsvd  to  other 
fountrioH  of  Europe  und  to  tho  Kant.  At  tho  timo  of  thoir  oxilo  thvy  woro 
engaged  in  literature,  niodicino,  and  hiw,  uh  well  uh  in  connnoroo;  ut  liisbon  they 
hud  founded  an  academy  of  high  repute ;  it  was  a  Jew  who  introduced  tho  art  uf 
printing  into  Portugal ;  and  Spinoza,  that  noble  and  powerful  thinker,  was  a  Jew 
of  Portuguese  extraction. 

But  tho  Portuguese  have  not  only  tho  blood  of  Arabs,  Berbers,  and  Jews  in 
their  veins,  they  are  likewise  much  mixed  with  negroes,  more  particularly  in  the 
Houth  and  along  the  coast.  The  slave  trade  existed  long  before  tho  negroes  uf 
Guinea  were  exported  to  the  plantations  of  America.  Damianns  a  Goes  estimated 
the  number  of  blacks  imported  into  Lisbon  alone  during  tho  sixteenth  century  at 
10,000  or  12,000  per  annum.  If  contemporary  eye-witnesses  can  be  trusted, 
the  number  of  blacks  met  with  in  tho  streets  of  Lisbon  equalled  that  of  tho 
whites.  Not  a  house  but  had  its  negro  servants,  and  the  wealthy  owned  entire 
gangs  of  them.  The  immunity  of  Portuguese  immigrants  who  face  tho  deadly 
climates  of  the  tropics  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  this  infusion  of  negrf^  blood,  but 
erroneously  as  we  think.  Most  of  these  immigrants  come  from  tae  mountains  of 
the  north,  where  the  race  is  almost  pure ;  and  if  the  Portuguese  become  accli- 
matized more  rapidly  than  individuals  of  other  nations,  they  owe  it  to  their  sobriety. 

At  the  present  day  it  is  the  Galicians  who  exercise  most  influence  upon  the 
population  of  Lusitania.  They  immigrate  in  large  numbers  to  Lisbon  and  other 
towns,  where  they  gain  their  living  as  bakers,  porters,  doorkeepers,  and  domestic 
servants.  Being  ridiculed  on  account  of  their  uncouth  language  and  rustic 
manners,  they  mix  but  little  with  the  rest  of  the  population.  Their  numbers, 
however,  are  ever  increasing,  and  their  thrift  and  industry  soon  place  them  in  a 
position  of  ease. 

The  mixture  of  these  diverse  elements  has  not  produced  a  handsome  race.  The 
Portuguese  possess  but  rarely  the  noble  mien  of  the  Spaniard.  Their  features, 
UH  a  rule,  are  irregular,  the  nose  is  turned  up,  and  the  lips  are  thick.  Cripples 
are  rare  amongst  them,  but  so  are  tall  men.  Squat  and  short,  they  are  inclined  to 
corpulency.  The  women  cannot  boast  the  fiery  beauty  of  the  Spaniards,  but  have 
brilliant  eyes,  an  abundance  of  hair,  animated  features,  and  amiable  manners. 

Travellers  speak  highly  of  the  manners,  civility,  and  kindness  of  the  peasantry 
not  yet  contaminated  by  commerce.  The  cruelties  committed  by  Portuguese 
conquerors  in  the  Indies  and  the  New  World  have  given  the  nation  a  bad  reputa- 
tion, though,  as  a  rule,  the  Portuguese  has  compassion  for  all  sorts  of  suffering. 
He  is  a  gambler,  but  never  quarrels ;  he  is  fond  of  bull-fights,  but  takes  care  to 
wrap  up  the  bull's  horns  in  cork,  in  order  that  the  animal  may  be  saved  for  future 
contests  ;  and  he  is  exceedingly  kind  to  domestic  animals.  In  their  intercourse  the 
Portuguese  are  good-tempered,  obliging,  and  polished.  To  tell  a  Lusitanian  that 
he  has  been  "  brought  up  badly  "  is  to  offend  him  most  seriously.  Their  oratory 
is  elegant,  though  ceremonious.  Even  the  peasants  express  themselves  with  a 
facility  and  command  of  words  remarkable  in  a  people  so  badly  educated.     Oaths 


1 


i 


r 


'|j»f  I'ORTUGAL. 

and  indecent  expreBsions  scarcely  ever  pass  their  mouth,  and,  though  great  talkers, 

Fig.  192. -POHTUOUESE  Types:   Peasant  or  Ovau;  Woman  of  Leqa  ;  Peasant  Woman  ov  Afmfe. 


-^^* 


rs^ 


-   Mrjr\N 


^  j^/<^i^ 


and  even  boasters,  they  are  most  guarded  in  their  conversation.    Portugal  has 


-■'■tr'<-*^-trf'f0mmiimtiim0m 


-'-^^  -  "---—nm 


«' 


VALLEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  DOURO,  AND  MONDEQO. 


478 


lough  greut  talkers, 
AMT  Woman  ov  Affile. 


produced  great  orators,  and  one  of  her  poets,  Camoes,  is  amongst  the  most  illus- 
trious the  world  has  ever  seen.  On  the  other  hand,  Portugal  has  given  birth 
to  no  great  artist,  for  Gran  Yasco  is  a  mythical  personage.  Camoes  himself  avows 
ibis  when  he  says,  "  Our  nation  is  the  first  because  of  its  great  qualities.  Our 
men  are  more  heroic  than  other  men ;  our  women  better-looking  than  other  women ; 
and  we  excel  in  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war,  excepting  in  the  art  of  painting." 

Portuguese  is  very  much  like  Custilian  as  far  as  root-words  and  general 
construction  are  concerned,  but  is  far  less  voluminous  and  sonorous.  Nasal  and 
hissing  sounds,  which  a  foreigner  finds  it  difficult  to  pronounce,  abound,  but  there 
are  no  gutturals.  Arab  words  are  less  numerous  in  Portuguese  than  in  Castilian, 
but  the  Lusitanians,  as  well  as  the  Spaniards,  still  swear  by  the  god  of  the 
Mohammedans — Oxala  (Oj'ald) ;  that  is,  "  If  Allah  wills  it." 

The  Portuguese  cannot  compare  in  numbers  with  the  other  nations  of  Europe, 
and  their  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  the  world  is  consequently  small.  At  one 
time  of  their  history,  however,  they  surpassed  all  other  nations  by  their  maritime 
enterprise.  The  Spaniards  certainly  shared  in  the  great  discoveries  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  it  was  the  Portuguese  who  made  them  possible  by  first  venturing  to 
nirvigate  the  open  ocean.  It  was  a  Portuguese,  Magalhaes,  who  undertook  the 
first  voyage  round  the  world,  terminated  only  after  his  death.  A  similar  pre- 
eminence amongst  nations  will  never  be  met  with  again,  for  the  increased  facilities 
of  communication  exercise  a  levelling  influence  upon  all.  Portugal,  therefore,  can 
never  again  hope  to  resume  the  national  status  which  she  held  formerly,  but  her 
great  natural  resources  and  favourable  geographical  position  at  the  extremity  of 
the  continent  must  always  insure  her  an  honourable  place  amongst  them. 


sc««?i 


^- 


'^<r 


•<*.>• 'j 


iversation.    Portugal  has 


II. — Northern  Portugal.    The  Valleys  of  the  Minho, 

DoURO,   AND   MONDEGO. 

The  mountains  of  Liisitania  are  a  portion  of  the  great  orographical  system  of 
the  whole  peninsula ;  but  they  are  not  mere  spurs,  gradually  sinking  down  towards 
the  sea,  for  they  rise  into  independent  ranges ;  and  the  individuality  of  Portugal 
is  manifested  in  the  relief  of  its  soil  quite  as  much  as  in  the  history  of  its 
inhabitants. 

The  mountains  rising  in  the  north<eastem  corner  of  Portugal,  to  the  south  of 
the  Minho,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  outer  barrier  of  an  ancient  lake,  which 
formerly  covered  the  whole  of  the  plains  of  Old  Castile.  From  the  Pyrenees  to 
the  Sierra  de  Gata  this  barrier  was  continuous,  and  the  breaches  now  existing  date 
only  from  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  and  are  due  to  the  erosive  action  of 
torrents.  The  most  considerable  of  these  breaches,  that  of  the  Douro,  coiild  have 
been  e£feoted  only  by  overcoming  most  formidable  obstacles. 

The  most  northern  mountain  mass  of  Portugal,  that  of  the  Peneda  of  Gavieiro 
(4,727  feet),  rises  abruptly  beyond  the  region  of  forest,  and  commands  the  Sierra 
Penagache  (4,066  feet)  on  the  Spanish  frontier  to  the  east,  as  well  as  the  hills  of 
Santa  Luzia  (1,814  feet)  and  others  near  the  coast.    Another  mountain  mass  rises 


m 


474 


PORTUGAL. 


immediately  to  the  south  of  the  gorge  through  which  the  Limia  passes  after  leaving 
Spain.  This  is  the  Serra  do  Gerez  (4,815  feet),  a  range  of  twisted,  grotesquely 
shaped  mountains,  the  only  counterpart  of  which  in  the  peninsula  is  the  famous 
Serrania  de  Ronda.  This  range,  together  with  the  Larouco  (5,184  feet),  to  the 
east  of  it,  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  western  extremity  of  the  Oantabrian  Pyrenees, 
and  like  them  it  consists  of  granitic  rocks. 

The  flora  of  these  northern  frontier  mountains  of  Portugal  much  resembles  that 
of  Galicia,  and  on  their  slopes  the  botanist  meets  with  a  curious  intermingling  of 
the  vegetation  of  France,  and  even  Germany,  with  that  of  the  Pyrenees,  Biscay,  and^ 
the  Portuguese  lowlands.  On  the  southern  summits,  however,  and  more  especially 
on  the  Serra  de  Marfto  (4,665  feet),  which  forms  a  bold  promontory  between  the 
Douro  and  its  important  tributary  the  Tamega,  and  shelters  the  wine  districts 
of  Oporto  from  north-westerly  winds,  the  opportunities  for  examining  into  the 
arborescent  flora  are  but  few,  for  the  forests  which  once  clad  them  have  disap- 
peared. The  schistose  plateaux  to  the  east  of  them  and  to  the  north  of  the  Douro 
have  likewise  been  robbed  of  their  forests  to  make  room  for  vineyards.  Most 
wild  animals  hare  disappeared  with  the  forests,  but  wolves  are  still  numerous,  and 
are  much  dreaded  by  the  herdsmen.  The  mountain  goat  (Capra  CB^,agru«),  which 
existed  until  towards  the  close  of  last  century  in  the  Serra  do  Gerez,  has  become 
extinct.  The  name  of  the  Serra  da  Cabreira  (4,196  feet),  to  the  east  of  Braga,  is 
probably  indebted  for  its  name  to  these  wild  goats. 

If  the  Serra  do  Gerez  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Pyrenean  system,  the  magnificent  Serra  da  Estrella  (6,540  feet),  which  rises 
between  Douro  and  Tejo,  is  undoubtedly  a  western  prolongation  of  the  great 
central  range  of  Spain  which  separates  the  plateaux  of  the  two  Castiles.  These 
"  Star  Mountains "  are  attached  to  the  mountains  of  Spain  by  a  rugged  table- 
land, or  mesa,  of  comparatively  small  height.  The  great  granitic  Serra  da 
Estrella  rises  gently  above  the  broken  ground  which  gives  birth  to  the  Mondego. 
It  can  easily  be  ascended  from  that  side,  and  is  hence  known  as  the  8erra  Mama, 
"  the  tame  mountain."  On  the  south,  however,  above  the  valley  of  the  Zezere, 
the  slopes  aro  abrupt  and  difficult  of  access,  and  are  known  for  that  reason  as  Serra 
Brava ;  that  is,  "  wild  mountain."  Delightful  lakelets,  similar  to  those  of  the 
Pyrenees  and  Carpathians,  are  met  with  near  the  highest  summit  of  the  range, 
the  Malhao  de  Serra.  The  tops  of  the  Serra  da  Estrella  remain  covered  with  snow 
during  four  months  of  the  year,  and  supply  the  inhabitants  of  Lisbon  with  the 
ice  required  for  the  preparation  of  their  favourite  sherbet.  The  orog:«phi'><al 
system  of  the  Estrella  ends  with  the  Serra  de  Lousao  (3,940  feet),  for  the  hills 
of  Estremadura,  which  terminate  in  Cabo  da  Boca,  a  landmark  well  known  to 
mariners,  belong  to  another  geological  formation,  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
Jurassic  strata  overlying  the  cretaceous  formation. 

The  mountains  of  Beira  and  Entre  Douro  e  Minho  are  exposed  to  the  full 
influence  of  the  moisture-iaden  south-westerly  winds,  and  the  rainfall  is  consider- 
able. The  rain  does  not  descend  in  torrents,  as  in  tropical  countries,  but  pours 
down  steadily.     It  is  more  abimdant  in  winter  and  spring,  but  not  a  month  passes 


VALLEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  DOURO,  AND  MONDEGO. 


476 


>a8ses  after  leaving 
wristed,  grotesquely 
aula  is  the  famous 
(5,184  feet),  to  the 
mtabrian  Pyrenees, 

nuch  resembles  that 

us  intermingling  of 

yrenees,  Biscay,  andi 

and  more  eupeoially 

lontory  between  the 

the  wine  districts 

examining  into  the 

i  them  have  disap- 

e  north  of  the  Douro 

)r  vineyards.     Most 

e  still  numerous,  and 

^apra  (Bi,agrm),  which 

io  Gerez,  has  become 

)  the  east  of  Braga,  is 

tern  extremity  of  the 
►40  feet),  which  rises 
mgetion  of   the  great 

two  Oastiles.  These 
B  by  a  rugged  table- 
jat  granitic  Serra  da 
jirth  to  the  Mondego. 
m  as  the  Serra  Mama, 
le  valley  of  the  Zezere, 
"or  that  reason  as  Serra 
imilar  to  those  of  the 

summit  of  the  range, 
aain  covered  with  snow 
its  of  Lisbon  with  the 
bet.  The  orogi«phi''.al 
940  feet),  for  the  hills 
admark  well  known  to 
jist  for  the  most  part  of 

,re  exposed  to  the  full 
the  rainfall  is  consider- 
cal  countries,  but  pours 
,  but  not  a  month  passes 


without  it.  Fogs  are  frequent  at  the  mouths  of  valleys  and  along  the  coast  as  far 
south  as  the  latitude  of  Coimbra.  At  that  piece  as  much  as  sixteen  feet  of  rain 
has  fallen  in  a  single  year,  an  amount  only  to  be  equalled  within  the  tropics. 

The  humidity  of  the  air  accounts  for  the  great  equability  of  the  climate  of 
Northern  Portugal.  At  Ooimbra  the  difference  between  the  coldest  and  warmest 
month  amounts  to  but  20''  F.  Frosts  are  severe  only  on  the  plateaux  exposed  to 
the  north-easterly  winds,  and  the  heat  becomes  unbearable  in  deep  valleys  alone, 
where  the  air  cannot  circulate  freely.*    At  Penafiel,  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  are 

Fig.  193. — Thb  Valley  of  thi  Limu,  or  Lima. 
Soale  1 :  800,000. 


SMilM. 


thrown  back  by  the  rocky  precipices,  the  heat  is  almost  that  of  a  furnace.  This, 
however,  is  an  exception,  and  the  climate  generally  can  be  described  as  temperate. 
Running  water  is  abundant.  Oamoes  has  sung  the  beauties  of  the  fields  of 
Coimbra  watered  by  the  Mondego,  the  charms  of  cascades  sparkling  amidst  foliage, 
and  the  purity  of  the  springs  bursting  forth  from  rocks  clad  with  verdure.  The 
Vouga,  the  affluents  of  the  Douro,  the  Ave,  C&vado,  and  Lima,  likewise  take  their 

•  Temperature  of  Ck>imbr»  (according  to  Coello) :— Year,  61-r ;  winter,  62-2 ;  spring,  63 ;  sunimer, 
68-9 ,  autumn,  62'3 ;  coldest  month  (January),  80-2 ;  hottest  month  (July),  69-4 ;  difference,  19'2  F. 
Temperature  of  Oporto  (according  to  D'Lnie,  mean  of  eight  years) :— Year,  60-2;  winter,  611; 
spring,  68-6;  summer,  69-8;  autumn,  61-2;  coldest  month  (January),  60-2;  hottest  month  (August), 
70-3 :  difference,  201  F. 


i  'i 

1  J! 


M.tJlLii.mLiJJMI-1! 


mm 


476 


POETUGAL. 


Fig.   194. — DUNBB   OP  AVBIBO. 
Boale  1  :  400,000. 


devious  courses  through  Bmiling  landscapes  whose  beauties  are  set  o£f  by  rocks  and 
mountains.  The  Lima,  whose  delights  might  well  cause  Roman  soldiers  to  forget 
the  rivers  of  their  own  country,  is  the  only  river  of  the  peninsula  still  in  a  state 
of  geological  transition.  All  others  have  drained  the  lakes  which  gave  birth  to 
them,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Lima  that  old  lake  basin  is  still  occupied  by  a  swamp, 

known  as  Laguna  Beon,  or  Antela,  the 
only  remains  of  a  mountain-girt  inland 
lake  as  large  as  that  of  Geneva. 

The  current  of  the  rivers  of  Northern 
Portugal  is  too  great  to  permit  of  their 
being  utilised  as  high-roads  of  commerce. 
They  have  ports  at  their  mouths,  but  the 
Douro,  which  drains  nearly  a  sixth  of  the 
Iberian  peninsula,  is  the  only  one  amongst 
them  which  facilitates  access  to  an  inland 
district.  Mariners  dread  to  approach  the 
coast  when  the  wind  blows  on  shore. 
Between  the  Minho  and  Cabo  Carvoeiro,  a 
distance  of  200  miles,  the  coast  presents 
features  very  much  like  those  of  the 
French  landes.  Its  original  indentations 
and  irregularities  have  been  obliterated 
by  barriers  of  sand.  The  lower  valley  of 
the  Yoiiga  was  formerly  an  inlet  of  the 
sea  extending  far  inland.  The  basin  of 
Av^iro  resembles  geologically  that  of 
Arcachon.  It^  waters  aboimd  in  fish,  but 
the  Douro  is  the  southernmost  river  of 
Europe  visited  by  salmon.  The  abun- 
dance of  life  in  certain  localities  of  it  is 
figuratively  expressed  by  a  Spanish  pro- 
,  verb,  which  says,  "  The  water  of  the 
Douro  is  not  water,  but  broth." 

The  rectilinear  beach  of  Beira-mar  is 
lined  for  the  most  part  with  dunes,  the 
old  gulfs  behind  which  are  gradually 
being  converted  into  insalubrious  swamps, 
fringed  by  heath,  ferns,  strawberry-trees, 
and  broom,  whilst  the  neighbouring  forests  consist  of  oaks  and  pines.  Formerly 
these  dunes  invaded  the  cultivated  portions  of  the  country,  as  they  still  do  in  France, 
where  like  geological  causes  have  produced  like  results.  But  long  before  a  similar 
plan  was  thought  of  in  France  these  Portuguese  dunes  were  planted  with  pines, 
and  as  early  as  the  reign  of  King  Diniz  "the  Labourer,"  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  they  had  ceased  to  "  march." 


VALLEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  DOURO,  AND  MONDEGO. 


477 


et  oflf  by  rocks  and 
n  soldiers  to  forget 
aula  still  in  a  state 
hich  gave  birth  to 
supied  by  a  swamp, 
on,  or  Antela,  the 
ountain-girt  inland 
if  Geneva. 

rivers  of  Northern 

to  permit  of  their 
■roads  of  commerce, 
eir  mouths,  but  the 
aearly  a  sixth  of  the 
he  only  one  amongst 

access  to  an  inland 
read  to  approach  the 
ad  blows  on  shore, 
iod  Cabo  Carvoeiro,  a 
58,  the  coast  presents 

like  those  of  the 
original  indentations 
ave  been  obliterated 

The  lower  valley  of 
nerly  an  inlet  of  the 
aland.  The  basin  of 
geologically  that  of 
srs  abound  in  fish,  but 
wuthemmost  river  of 
salmon.  The  abun- 
rtain  localities  of  it  is 
led  by  a  Spanish  pro- 

"The  water  of   the 
,  but  broth." 
beach  of  Beira-mar  is 

part  with  dunes,  the 
which  are  gradually 
to  insalubrious  swamps, 
ferns,  strawberry-trees, 
and  pines.  Formerly 
they  still  do  in  France, 
ut  long  before  a  similar 
ire  planted  with  pines, 
br,"  at  the  beginning 


The  population  of  the  cultivable  portions  of  the  basins  of  Minho  and  Douro  is 
very  dense,  and  in  order  to  maintain  themselves  the  inhabitants  are  forced  to 
work  zealously.  Their  country  is  the  most  carefully  cultivated  of  the  peninsula. 
In  a  large  measure  this  industry  is  due  to  the  fact  of  the  peasantry  being  the 
owners  of  the  land  they  cultivate,  or  at  least  affarados — that  is,  copyholders — 
\  ho  only  pay  a  few  shillings  annually  to  the  lords  of  the  manors.  Many  of 
the  peasants  are  wealthy,  and  the  women  are  fond  of  loading  themselves  with 
jewellery,  amongst  which  necklaces  made  in  the  Moorish  taste  are  most  pro- 
minent. The  cultivation  of  the  fields  is  attended  to  with  scrupulous  care ;  and 
the  most  ingenious  methods  are  employed  for  the  irrigation  of  the  upper  slopes 
of  the  hills,  which  are  frequently  cut  up  into  terraces,  or  geios.  These  Northern 
Portuguese  are  as  distinguished  for  moral  excellence  as  they  are  by  industry. 
Their  sweetness  of  disposition,  gaiety,  and  kindliness  are  the  theme  of  universal 
praise,  and  as  regards  their  love  of  dancing  and  music  they  are  veritable  Theo- 
critan  shepherds.  Challenges  in  improvised  verses  form  one  of  the  amusements 
of  young  men.  Nor  is  the  population  devoid  of  physical  beauty.  The  women 
of  Av^iro,  though  often  enfeebled  by  malaria,  have  the  reputation  of  being  the 
prettiest  in  all  Portugal. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  making  of  port  wine  constitute  the  principal 
branch  of  industry  of  the  country.  The  chief  vine-growing  district,  ordinarily 
known  as  Pats  do  Vinho,  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Douro,  between  the  Serra  de 
Marao  and  the  Tua,  and  is  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  rays  of  the  summer  sun. 
In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  cultivation  of  this  district  had  hardly 
begun.  The  English  had  not  then  learnt  to  appreciate  these  growths,  and  were 
content  with  the  various  Portuguese  wines  shipped  from  Lisbon.  It  was  only 
after  the  treaty  concluded  by  Lord  Methuen  in  1702  that  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  assumed  certain  dimensions  in  the  district  of  the  Douro,  and  ever  since  the 
reputation  of  port  has  been  on  the  increase.  The  Marquis  of  Pombal  founded  a 
company  for  the  production  of  wine,  and  the  small  town  of  Pezo  da  Rdgoa,  on  the 
Gorgo,  then  became  famous  for  its  wine  fairs,  at  which  fortunes  were  lost  and  won, 
and  a  town  of  wine  cellars  and  stores  sprang  up  opposite  the  town  of  Porto,  or 
Oporto,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  port  and 
sherry  have  kept  their  place.on'the  tables  of  English  gentlemen,  and  nearly  all  the 
wine  produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Douro  finds  its  way  to  England  or  to  British 
colonies.  Indeed,  up  to  1862  the  best  quality,  known  as  "  factory  wine,"  could 
be  exported  to  England  alone.  Next  to  the  English  the  Brazilians  are  the  best 
customers  of  Oporto :  they  receive  nearly  1,000,000  gallons  of  wine  annually.* 

The  breeding  of  mules  and  fattening  of  Spanish  cattle  for  the  London  market 
yield  considerable  profit.  Early  vegetables  are  forwarded  not  only  to  London,  but 
also  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.    Manufactures  were  already  of  some  importance  in  the 

*  Froduction  of  wine  in  Portugal  before  the  appearance  of  oidium,  in  1863,  106,600,000  gallons. 
Average  annual  produce  of  the  ^nneyards  of  Alto-Dciuro  (Oporto)  in  1848, 11,726,000 ;  in  1870, 11,374,000 
gallons.  Exports  to  England,  3,718,000  gallons;  Brazil,  904,000  gallons.  In  1874  Oporto  alone  exported 
6,623,000  gallons,  or  more  than  ever  before. 


SSttOs^ 


478 


PORTUGAL. 


Middle  Ages,  and  have  recently  been  much  developed  by  enterprising  English 
capitalists.  Oporto  has  cotton,  linen,  silk,  and  woollen  mills,  foundries  and  sugar 
refineries,  and  its  jewellers  and  glove-makers  enjoy  a  good  repute.  But  agricul- 
ture, industry  and  legitimate  commerce,  and  even  the  smuggling  carried  on  in 
the  frontier  district  of  Braganya  do  not  suffice  to  support  the  ever-increasing 
population,  and  thousands  emigrate  annually  to  Lisbon  and  Brazil. 

Northern  Portugal  may  be  described  as  the  cradle  of  the  existing  kingdom, 
and  it  was  Porto  Cale,  on  the  site  of  Yillanova  de  Gaia,  the  southern  suburb 
of  Oporto,  which  gave  a  name  to  all  Lusitania.  At  Lamego,  to  the  south  of 
the  Douro,  the  Cortes  met,  according  to  tradition,  in  1143,  and  constituted  the 
new  kingdom  of  which  Oporto  became  the  capital.  When  the  country  recovered 
its  independence  after  the  short  dominion  of  Spain,  the  Dukes  of  Bragan9a  were 

Fig.  105. — Oporto  amd  thb  Paiz  do  Yinho. 
Scale  1 : 1,000,000. 


10  MilM. 


invested  with  the  regal  power.  Though  Lisbon  occupies  a  more  central  position 
than  Oporto,  the  latter  frequently  takes  the  initiative  in  political  movements,  and 
the  success  of  any  revolution  is  said  to  depend  upon  the  side  taken  by  the  energetic 
population  of  the  north.  If  we  may  accept  the  estimate  of  the  Portuenaea,  they  are 
morally  and  physically  the  superiors  of  the  Liabonemes.  They  alone  are  the  true 
sons  of  the  great  people  whose  vessels  ploughed  the  ocean  during  the  ag^  of  dis- 
coveries, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  gait  is  more  determined,  their 
speech  and  their  glance  more  open,  than  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital. 
In  vulgar  parlance,  people  of  Oporto  and  Lisbon  are  known  as  tripeiroa  and 
alfaainhoa ;  that  is,  trip*)  and  lettuce  eaters. 

Porto,  or  0  Porto,  the  "Port "  par  excellence,  is  the  natural  capital  of  Northern 
Lusitania,  the  second  city  of  Portugal  on  account  of  its  population  and  commerce, 
the  first  in  manufactures.     As  seen  from  the  banks  of  the  Douro,  here  hardly 


, 


k  more  central  podtion 
>litioal  movements,  and 
taken  by  the  energetic 
tbe  Portuenaea,  they  are 
rhey  alone  are  the  true 
I  during  the  age  of  dis- 
nore  determined,  their 
ftbitants  of  the  capital, 
known  as  tripeiroa  and 

oral  capital  of  Northern 
•pulation  and  commerce, 
the  Douro,  here  hardly 


J 


s.u^.^£  aA 


VALLEYS  OB'  THE  MINHO,  DOUBO,  AND  MONDEOO. 


470 


more  than  200  yards  in  width,  and  spanned  by  a  magnificent  railway  bridge,  it 
rises  like  a  double  amphitheatre,  whose  summits  are  crowned  by  the  cathedral 
and  the  belfry  doa  Clerigos,  and  the  narrow  valley  separating  them  covered  with 
houses.  The  lower  town  has  broad  streets,  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles, 
but  the  streets  climbing  the  hills  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  and  even  stairs  have 
frequently  to  be  ascended  in  order  to  reach  the  more  ele\'ated  quarters  of  the  town. 
Cleanliness  is  attended  to  throughout,  and  the  citizens  are  most  anxious  in  that 
respect  to  insure  the  praises  of  their  numerous  English  visitors.  Oaia,  a  long 
suburb,  occupies  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  It  abounds  in  factories  and  store- 
houses, and  its  vast  cellars  are  stated  on  an  average  to  contain  80,000  pipes  of  wine. 
Beautiful  walks  extend  along  the  river  bank  and  its  terraces,  and  the  long  reaches 
of  the  stream  are  covered  with  shipping,  and  fringed  with  gardens  and  villas.  The 
hills  in  the  distance  are  crowned  with  ancient  convents,  fortifications,  and  villages 
half  hidden  amongst  verdure.  Avintes,  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  women,  who 
supply  the  town  daily  with  broa,  or  maize  bread,  is  one  of  them.  Suburbs  extend 
along  both  banks  of  the  river  in  the  direction  of  the  sea.  The  river  at  its  mouth 
is  only  two  fathoms  in  depth  during  low  water,  and  dangerous  of  access  when  the 
wind  blows  from  the  west.  Even  at  Oporto  vessels  of  400  or  500  tons  are  exposed 
to  danger  from  sudden  floods  of  the  river,  which  cause  them  to  drag  their  anchors. 
The  port  of  the  Douro  has  therefore  to  contend  with  great  difficulties  in  its  rivalry 
with  Lisbon.* 

The  small  town  of  Sao  Joao  da  Foz,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Douro,  has  a  light- 
house, but  carries  on  no  commerce.  Near  it  are  Mattozinhos  and  Le9a,  the  latter 
of  which  boasts  of  an  ancient  monastery  resembling  a  fortress,  and  is  much  frequented 
on  account  of  its  fine  beach  and  refreshing  sea  breezes.  Espinho,  to  the  south  of 
the  Douro,  is  another  favourite  seaside  resort,  in  spite  of  the  all-pervading  smell  of 
sardines.  The  small  ports  to  the  north  of  the  Douro  are  frequented  only  by  coasting 
vessels  or  by  seaside  visitors.  The  entrance  to  the  Minho  is  defended  by  the  castle 
of  Insua,  on  a  small  island,  as  its  name  implies,  and  by  the  insignificant  fortress  of 
Caminha.  The  river  is  accessible  only  to  vessels  drawing  less  than  six  feet.  The 
mouth  of  the  Lima,  though  even  more  difficult  of  access,  is  nevertheless  occupied  by 
a  town  of  some  importance- — coquettish  Yianna  do  Castello,  beautifully  ensconced 
amidst  the  verdure  of  its  fertile  plain.  Other  towns  are  Espozende,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  C&vado,  and  Yilla  do  Gonde,  at  that  of  the  Ave.  Formerly  most  of  the  vessels 
engaged  in  the  slave  trade  and  those  employed  in  the  great  maritime  enterprises 
of  the  Portuguese  were  built  here,  and  it  still  boasts  of  a  few  ship-yards. 

Amongst  the  inland  towns  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho  are  Ponte  de  Lima,  famous 
for  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  country ;  Barcellos,  overhanging  the  shady 
banks  of  the  C&vodo ;  and  Amarante,  celebrated  for  its  wines  and  peaches,  and  proud 
of  a  fine  bridgpe  spanning  the  Tamega.  But  the  only  towns  important  on  account 
of  their  population  are  Braga  and  Guimaraes,  both  placed  on  commanding  heights 
overlooking  a  most  fertile  country.  Braga  (Bracaraugusta),  an  ancient  Roman 
colony,  the  capital  of  the  Galicians,  then  of  the  Suevi,  and  later  on  the  residence  of 

*  Imports  and  exports  about  £4,000,000. 


480 


PORTUOAIi. 


the  Kiiijfs  of  Portugal,  bocume  the  primutiul  city  of  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  when 
the  two  kingdoms  were  teraporurily  united  under  the  wrae  sovereign.  Hut  Hrugo 
is  not  only  a  town  of  the  past,  it  in  even  now  u  bustling  place,  where  hats,  linens, 
urmH,  and  beautiful  filigree  ore  manufactured  for  exportation  to  the  rest  of  Portugal 
and  the  Portuguese  colonies.  Quimarues  is  equally  us  interesting  as  Bragu  on 
account  of  its  monuments  and  mediivvul  legends.  Visitors  are  still  shown  the 
sacred  olivo-tree  which  sprung  from  a  seed  placed  in  the  soil  by  King  Wamba, 
when   still   a   common  labourer ;   and  Affonso,  the  founder  of  the   Portuguese 


Fig.  196.— 8Ao  Joio  da  For,  anii  thb  M(>(tii  or  IH«  DoVKO. 


monarchy,  was  born  in  the  old  castle.  Guimarnos  is  a  busy  manufacturing  town ; 
it  produces  cutlery,  hardware,  and  table-linen,  and  English  visitors  never  fail  to 
purchase  there  a  curiously  ornamented  box  of  prunes.  Near  it  are  much- 
frequented  sulphur  springs,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Aqua  Leva.  But  the 
most  famous  mineral  springs  of  modem  Portugal  are  the  Caldas  do  Gerez,  in  a 
tributary  valley  of  the  Upper  Cavado. 

The  towns  of  Tr&z  os  Montes  and  Beira  Alta  are  too  far  removed  from  high- 
ways to  have  attracted  a  considerable  population.  Villa  Real,  on  the  Corgo,  is  the 
busiest  place  of  Traz  os  Montes,  owing  to  the  vineyards  in  its  neighbourhood. 


munaneiMMa 


VALLKYS  OF  THE  MINIIO.  DOURO.  AND  MONDEOO. 


4tl 


be  peninsula  when 
reign.  But  Brugu 
where  httts,  linens, 
be  rest  uf  Portugal 
iting  us  Dragu  on 
e  still  Mhown  the 
by  King  Wambu, 
oi   the   Portuguese 


UMO. 


^.^■\'>^:-'iH'v> 


.Southern 
3eMth 


manufacturing  town ; 
visitors  never  fail  to 
Near  it  are  much- 
[qu(B  Lecce.  But  the 
Caldas  do  Gerez,  in  a 

r  removed  from  high- 
1,  on  the  Corgo,  is  the 
in  its  neighbourhood. 


Chaves,  an  old  fortress  near  the  Spuninh  frontier,  bounts  of  one  uf  thoso  Itoniun 
bridges  which  have  rendered  the  century  of  Trajun  t'umous:  it  was  fonncrly  noted 
for  its  mineral  springs  {Aqtup  Flanw).  Bragan^*a,  the  old  provincial  citpitul,  has  a 
commanding  citadel,  and,  owing  to  its  geographical  iwsition,  is  an  im|M)rtant  place 
for  smugglers,  the  legitimate  exports  fluctuating  regularly  with  the  custonis'  tariff. 
It  is  uhe  most  important  place  in  Portugal  for  the  production  of  raw  silk.  Lamogo, 
a  picturesque  town  to  the  south  of  the  Douro,  opposite  the  Paiz  do  Vinho,  enjoys 
a  great  reputation  for  its  hams ;  Almeida,  which  keeps  in  cheek  the  garrison  of 
Spanish  Oiudad  Rodrigo,  was  anciently  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  of  Portugal ; 
and  Viz^u  is  an  important  station  between  the  Duuro  and  the  Mondcgo.  Its  fairs 
are  more  frequented  than  any  others  in  Portugal,  and  in  its  cathedral  may  be  seen 
the  famous  masterpiece  painted  by  the  mythical  Oran  Vasco.  The  herdsmen 
around  Yiz^u  are  noted  for  their  strength  and  beauty.  Their  uncovered  heads 
and  bare  legs  give  them  an  appearance  of  savagery,  but  their  manners  are  aa 
polished  and  dignified  as  those  of  the  rest  of  their  countrymen. 

Coimbra  {^minium),  in  Beira-mar,  is  the  most  populous  town  between  Oporto 
and  Lisbon.  It  is  known  more  especially  for  its  university,  whose  professors  and 
students  impart  to  it  the  aspect  of  a  mediteval  seat  of  learning.  The  purest  Por- 
tuguese is  spoken  there.  The  environs  are  delightful,  and  in  the  botanical  garden 
the  plants  of  the  tropics  mingle  with  those  of  the  temperate  zones.  From  the  banks 
of  the  Mondego,  upon  which  the  city  is  built,  visitors  frequently  ascend  to  the  Quinta 
daa  Lagritnos  ("  house  of  tears  "),  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  the  beauteous  Inez 
de  Oastro,  whose  death  was  so  cruelly  revenged  by  her  husband,  Peter  the  Judge. 

Few  countries  in  the.  world  can  rival  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Mondego,  that 
"  river  of  the  Muses  "  held  dear  by  all  the  Lusitanians,  because  it  is  the  only  one 
which  belongs  to  them  exclusively.  Oondeixa,  a  town  near  Coimbra,  fully 
deserves  to  be  called  the  "Basket  of  Fruit,"  for  its  gardens  produce  most 
exquisite  oranges.  In  the  north  the  ruins  of  the  monastery  of  Bussaco  occupy  a 
mountain  terrace  covered  with  a  dense  forest  of  cypresses,  cedars,  oaks,  elms,  and 
exotic  trees.  This  delightful  place  and  the  hot  springs  of  liuso,  near  it,  are  a 
favourite  summer  residence  of  the  citizens  of  Lisbon  and  Coimbra. 

Figu^ira  da  Foz,  the  port  of  Coimbia,  is  well  sheltered,  but,  like  most  other 
ports  of  'Northern  Portugal,  is  obstructed  by  a  bar  of  sand.  It  is  nevertheless 
much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels,  and  amongst  its  exports  are  the  wines  of 
Barraida.  Ovar  and  Av^iro,  in  the  "  Portuguese  Netherlands,"  on  the  banks  of  a 
lagoon  separated  by  a  series  of  dunes  from  the  high  sea,  are  the  two  other  ports 
of  this  part  of  the  coast.  They  were  important  places  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  the  shifting  bars,  which  render  access  to  them  difficult,  have  put  a  stop  to  their 
prosperity.  The  seamen  of  these  two  places  have  a  high  reputation  for  daring. 
They  engage  in  sardine-fishing,  oyster-dredging,  and  the  manufacture  of  bay- 
aait* 

*  Towns  of  over  5,000  inhabitants  in  Northern  Portugal  (1864) : — Sntre  J)6uro  t  Minko :  Oporto, 
86,267;  Braga,  19,613;  Pavoa  de  Yandni,  10,110;  Ouimariea,  7,865  ;  ViUanova  de  Uaia,  7,517;  Vianna 
do  Caatello,  6,040;    Mattodnhos,  5,080.      IVdt  ot  Monttt :   Chafes,  6,382;    Bragan^a,  5,111;   Villn 


483 


I'OR'nJOAL. 


III. TlIK    V\I,LEY   or   THE   Two   (TaoLH). 

Thr  lower  couno  of  the  Tejo,  oiiUod  Tajo  in  Spain,  aepanitea  Portugal  into  two 
ptirtiona  diiforing  much  in  their  (i^nerul  aiipoct,  climate,  and  soil.  The  valley 
itself  in  a  aort  of  intermediary  between  the  north  und  south,  and  the  vast  estuury 
into  which  the  river  discharges  itself. 

Where  the  Tejo  enters  Portugal,  below  the  magnificent  bridge  of  Alc&ntara,  it 
is  still  hemmed  in  between  prooipitoui  banks,  and  is  neither  navigable  nor  available 
for  purposes  of  irrigation.     Having  traversed  the  defile  of  Villa  Velha  do  iiixliu, 


Fig.  197.— COINMRA. 


^^m. 


■^.'     i^'**! 


«^. 


ij«i/'       tU.".. 


r~l] 


^  ^  r  T  "  ■  "■  ' 


its  valley  gradually  widens,  and  after  having  received  its  most  considerable 
tributary,  the  Zezere,  it  becomes  a  tranquil  stream,  abounding  in  islands  and  sand- 
banks, and  is  navigable  during  the  whole  of  the  year.  Below  Salvaterra  the 
river  bifurcates,  its  two  branches  enclosing  the  marshy  island  of  Lozirias.  The 
vast  estuary  which  begins  below  this  island  is  an  arm  of  the  sea  rather  than  a 
river,  its  waters  are  saline,  and  between  Sacavem  and  Alhandra  there  are  salt- 
Real,  (,097.  Beira:  Coimbra,  18,147;  Orar,  10,374;  Covilha,  9,022;  Lamego,  8,638;  Ilhayo,  8,215; 
Murtoca,  7,666 ;  Yis^u,  6,816 ;  Caatello  Branco,  6,083 ;  Aviiro,  6,6(7 ;  Mini,  6,014 ;  Soure,  6,866 ;  Lavw, 
6,837  ;  Miranda  do  Corvo,  6,261 ;  FtdSo,  6,097. 


*'»>0>»«iL»»Hi 


■MtiMai 


w!  -i*  iijnviijHjii.. 


VALLEY  OP  THE  TEJO. 


46a 


pann.     Tho  Tvjo  affonU  ono  of  tho  moot  atriking  inatancoa  of  a  rivor  oncrooohing 
upun  ita  weatcm  bank,  which  ia  atuop  und  hilly,  whilat  tho  loft  bunk  ia  lour. 

The  irregular  range  of  hilla  which  forma  tho  back-bouo  of  tho  |HUiinNula 
unclosed  by  tho  Lower  Tojo  and  the  ocean  is  attuchu<l  to  the  mountain  of  Ksirella 
by  a  ravinod  plateau  of  trifling  elevation,  crossed  by  the  railway  connecting  Coimbra 
with  Sunturem.  From  the  summit  of  the  Horra  do  Aire  (*'  wind  mountain,"  2,'22'i 
f(H-t)  we  look  down  upon  the  verdant  valley  of  tho  Ti<jo  and  the  reddish-huod 
pli  ns  of  Alemtejo  beyond  it.  Monte  Junto  (2,185  feet),  further  south,  ia  another 
commanding  summit.  The  rocky  promontory  of  Curvoeiro  is  joined  to  the  main- 
Fig.  108. — KitTUAHV  OV  THR  TiMO  (TaUVi). 
BimUI  i  M0,000. 


BMilW. 


land  by  a  sandy  beach.  Upon  it  stands  the  little  fortress  of  Peniche,  whose 
inhabitants  lead  a  life  of  seclusion,  and  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  lace. 
A  submarine  plateau  connects  this  promontory  with  Berlinga  Island,  with  an  old 
castle  now  used  as  a  prison,  and  with  the  Farilhaos,  dreaded  by  mariners. 

The  hills  on  the  narrow  peninsula  to  the  north  of  Lisbon  are  of  small  height, 
but,  owing  to  their  rugged  character,  they  present  great  obstacles  to  intercom- 
munioation.  It  was  here  Wellington  constructed  the  famous  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  which  converted  the  environs  of  Lisbon  ivto  a  vast  entrenched  camp.  To 
the  south  of  these  rise  the  beautiful  heights  of  Cintra,  celebrated  for  their  palaces, 
shady  valleys,  delightful  climate,  and  historical  associations.     Sheets  of  basalt, 


J 


.;SCK 


M 


I 


484 


POETUGAL. 


ejected  from  some  ancient  volcano,  cover  the  hills  hetvreen  Lisbon  and  Sacavom, 
and  the  great  earthquakes  of  1531  and  1755  prove  that  subterranean  forces  were 
then  not  quite  extinct.  The  second  of  these  earthquakes  was  probably  the  most 
violent  ever  witnessed  in  Europe.  The  very  first  shock  destroyed  3,850  houses  in 
Lisbon,  burying  15,000  human  beings  beneath  the  ruins ;  a  minute  afterwards  an 
immense  wave,  nearly  forty  feet  in  height,  swept  o£E  the  fugitives  who  crowded 
the  quay.  Only  one  quarter  of  the  town,  that  anciently  inhabited  by  the  Moors, 
escaped  destruction.  The  Marquis  de  Pombal  erected  a  gallows  in  the  midst  of  the 
ruins  to  deter  plunderers.  From  the  focus  of  vibration  the  oscillations  of  the  soil 
were  propagated  over  an  immense  area,  estimated  at  no  less  than  1,000,000  square 
miles.  Oporto  was  destroyed  in  part,  the  harbour  of  Alvor  in  Algparve  was  silted 
up,  and  it  is  said  that  nearly  all  the  large  towns  of  Morocco  tumbled  into  ruins. 

The  gully  which  connects  the  open  ocean  with  the  inland  sea  of  Lisbon,  and 
through  which  the  Tejo  discharges  its  waters,  separates  the  cretaceous  hills  of 
Cintra  from  the  isolated  Serra  da  Arabida  (1,537  feet),  to  the  west  of  Setubal, 
which  belong  to  the  same  geological  formation.  These  two  groups  of  hills  were 
probably  portions  of  one  range  at  a  time  when  the  Tejo  still  took  its  course  across 
what  are  now  the  tertiary  plains  of  Alemtejo,  and  reached  the  sea  much  farther  to 
the  south,  through  the  estuary  of  the  Sado. 

Lisbon  (Lisbua),  though  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  less  than  half  what  it 
was  in  the  sixteenth  century,  exhibits  no  trace  of  the  havoc  wrought  in  1755.  Even 
the  central  portions  of  the  town  have  risen .  from  the  ruins,  and  huge  blocks  of 
houses,  imposing  by  their  size,  if  not  by  their  architecture,  have  taken  the  places 
of  the  older  structures.  The  present  city  extends  four  miles  along  the  Tejo,  but 
including  its  suburbs,  between  Poco  do  Bispo  to  the  Tower  of  Belem,  its  extent 
is  nine  miles.  The  city  stretches  inland  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles,  and, 
like  Rome,  is  said  to  be  built  upon  seven  hills.  A  boautiM  promenade  connects 
it  with  Belem.  As  seen  from  the  Tejo,  or  from  the  hills  opposite,  Lisbon,  with 
its  towers,  cupolas,  and  public  walks,  certainly  presents  a  magnificent  spectacle, 
and  there  is  some  truth  in  the  proverb  which  says — 

"  Que  nilo  tern  visto  Lisboa,  NSo  tern  Tigto  cosa  b6a !  " 

(<<  Who  has  not  seen  Lisbon  has  not  seen  a  thing  of  beauty.") 

Unfortunately  the  interior  of  the  superb  metropolis  does  not  correspond  with 
the  imposing  beauty  of  its  exterior.  Lisbon  has  a  noble  square,  called  Largo  do 
Comercio  ;  it  has  all  the  various  buildings  which  one  expects  to  meet  with  in  the 
capital  of  a  kingdom  and  an  important  maritime  town  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
the  chapel  of  S£o  Joao  Baptista,  not  one  amongst  them  is  remarkable  for  its 
architecture.  The  only  important  structure  outside  the  city  is  the  famous 
aqueduct  Os  Arcos  das  Agoas,  which  was  built  by  Jofio  Y.,  the  Eei  Edificador, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  sustained  no  injury  during  the 
earthquake  of  1755.  On  approaching  the  city  it  crosses  a  valley  on  a  superb 
marble  bridge  of  thirty-five  arches,  the  highest  of  which  is  246  feet  in  height. 

Lisbon  is  relatively  poor  in  interesting  monuments,  but  few  towns  can  rival  it 
in  natural  advantages  of  soil,  climate,  and  geographical  position.     Its  situation  is 


"^"IST^ 


I  Lisbon  and  Sacavom, 
ibterranean  forces  were 
was  probably  the  most 
jstroyed  3,860  houses  in 
a  minute  afterwards  an 
fugitives  who  crowded 
Inhabited  by  the  Moors, 
lows  in  the  midst  of  the 
le  oscillations  of  the  soil 
IS  than  1,000,000  square 
or  in  Algarve  was  silted 
10  tumbled  into  ruins, 
land  sea  of  Lisbon,  and 
)  the  cretaceous  hills  of 
to  the  west  of  Setubal, 
;wo  groups  of  hills  were 
bill  took  its  course  across 
.  the  sea  much  farther  to 


-H  ? 


FiiJM 


u: '  > 


i  is  less  than  half  what  it 
wrought  in  1755.  Even 
lins,  and  huge  blocks  of 
re,  have  taken  the  places 
ailes  along  the  Tejo,  but 
iwer  of  Belem,  its  extent 
two  or  three  miles,  and, 
iiful  promenade  connects 
Us  opposite,  Lisbon,  with 
a  magnificent  spectacle, 


bSa!" 

y  of  beauty.") 

does  not  correspond  with 
e  square,  called  Largo  do 
pects  to  meet  with  in  the 
t)ut,  with  the  exception  of 
em  is  remarkable  for  its 
the  city  is  the  famous 
io  v.,  the  Rei  Ed^ficador, 
led  no  injury  during  the 
sea  a  valley  on  a  superb 
is  246  feet  in  height, 
but  few  towns  can  rival  it 
position.     Its  situation  is 


m^ 


III  nil  1111 


Ilia— 1111*11  •  "1 


fs,mmw" 


VALLEY  OP  THE  TEJO. 


485 


most  central ;  its  harbour,  at  the  mouth  of  a  navigable  river,  is  one  of  the  most 
excellent  in  the  world  ;  and  its  entrance  can  be  easily  defended,  the  principal  works 
erected  for  that  purpose  being  Fort  Sao  Julifio  and  the  Tower  of  Bugio. 

Lisbon  is  important  not  only  as  regards  Portugal,  but  also,  on  account  of 
its  position,  with  reference  to  the  rest  of  Europe — nay,  of  the  entire  world. 
As  long  as  the  Mediterranean  was  the  theatre  of  human  history  it  remained  in 
obscurity,  but  no  sooner  had  mariners  ventured  beyond  the  columns  of  Hercules 
than  the  beautiful  harbour  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tejo  became  one  of  the  principal 
points  of  departure  for  vessels  starting  upon  voyages  of  discovery.    Lisbon  became 

Fig.  190.— Pbnichb  and  thk  Beblinoa8. 
Soale  1  :  14a,8ao. 


the  most  advanced  outpost  of  Europe  on  the  Atlantic,  for  it  offered  greater  facilities 
than  any  other  port  for  voyages  directed  to  the  Azores,  Madeira,  the  Oanaries,  and 
the  western  coasts  of  Africa.  The  achievements  of  Portuguese  mariners  have  passed 
into  history.  Vast  territories  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  became  tributary  to 
little  Portugal,  and  it  needed  the  epio  force  of  a  Camoes  to  celebrate  these  wonder- 
ful conquests. 

That  age  of  glory  lasted  but  a  short  time,  for  proud  Lisbon,  which  had  become 
known  to  Eastern  nations  as  the  "  City  of  the  Franks,"  as  if  it  were  the  capital  of 
Europe,  lost  its  pre-eminent  position  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


lyjifekayfe^:: 


m  ^t>tfitltmt0mMtiii*mmi/0m'Mmm 


mm^ 


J 


466 


PORTUGAL. 


Portugal  capsized  suddenly,  like  a  small  barge  overcrowded  with  sails.  Crushed 
by  the  terrible  reign  of  Philip  II.,  enervated  by  luxury,  and  grown  disdainful  of 
honest  labour,  as  slaveholders  always  will,  Lisbon  was  constrained  to  see  much  of 
its  commerce  and  most  of  its  valued  colonies  pass  into  the  hands  of  Spaniards  and 
Dutchmen.  But,  in  spite  of  these  disasters,  Lisbon  is  still  a  commercial  port  of 
great  importance,  although  as  yet  no  direct  line  of  railway  connects  it  with  Madrid 
and  the  rest  of  Europe.  England  occupies  the  foremost  position  amongst  the 
customers  of  the  town,  and  the  firazilians,  whose  severance  from  the  mother 
country  was  at  first  looked  upon  as  an  irremediable  disaster,  follow  next.*  Spain, 
though  it  borders  upon  Portugal  for  several  hundred  miles,  scarcely  enters  into 
commercial  relations  with  it.    Oivil  wars  have,  however,  driven  many  Spanish 

Fig.  200.— MouTR  OF  THi  Tbjo  (Taous). 
Scale  1 :  l«i,400. 


SIIOm 


exiles  to  Lisbon,  and  these  have  already  exercised  a  considerable  influence  upon 
manners.  Formerly  only  men  were  to  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon,  the  women 
being  confined  almost  with  the  same  rigour  as  in  a  Mohammedan  city,  but  the 
example  set  by  Spanish  ladies  has  found  many  imitators  amongst  their  Portuguese 
sisters.  The  towns  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Lisbon  are  celebrated  for  their 
picturesque  beauties. 

Portuguese  Estremadura,  which  neither  suffers  trom  northern  frosts  nori 
from  fogs  and  aridity,  can  boost  of  a  climate  approaching  that  of  the  fabled] 
Islands  of  the  Happy.     At  Lisbon  snow,  or  "  white  rain,"  as  it  is  called,  falls] 

*  In  1874  Lisbon  exported  6,900  tons  of  potatoes,  447,450  gallons  of  olive  oil,  4,400,000  gallooR 
wine,  167,200  bushels  of  salt,  200,000  tons  of  copper  ore,  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  &c :  4,092  vessels  enti 
the  harbour. 


"'""'"'*''*-IM>IIWMUIW'aipi>JWi.MMB| 


VALLEY  OP  THE  TEJO. 


487 


th  saiU.     CrttBlied 
^wn  disdainful  of 
ned  to  see  much  of 
Is  of  Spaniards  and 
commercial  port  of 
lects  it  with  Madrid 
«ition  amongst  the 
e  from  the  mother 
illow  next.*     Spain, 
scarcely  enters  into 
riven  many  Spanish 


PA 


iriderable  influence  npon 
sets  of  Lisbon,  the  women 
(hammedan  city,  but  the 
amongst  their  Portuguese 
a  are  celebrated  for  their 

torn  northern  frosts  nor 
whing  that  of  the  fabled 
rain,"  as  it  is  caUed,  falls 

of  olive  oil,  4,400.000  ff^J^ 
orang«h  &o. :  4,092  ve-eta  entered 


rarely,  but  it  may  be  seen  glittering  on  the  eummits  of  the  Serras  da  Estrella 
and  de  Lousao.  Its  fall  near  the  sea-coast  is  looked  upon  as  an  evil  omen,  and 
u  heavy  snow-storm,  as  recently  ac  last  century,  frightened  the  inhabitants  of 
Lisbon  to  such  an  extent  that  they  fancied  the  day  of  judgment  had  come,  and 
rushed  into  the  churches. 

The  regular  alternation  between  land  and  sea  breezes  is  likewise  an  advantage 
possessed  by  the  neighbourhood  of  Lisbon.  From  the  beginning  of  May  through- 
out the  fine  season  the  wind  blows  from  the  land  in  the  morning,  by  noon  it  has 
shifted  to  the  south,  in  the  evening  it  blows  from  the  west  and  north-west,  and 
during  the  night  from  the  north.  Hence  its  name  of  niento  roteiro;  that  is,  "  rotary 
wind."  As  to  the  winds  forming  part  of  the  regular  system  of  atmospheric 
circulation,  they  blow  with  far  less  regularity.  The  polar  winds,  stopped  by  the 
transversal  mountain  ranges  of  the  country,  either  follow  the  direction  of  the 
coast  or  are  diverted  to  the  plateaux  of  Spain,  and  make  their  appearance  in 
Portugal  as  easterly  winds.  It  is  these  latter  which  render  the  summer  oppres- 
sively hot.  At  Lisbon  the  thermometer  rises  occasionally  to  100°  F.,  and  in  1798 
even  104''  were  observed.  Experience  has  taught  us  that  although  the  heat  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro  is  in  excess  of  that  of  Lisbon,  the  dog-days  at  the  latter  place  are 
more  unbearable.* 

The  vegetation  of  the  happy  district  where  the  climate  of  North  and  South 
intermingle  is  twofold  in  its  aspect.  The  date-palm  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
gardens  of  Lower  Estremadura ;  the  dwarf  palm  g^ws  in  the  open  air  along  the 
coast ;  the  agave  raises  its  candelabra-like  branches  as  on  the  coast  ol'  Mexico ; 
the  camellias  are  more  beautiful  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe ;  and  the  hedges  are 
composed  of  prickly  cacti  {Nopal),  as  in  Sicily  and  Algeria.  The  fruits  of  the 
Mediterranean  ripen  to  perfection  ;  and  even  the  mango  of  the  Antilles,  only 
recently  introduced,  has  found  a  congenial  climate.  The  oranges  are  known  as 
portogalH  in  several  countries  as  far  as  Egypt,  as  if  the  inhabitants  of  Portugal 
had  been  the  first  to  whom  these  golden  apples  were  known ;  and  even  the  word 
chintarah,  or  chantarah,  by  which  the  orange  is  known  in  some  parts  of  India,  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  name  of  the  Portuguese  town  of  Cintra. 

Belem  (Bethlehem)  is  the  nearest  of  the  suburban  towns  of  Lisbon,  being 
separated  from  it  merely  by  a  rivulet  named  Alc&ntara,  after  an  old  Moorish 
bridge.  It  is  the  first  place  beheld  by  a  mariner  approaching  Lisbon,  and  its 
square  tower,  built  by  Sing  John  the  Perfect,  is  seen  from  afar.  It  was  hence 
Vasco  da  Gama  Aarted  upon  the  memorable  expedition  which  taught  the  Portu- 
guese the  road  to  India,  and  a  mag^fioent  monastery,  now  converted  into  an 
educational  institution,  was  built  in  commemoration  of  this  glorious  event. 

Oeiras,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  rivulet  coming  down  from  the  heights  of 
Cintra,  defends  the  entrance  to  the  Tejo  by  means  of  Fort  Sao  Juliao ;  Carcavellos, 
noted  for  its  wines,  lies  farther  on ;  and  Oascaes,  with  a  small  harbour  defended  by 
a  citadel,  brings  us  t<o  the  open  ocean.     The  coast  beyond  this  is  protected  by 


*  Mean  temperature  of  July,  Wt'  F. ;  extremes  of  temperature,  27  6"  and  102° 
days,  IflC. 


F. ;   clottdleBS 


BBWssssmsesssBsww**- 


'  ■WJj'AW'iiV'.*'*' 


nmni  JI'iW'l'  i;UHil»i.Mwu.j,«BH^liiii«ill»^" 


WHMiriMB 


m 


488 


POBTUOAL. 


towers,  but  there  are  no  inhabitants.  The  hills  of  Cintra,  howeve  are  one  of 
the  most  populous  districts  of  the  country,  and  they  are  much  frequented  by 
foreigners.  Whether  we  follow  the  carriage  road  or  the  tramroad  from  Lisbon, 
we  pass  the  castles  and  villas  of  Bomfica,  the  royal  palace  of  Queluz,  and 
the  country  seats  of  Bellas,  the  fountain  of  which  supplies  the  capital  with  water. 
Cintra  itself  is  surrounded  by  hotels  and  gardens.  On  a  hill  to  the  south 
of  it  stands  the  sumptuous  Castle  de  la  Penha,  whose  eccentricities  of  archi- 
tecture are  softened  down  by  luxuriant  masses  of  vegetation.  Strangers  likewise 
visit  the  ruins  of  an  old  Moorish  castle  and  the  caverns  of  the  "  Monastery  of 

Fig.  201.— Zones  op  Vbobtatiom  m  Fobtuoal. 
B«ae  1  : 6,000,000. 


100 


Cork,"  thus  named  because  its  walls  are  covered  with  cork  as  a  protection  ag^ainst 
damp.  The  prospect  from  all  the  surrounding  heights  is  magnificent,  and  most 
so  from  the  cliffs  terminating  in  the  famous  Cabo  da  Rooa,  the  westernmost  point 
of  continental  Europe. 

The  city  of  Ma^ ->>  occupies  a  sterile  plateau  not  far  from  the  seaside  resort  of  | 
Eric«ira.  Like  Ci::«ra,  it  boa&ts  of  an  immense  palace,  the  Escorial  of  the  kings  of  i 
the  house  of  Bragan9a,  now  used  as  a  military  school.  Joao  Y.,  who  erected  this 
structure,  with  its  numerous  churches,  chapels,  and  cells,  expended,  for  that! 
purpose  all  the  coin  he  could  command,  and  when  he  died  there  was  not  enough] 
money  left  in  the  treasmy  to  pay  for  a  mass  for  the  repose  of  his  souL     Far  morel 


laea 


VALLEY  OF  THE  TEJO. 


489 


loweve     are  one  of 
luch  frequented  by 
imroad  from  Lisbon, 
uce   of   QueluB,  and 
le  capital  with  water. 
a  hill  to  the  south 
centricities  of  archi- 
Strangers  likewise 
the  "  Monastery  of 


KTS" 


:h. 


k  as  a  protection  against 
is  magnificent,  and  most 
aa,  the  westernmost  point 

Vom  the  seaside  resort  of 
le  Escorial  of  the  kings  of 
Joao  T.,  who  erected  this 
cells,  expended  for  that 
ied  there  was  not  enough 
jse  of  his  soul.     Far  more 


curious  than  this  immense  barrack,  with  its  5,200  windows,  is  the  forsaken 
monastery  of  Alooba9a,  about  sixty  miles  farther  north,  which  was  built  in  the 
twelfth  century  to  commemorate  the  victories  over  the  Moors.  Near  it  stands 
the  monastery  of  Batalha,  which  recalls  the  defeat  of  the  Custilians  in  the  plain  of 
Aljubarrota  in  1385.  The  portals,  cloisters,  chapel,  and  chapter-room  abound 
in  sculptures  of  marvellous  finish,  though  of  doubtful  taste. 

Leiria,  the  town  nearest  to  Batalha,  occupies  a  fine  site  at  the  confluence  of  the 

Fig.  202.— Gastli  di  la  Pinha  di  Oimtra. 


rivers  Liz  and  Lena,  and  is  commanded  by  a  Moorish  castle,  the  old  residence  of 
King  Diniz  the  "  Labourer,"  who  planted  the  pinhal  of  Leiria,  the  finest  forest 
in  Portugal.  After  a  long  period  of  decadence  this  portion  of  the  country  has 
entered  upon  a  new  epoch  of  activity.  At  Marinha  Grande,  near  it,  there  are  large 
glass-works,  which  communicate  by  rail  with  the  circular  harbour  of  Concha 
(shell)  de  Sao  Martinho. 

Thomar,  formerly  famous  on  account  of  its  monastery,  stands  on  the  eastern 


ojiiimawwww*'!!"'  "" 


"'■^•^g^JJ^SBBPW*^- " 


■Mi 


490 


rOETUOAIi, 


alope  of  the  hills  commanding  the  plains  of  Batalha  and  Alcoba9a.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  Knights  of  Christ,  to  whom  was  conceded  the  privilege  of  conquering 
the  Indies  and  the  New  World.  They  performed  great  deeds,  but  in  the  end 
their  rapacity  led  to  the  decadence  of  their  native  country.  Thomar  is  a  town  of 
cotton-mills  now,  but  commerce  is  more  active  in  the  places  on  the  Tejo,  and 
notably  at  Santarem,  which,  from  its  "  marvellous "  hill,  looks  down  upon  the 
verdant  isles  of  the  river  and  the  plains  of  Alemtejo.  Santarem  and  the  neigh- 
bouring fo^  'sss  of  Abr&ntes  supply  Lisbon  with  vegetables  and  fniit,  and  the 
country  around  them  is  a  veriti^ble  forest  of  olive-trees. 

The  sandy  soil  and  shallow  rivers  bounded  by  marshes  of  the  country  to  the 
south  of  the  Tejo  oppose  serious  obstacles  to  the  establishment  of  important  towns, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  the  vicinity  of  Lisbon  it  w^uld  probably  be  uninhabited. 
Almada,  opposite  Lisbon,  Seixal,  Barr^iro,  Ald^a  Gallega,  and  Aloochete  are  mere 
suburbs  of  the  capital,  and  share  in  its  prosperity  or  adversity.  Setdbal,  or 
St.  Ives,  however,  which  lies  farther  to  the  south,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Sado,  and 
which  has  an  excellent  harbour,  suffers  from  too  great  a  proximity  to  Lisbon,  for 
Portugal  is  not  rich  enough  to  feed  two  ports  so  close  to  each  other.  Cezimbra, 
on  the  steep  coast  which  terminates  in  Cape  Espichel,  to  the  \\  est  uf  Setubal,  is 
likewise  a  decayed  place,  and  Troja,  which  preceded  Setubal  as  the  emporium  of 
the  Sado,  now  lies  buried  beneath  the  dunes.  Excavations  recently  made  on  its 
site  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  Roman  mosaics  and  of  a  street  laid  out,  perhaps, 
by  the  Phoenicians ;  and  Link,  the  botanist,  who  visited  the  spot  at  the  end  of  last 
century,  still  found  there  the  ruined  courts  of  Moorish  houses. 

Setubal,  though  its  commercial  activity  is  very  much  inferior  to  that  of  Lisbon, 
still  exports  muscat  wines,  delicious  oranges,  and  salt  procured  from  the  ponds  in 
its  vicinity.*  The  sea  near  Setubal  and  Oezimbra  abounds  in  fish  and  other 
marine  animals,  and  in  comparison  with  it  the  Mediterranean  and  Bay  of  Biscay 
may  almost  be  described  as  deserts.  Long  before  scientific  men  explored  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  the  fishermen  of  Setubal  hauled  up  from  a  depth  of  300  fathoms 
immense  sharks.  Ordinary  fish  are  caught  in  myriads,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Cezimbra  feed  their  pigs  upon  sardines.  When  Portugal  was  at  the  height  of 
its  commercial  prosperity  it  supplied  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe  with  fish, 
and  almost  enjoyed  a  monopoly  in  cod,  which  was  exported  even  to  Norway.t 

IV. — Southern  Portugal.    Alemtejo  and  Aloarve. 

The  mountains  beyond  the  Tejo  rarely  assume  the  aspect  of  chains.  For  the 
most  part  they  rise  but  little  above  the  surrounding  plateau.  This  region  is 
the  least  attractive  of  all  Portugal,  and  between  the  Tejo  and  the  mountains 
of  Alg^rve  there  are  only  plains,  monotonous  hills,  woods,  and  naked  landes. 
Human  habitations  are  few  and  far  between.    The  lowlands  along  the  Tejo  and 

*  In  1870  Portugal  produced  320,000  tons  of  aalt,  of  which  184,000  tons  wore  from  Setfibal. 

t  Towns  of  Estremadura  having  over  6,000  inhabitants  (1864) :— Lisbon,  224,093;  Bet&bal,  13,134; 
Santarem,  7,820;  Torres  Novas,  6,878 ;  Caparica,  6,311 ;  Palmella,  6,260;  Cezimbra,  6,797;  Abr&ntes, 
6,600;  Cartaxo,  6,218  ;  Lourii^l,  6,182. 


ALEMTEJO  AND  ALOARVK. 


4U1 


.lcoba9a.  It  ib  the 
vilege  of  conquering 
leds,  but  in  the  end 
Thomar  is  a  town  of 
SOS  on  the  Tejo,  and 
ooks  down  upon  the 
arem  and  the  neigh- 
and  fruit,  and  the 

•f  the  country  to  the 

of  important  towns, 

>ably  be  uninhabited. 

ad  Alcochete  are  mere 

versity.     Setfibal,  or 

uary  of  the  Sado,  and 

9ximity  to  Lisbon,  for 

ach  other.     Cezimbra, 

the  \\  est  o£  Setubal,  is 

al  as  the  emporium  of 

18  recently  made  on  its 

treet  laid  out,  perhaps, 

J  spot  at  the  end  of  last 

les. 

iferior  to  that  of  Lisbon, 
(ured  from  the  ponds  in 
unds  in  fish  and  other 
Lean  and  Bay  of  Biscay 
aen  explored  the  bottom 
depth  of  300  fathoms 
and  the  inhabitants  of 
\  was  at  the  height  of 
ion  of  Europe  with  fish, 
d  even  to  Norway.t 

>  Aloarve. 

Bct  of  chains.  For  the 
ilateau.  This  region  is 
Tejo  and  the  mountains 
oods,  and  naked  landes. 
mds  along  the  Tejo  and 

ina  wore  from  S«tfibal. 

sbon,  224,063;  Betfibal,  13,184; 

0 ;  Cezimbra,  6,797 ;   Abrtote*. 


the  coast  are  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  fine  sand  resting  upon  clay,  and  they 
still  exhibit  clumps  of  maritime  pines  and  holm-oaks,  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
forests  which  formerly  covered  the  whole  of  the  country.  Further  inland  we 
reach  the  great  landes,  or  chamecaa,  covered  with  an  infinite  variety  of  plants. 
There  are  heaths  growing  sometimes  to  a  height  of  six  feet,  rock- roses,  juniper- 
trees,  rosemary,  and  creeping  oaks.  But  the  g^eneral  aspect  of  the  country  is  dreary, 
in  spite  of  the  whit»'    '«d  yellow  flowers  which  cover  it  until  the  middle  of  winter, 

F!ff.  208.— MoNAsruiT  or  thk  KNionn  up  Ciihimt  at  Tiiomah. 


•;^^--" 


-▼^■->*».tit 


%}i^m^^ 


*^^Tp^ 


^A 


"•^.v 


:m 


r^y 


7r^ 


i--V-.--Vi 


U«W' 


...v^- 


.y. 


vC^ 


4^. 


for  there  are  hardly  any  cultivated  fields.  The  hills  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
micaceous  schists,  and  are  covered  with  a  monotonous  growth  of  labdauum-yielding 
rook-roses.  This  is  a  western  extension  of  the  zone  of  j'arales,  which  covers  so  many 
hundred  square  miles  of  the  Sierra  Morena  and  other  mountain  regions  of  Spain. 

The  Serra  de  S£o  Mamede  (3,363  feet),  on  the  confines  of  Portugal,  between 
the  valleys  of  Tejo  and  Quadiana,  is  the  highest  m^  untain  mass  of  Southern 
Portugal,  but  its  granitic  ridges,  enclosing  narrow  valleys  between  them,  hardly 


■i 


-au 


■  fillmillMlMH  mllpWI       I   -.|il<IBi 


• 


49S 


THDRTUOAL. 


rise  1,600  feet  above  the  generul  level  of  the  plateau.  A  second  granitic  moun- 
tain moss  rises  to  the  south  of  the  depression  crossed  by  the  railway  from  Lisbon 
to  Badajoz.  This  is  the  Serra  do  Ossa  (2,1*30  feet).  An  undulating  tract  of 
country  joins  it  to  other  serrus,  forming  steep  escarpments  towards  the  valleys  of 
the  Ouudiuna  and  SadSo,  and  the  monotonous  plain  known  as  Campo  de  fieja 
(870  feet).  The  famous  Cumpo  de  Ourique  (700  feet),  upon  which  200,000 
Moors,  commanded  by  five  kings,  were  defeated  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  forms  a  southern  continuation  of  that  plain.  This  battle, 
and  the  massacres  which  succeeded  it,  have  converted  the  plains  to  the  south  of 
the  Tejo  into  deserts. 

The  hills  of  that  portion  of  Alemtejo  which  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Guadiona 

Fig.  204. — Ehtvart  op  tub  Sado. 
Sckk  1 :  aim,ooo. 


belong  to  the  system  of  the  Sierra  Morena  of  Spain.  The  river  which  separates 
them  from  the  hills  and  plateaux  of  the  west  is  confined  in  a  deep  and  narrow 
gorge.  At  the  Pulo  do  Lobo  ("  wolfs  leap  ")  it  still  descends  in  cataraoti,  and 
becomes  navigable  only  at  Mertola,  thirty-seven  miles  above  its  mouth. 

The  hills  of  Southern  Alemtejo  and  Algarve,  to  the  west  of  the  Guadiana,  are 
at  first  mere  swellings  of  the  g^und  known  as  eumeadat,  or  "  heights  of  land,"  but 
in  the  Serra  do  Malhao  (1,886  feet)  and  the  Serra  da  Mezquita  they  attain  some 
height.  A  plateau,  traversed  by  the  upper  affluents  of  the  Mira,  joins  the  range 
last  mentioned  to  the  Serra  Caldeirfio  (1,272  feet),  supposed  to  be  named  after  some 
ancient  crater,  or  "  caldron,"  which  terminates,  to  the  north  of  Gape  Sines,  with 
the  Atalaya,  or  Sentinel  (1,010  feet).  The  principal  range  continues  towards  the 
west,  and  in  the  Serra  de  Honohique  (2,963  feet),  a  mountain  mass  filling  up  the 


MWlilllllWI 


iiiiiiiiiiiMii 


mm 


'\ 


nd  granitic  raoun- 
ilway  from  Lisbon 
idulating  tract  of 
ard«  the  valley«  of 
tB  Campo  de  Beja 
on  which  200,000 
pieae  in  the  middle 
lain.  Thii  battle, 
lins  to  the  south  of 

at  of  the  Ouadiana 


river  which  separates 
in  a  deep  and  narrow 
ends  in  cataracts,  and 
9  its  mouth, 
at  of  the  Guadiana,  are 

"heighteofland,"hut 

squita  they  attain  some 
a  Mira,  joins  the  range 
to  be  named  after  some 
rth  of  Cape  Sines,  with 
[6  continues  towards  the 
tain  mass  filling  up  the 


SOUth>W6«l«ffD 

known  as  Hspinii 

of  the  OapoH  oi  .s 

The  latter  wh 


ALEMTEJO  AND  ALQAJtVK 

'I  of  ^^ortugiU,  it  attiiins  itH  culiiiinut. 
>  de  *  'to  I "  A'^'n  back  "),  extend*  fnn 
'iiuflnt  n       ^vagres. 
fleeted  by     iL'Ury  tlic  Navigator    »  tli 


poiiH.     A  «((<ep  ridge, 
he  li'  Ut  in  the  direction 

"■  ■  t  of  tW*  nuval  school 


founded  by  him,  and  from  iti    heijjfljli      *  wtttchc     for  tiu   r.'tum  of  the  vessels 
which  he  dispatched  on  explonitory  Mtton«,        .tsooiutiuii'^  nuch  as  these  are 

far  more  pleasurable  than  those  connet     i  with  th<    leighbouring  Capo  8t.  Vincent, 
where  Admiral  Jervis,  in  1797,  destrt     'I  a  Hpiuimh  fleet. 

The  hills  of  Sagres  are  of  volcanic  origin,  un4  the  subsidence  of  portions  of 

Fig.  'liOA.— Sghiu  ub  M^ncmiuui  anu  Phomuntuhv  or  Saokw. 
Sou*  1 :  M0,ooo, 


f     r|iw«*                      rlw                           ••[♦ff 

••|m' 

1           ^■r^.-J-'  '"'*  : 

ifi 

,  'p  '"^ii 

^Bl^^Hb^^K' ' 

^  '^m 

WmBL 

msm 

■ 

1                                   rlw                             ••;»» 

rjw' 

IOXOm. 


the  coast  of  Algarve  appears  to  prove  that  subterranean  forces  are  still  active. 
Wherever  this  subsidence  has  been  observed  the  coast  is  fringed  by  sand-banks, 
thrown  up  by  the  waves  of  the  sea,  the  channel  separating  them  from  the  main- 
land being  navigable  for  small  vessels. 

If  a  traveller  ascend  one  of  the  culminating  points  of  the  mountains  of  Algarve, 
he  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  remarkable  contrast  existing  between  the  districts 
to  the  north  and  south  of  him.  On  the  one  side  he  looks  down  upon  vast  soli- 
tudes resembling  deserts;  on  the  other  he  perceives  forests  of  chestnut-trees, 
numerous  villages,  towns  bordering  the  seashore,  and  fleets  of  fishing-boats  rocking 
upon  the  blue  waves.    The  contrasts  between  the  inhabitants  of  these  two  districts 


— .  .J....._U  Will- , 


PORTUGAL. 


are  Miarcoly  Iom  ttrikinfj^.  Tho  Inhabitanta  of  Alemtejo  are  the  moat  solemn  of 
Portugueiie,  and  ovon  objoot  to  dunoing.  Very  thinly  aoattered  over  the  lundeit 
which  they  inhabit,  they  engage  either  in  agriculture  or  follow  their  herds  of  pigs 
and  sheep  into  tho  forests  of  holm-oaks  and  thickets  of  rook-roses.  In  summer 
they  cross  the  Tujo  with  their  pig",  and  pasture  them  in  the  mountains  of  Deira. 
The  population  of  Algarve,  on  tho  other  hand,  is  thrice  as  dense  uh  that  of  Alem- 
tejo, and  not  only  ure  Holds,  vineyards,  and  orchards  carefully  tt*nded,  but  the  soa 
likewise  is  mudo  to  yield  a  portion  of  its  food.  The  contrast  between  the  two 
provinces  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  most  of  tho  great  battles  were 
fought  on  the  undulating  plains  of  Alemtejo.  When  tho  Komuus  hold  (he  country 
Alemtejo  supported  a  numerous  population,  as  is  proved  by  tho  large  number  of 
inscriptions  found. 

Differences  of  altitude  and  geographical  position  sufficiently  account  for  the 


Fig.  20e.— OioLooY  or  Aloarvs. 
Boato  1  1 1,1)00,000. 


I.       I  Tirbmry , AUurium 
SB0E3   SUitrUufi  Crmitd 


10 


\ 


differences  of  climate  existing  between  the  two  provinces.  Alemtejo,  with  its 
monotonous  plains  and  stunted  vegetation,  is  almost  African  in  its  aspect,  whilst 
Algarve,  with  its  forests  of  olive-trees,  groves  of  date-palms,  agaves,  and  prickly 
cacti,  presents  us  with  tropical  features.  The  mean  temperature  near  the  coast  is 
probably  no  less  than  68^  F.  The  Serra  de  Monohique  bars  the  cool  winds  of  the 
north,  whilst  the  sandy  islands  fringing  a  portion  of  the  coast  keep  off  refreshing 
sea  breezes.  The  hottest  wind  of  all  is  that  which  blows  from  the  east.  It  is 
often  laden  with  fever-breeding  miasmata,  and  a  proverb  sayt:,  De  Eapanha  nem  bom 
tento  nem  bom  caaamenio :  "  Neither  good  winds  nor  good  weddings  are  bred  in 
Spain." 

Villanova  de  PortimSo,  to  the  south  of  the  Serra  de  Monohique,  has  long  been 
looked  upon  as  the  hottest  place  in  Europe ;  there  are,  however,  several  localities 
in  Spain  which  rival  it  in  that  respect.    Thus  much  is  certain,  that  Algarve,  with 


ho  most  solemn  of 
od  over  tho  lunde* 
their  herdi  of  pig« 
rosea.     In  summer 

mountuins  of  Beiru. 

ise  tti*  that  of  Alom- 
tended,  but  the  sea 

ist  between  the  two 
great  battles  were 

Mm  hold  ^he  country 

tho  large  number  of 

utly  account  for  the 


».  Alemtejo,  with  its 
an  in  its  aspect,  whilst 
ms,  agaves,  and  prickly 
lerature  near  the  coast  is 
urs  the  cool  winds  of  the 
coast  keep  oflF  refreshing 
vs  from  the  east.  It  is 
lye,,  De  Espanha  nem  horn 
i  weddings  are  bred  in 

onohique,  bas  long  been 
lowever,  several  localities 
rtain,  that  Algarve,  with 


AI.KMTKJO  AND  ALOAIIVE. 


IM 


the  lower  valley  of  tho  Guadalquivir  und  the  southern  coasts  of  Aiidulusiu  and 
Murcia,  constitutes  tho  most  torrid  iM>rtiun  of  Kurope.  The  Arabs  wore  <|uite  right 
when  thoy  doHignutcd  Southern  liusituiiiu  und  the  opposite  nhoro  of  Mor'xico  by  the 
same  name  of  "el  Qharb;"  that  is,-  the  two  Algurves,  or  "eusturn  districts." 
Portuguese  Algarve,  in  spite  of  the  convornion  of  its  inhabitants  to  Christianity, 
has  retained  its  ancient  MooriHli  name,  and  the  Berber  und  Semitic  blood  is  very 
conspicuous  there. 

In  Upper  Alemtejo  there  are  but  few  towns,  und  those  would  be  altogether 
insignificant  if  it  were  not  for  the  overland  commerce  curried  on  with  Spain. 
Crato,  which  is  the  most  considerable  station  on  the  railway  which  joins  the  Tejo 
to  tho  Guadiana,  and  its  neighbour  Portulegre,  were  formerly  important  stages  on 
the  grout  overland  route.  Elvas,  farther  to  the  south,  is  surroundod  by  orchards, 
and  defended  by  forts  which  were  looked  upon  in  the  last  century  us  maHterpieces 
of  military  architecture.  It  faces  the  Spanish  fortress  of  Budajoz,  us  well  oa 
01iven9a,  which  was  assigned  to  i'ortugul  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  but  never 
lurrendorod  by  Spain.  Estremoz,  on  a  spur  of  the  Serra  de  Ossu,  is  famous 
throughout  Portugal  for  its  hiicaroa — elegantly  modelled  earthen  jars  which 
diffuse  a  sweet  odour.  Montemor  looks  down  from  its  hill  upon  vast  landes  and 
monotonous  woods.  Evora,  likewise  built  on  a  hill,  commands  an  extensive  plain. 
It  was  a  populous  place  during  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages  became  the  second  residence  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal.  There  exist  now  only 
a  Roman  aqueduct,  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Venus,  Oorinthian  columns,  and  the 
remains  of  medieoval  castles  to  remind  us  of  its  ancient  splendours. 

Beja,  the  ancient  Pfi-Ji-  Julia  or  Coloiiia  Pacenm  of  the  Romans,  has  likewise 
lost  its  former  importunce,  but  Minas  de  Sdo  Domingos,  on  the  peninsula  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Guadiana  and  theOhanza,  is  rapidly  increasing,  (hanks  to 
its  mines  of  pyrites  of  copper  and  other  minerals,  which  are  being  worked  by  an 
English  company.  The  ore  is  conveyed  by  rail  to  Pomarfio,  on  the  Guadiana,  and 
thence  on  barges  to  Villa  Real  de  Santo  Antonio,  at  its  mouth,  formerly  a  mere 
fishing  village,  but  now  a  busy  port.  Castro  Marim,  where  the  expeditions  against 
the  Moors  used  to  be  fitted  out,  is  close  to  it. 

Silves,  the  ancient  Moorish  capital  of  Algarve,  lies  in  the  interior  of  the  country, 
far  removid  from  the  present  highways  of  commerce.  Faro,  the  modem  capital, 
has  the  advantage  of  lying  on  the  seashore,  and  of  possessing  a  seoure  harbour, 
whence  small  coasters  are  able  to  export  fruit,  tunny-fish,  sardines,  and  oysters. 
Tavira  possesses  the  same  advantages,  and  exports  the  same  articles :  it  is  said 
to  be  tho  prettiest  town  of  Algarve.  Loul^,  in  a  delightful  inland  valley,  is  a 
pretty  place,  and,  when  invalids  have  learnt  the  road  to  Algarve,  may  obtain 
some  importance  as  a  winter  resort.  The  Oaldas  (warm  baths)  de  Monchique  (600 
feet)  enjoy  a  world-wide  reputation  even  now,  not  only  because  of  their  efBcacy,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  delicious  climate  and  charming  environs.  This  district  is  said 
to  produce  the  best  oranges  in  Portugal.* 

*  Towns  of  Southern  Portugal  having  over  6,000  inhabitants  (IR64)  •.—Alemtejo:   l!vora,  11,965; 
tlyaa,  11,086;  Estremov,  7,274;  Beja,  7,060;  Portalegre,  6,731;  Serpa,  6,606;  M6ura,  6,469;  Castello 


ittM 


^V.l  **_  r^^ 


1^ 


496 


PORTUGAL. 


V. — The  Present  and  Future  of  PoRTUOAt. 

Little  Portugal  no  longer  shares  with  her  neighbour,  Spain,  in  the  dominion  of 
the  world,  as  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  secrecy  observed  with  a  view  to  the 
retention  of  the  monopoly  of  trade  with  countries  newly  discovered  proved  in  the  end 
most  injurious  to  Portugal.  Other  nations  appeared  upon  the  stage  which  the 
Portuguese  had  dreamt  of  occupying  for  ever,  and  though  the  latter  still  hold 
colonies  vastly  superior  in  area  to  the  mother  country,  this  is  nothing  in  comparison 
with  what  has  been  irretrievably  lost.  Yasco  da  Gama  discovered  the  ocean  high- 
road to  India,  but  the  few  settlements  which  Portugal  still  holds  there  she  owes  to 

Fig.  207.— Fabo  and  Taviba. 
Soale  1  :  fiOO,000. 


SMilM. 


the  favour  of  England.  In  the  Malay  Archipelago  Portugal  has  been  supplanted 
almost  completely  by  the  Dutch,  and  Macao,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Canton  River, 
was  hardly  more  than  a  slave  market  until  quite  recently,  from  which  Chinese 
"  emigrants "  were  exported  to  Peru.  In  Africa  Portugal  holds  vast  possessions, 
if  we  are  to  believe  in  official  documents  and  maps,  but  in  reality  only  a  very 
small  tract  of  territory  is  under  the  dominion  of  the  Portuguese,  and  most  of 
the  commerce  is  carried  on  through  Dutch  and  other  foreign  houses.  As  to  Brazil, 
it  now  surpasses  the  mother  country  in  population  and  wealth.     Madeira  and  the 

de  Vido,  6,286;  Campo  Maior,  6,277.  Algarve :  Loul6,  12,166;  Tavira,  10,903;  Faro,  8,361;  Lagoe, 
7,771 ;  Olhio,  7,026  ;  Alportel,  6,043 ;  villanova  de  Portimito,  6,631 ;  Sio  Bartholomeu  de  Meaairei, 
6,318;  Monchique,  6,261 ;  Silves,  6,103. 


tfk 


THE  PBESENT  AND  FUTUBE  OF  POBTUGAL. 


497 


JAL. 

in  the  dominion  of 
i  with  a  view  to  the 
red  proved  in  the  end 
bhe  stage  which  the 

the  latter  still  hold 
othing  in  comparison 
ered  the  ocean  high- 
ilds  there  she  owes  to 


Azores,  the  first  conquests  made  by  Lisbon  navigators,  are  looked  upon  as  integral 
portions  of  Portugal ;  they  enjoy  the  same  rights,  and  are  quite  equaf  to  it  in 
wealth.* 

When  Brazil  was  lost  to  Portugal  that  small  country  found  itself  in  a  position 
of  lamentable  prostration.  Exhausted  by  foreign  and  internecine  wars,  its  finances 
utterly  rained,  and  without  roads  to  enable  it  to  export  its  produce,  it  might  have 
disappeared  from  our  maps  without  any  interests,  except  those  of  a  few  English 
vine-growers  and  Spanish  smugglers,  being  affected.  Even  in  1851  there  only 
existed  a  single  carriage  road  in  the  country,  namely,  that  which  connected  Lisbon 
with  the  royal  palace  at  Cintra.  No  attention  whatever  was  paid  to  education, 
and  about  a  generation  ago  a  girl  able  to  read  was  a  phenomenon.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  not  forget  that  these  illiterate  Portuguese  knew  how  to  discuss  a 


Fig.  208. — QB00B4PHICAL  EXTINT  OF  THB  PoRTCOUBBIi  LaNOITAOB. 


al  has  been  supplanted 
B  of  the  Canton  River, 
y,  from  which  Chinese 
holds  vast  possessions, 
in  reality  only  a  very 
trtuguese,  and  most  of 
I  houses.  As  to  Brazil, 
dth.     Madeira  and  the 

10,903;  Faro,  8,361;   Lago^ 
3o  Bartholomen  de  MeaauM, 


&:   ■  "  «.-. 

rill 

.  < 

0.0- 

»»•'. 

*»•■ 

»' 

^^uf^ 

1 

If 

"7 

^ 

♦ 

w 

ko 

^1 

^mk 

\       "* 

0 

1            l^''*iiSK$n!!MI 

1 

H 

■ 

■I     ^^1 

I 

1 

^^^ 

tf       t^^ 

\<f 

'  t^' 

?oi> 

'        uf*             ' 

subject  without  quarrelling,  had  great  command  of  their  language,  and  were 
able  even  to  improvise  verses  of  gpreat  poetical  merit,  in  all  of  which  respects  they 
contrasted  favourably  with  the  peasantry  of  Northern  Europe. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  generation  education  has  made  much  progress  in 
Portugal ;  t  and  in  other  respects,  too,  the  country  has  gradually  assimilated  with  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Roads  and  railways  have  be^n  con8tructed,:t  and  the  latter  connect 
Lisbon  not  only  with  the  leading  provincial  towns,  but  also  with  Spain.  The  com- 
merce with  the  latter  country  increases  regularly  with  the  occurrence  of  civil  war, 
when  Portugal  profits  at  the  expense  of  the  Spanish  ports  of  the  Mediterranean. 

*  For  a  list  of  Portuguese  colonies  see  p.  600. 

t  In  1874  there  were  2,049  elnmentary  and  middle-claas  schools,  attended  hy  122,004  painli^  heaides 
a  university  and  nine  special  schools,  with  4,300  students. 

X  In  1875,  2,237  miles  of  royal  high-roads,  600  miles  of  railroads. 


■■wpp 


I 


'! 


49S 


POETUOAL. 


Fig.  209. — ^Tbliobaph  pkom  Lisbon  to  Kio  de 
Janbiko. 


Much  of  the  ordinary  commerce  with  Spain  never  appears  in  the  customs'  registries, 
for  it  is  carried  on  by  smugglers,  who  glory  in  evading  the  vigilance  of  the  frontier 
police. 

The  commerce  of  Portugal  has  increased  very  much  in  the  course  of  the  last 
thirty  years.  More  than  half  of  it  falls  to  the  share  of  Great  Britain,  a  circum- 
stance not  to  be  wondered  at  when  we  bear  in  mind  the  relative  geographical  posi- 
tion of  the  two  countries,  for  Portugal  lies  upon  the  direct  route  followed  by 

English  steamers  proceeding  to  the 
Mediterranean,  Western  Africa,  or 
Brazil.  The  assistance  which  England 
rendered  Portugal  during  the  penin- 
sular war  has  cemented  these  com- 
mercial bonds. 

The  commercial  relations  with 
Brazil,  now  joined  to  Lisbon  by  a 
submarine  cable,  are  likewise  the 
natural  result  of  the  relative  positions 
of  the  two  countries  and  of  the  common 
origin  of  their  populations.  Portugal, 
in  &ct,  participates  in  every  progress 
made  by  its  old  colony,  and  its  com- 
mexoe  will  assume  immense  propor- 
tions when  slavery  is  abolished  in 
Brazil,  when  the  solitudes  of  the 
Amazonas  resound  with  the  stir  of 
industrious  populations,  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Pacific  are  joined  to  the  Atlantic 
by  means  of  railways  crossing  the 
Andes.* 

But,  after  all,  it  will  be  Spain  with 
which  the  most  intimate  commercial 
relations  must  finally  be  established,  in  spite  of  national  prejudices  and  dynastic 
interests.  The  two  nations  will  in  the  end  become  one,  as  the  Aragonese  and 
Oastilians,  the  Andalusians  and  Manchegos,  have  become  one.  It  is  merely  a 
question  of  time ;  but  who  can  doubt  that  community  of  industrial  and  social  relations 
will  lead  to  a  political  union.  We  only  trust  that  this  union  may  be  brought 
about  without  a  resort  to  brute  force,  and  with  due  regard  to  special  interests. 

VI. — Government  and  Administration. 

Portugal  is  an  hereditary  and  constitutional  monarchy.      In  accordance  with  the 
Carta  de  L^y  of  1826,  as  revised  in  1852,  the  King  is  charged  with  the  executive, 

•  Value  of  exports  and  imports  in  1S40,  £4,016,320;  in  18S6,  £8,127,400;  1876,  £12,019,020. 
The  conunercial  marine  consisted  in  187ff  of  483  vessels  (induaive  of  23  steamers),  measuring  111,200 
tons. 


•PB* 


i','W...,.|ig'., 


"..  11.     i  xwrnmammemmsmmv 


GOVEENMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


490 


;he  customs'  registries, 
gilanoe  of  the  frontier 

the  course  of  the  last 
eat  Britain,  a  circnm- 
tive  geographical  posi- 
ect  route  followed  by 
rs  proceeding    to   the 

Western  Africa,  or 
listance  which  England 
i;al  during  the  penin- 
cemented  these  com- 

eroial  relations  with 
ined  to  Lisbon  by  a 
le,  are  likewise  the 
f  the  relative  positions 
tries  and  of  the  common 
Mpulations.  Portugal, 
mtes  in  every  progress 
d  colony,  and  its  com- 
^ume  immense  propor- 
iavery  is    abolished   in 

the  solitudes  of  the 
ound  with  the  stir  of 
)ulation8,  and  the  coasts 
,re  joined  to  the  Atlantic 

railways  crossing   the 

til,  it  will  be  Spain  with 
)st  intimate  commercial 
prejudices  and  dynastic 
,  as  the  Aragonese  and 
Q  one.  It  is  merely  a 
istrial  and  social  relations 
union  may  be  brought 
to  special  interests. 

noN. 

In  accordance  with  the 
rged  with  the  executive, 

M27,400;   1876,  £12,016,020. 
3  rteamera),  measuring  111,260 


and  shares  the  power  of  making  laws  with  two  chambers.  He  receives  a  civil  list  of 
£144,000,  enjoys  the  income  from  certain  Crown  lands,  and  possesses  magnificent 
Crown  jewels,  amongst  which  the  "  diamond  of  Brag^n9a  "  is  the  most  famous. 
In  default  of  male  heirs  the  crown  descends  in  the  female  line.  "  His  most  faith- 
ful Majesty  "  still  claims  to  be  "  King  of  the  two  Algarves,  Lord  of  Guinea  and  of 
the  Conquests."  The  seven  ministers  of  the  Crowu  are  responsible  for  the  King's 
actions;  they  may  be  impeached  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  are  judged  by 
the  Chamber  of  Peers.  A  Privy  Council  of  an  indefinite  number  of  members, 
appointed  for  life,  advises  the  King  in  all  questions  of  administration.  The  heir 
presumptive  takes  part  in  its  deliberations  on  attaining  his  eighteenth  year. 

The  Chamber  of  Peers  consists  of  about  a  hundred  members,  some  of  them 
hereditary  and  others  appointed  by  the  King.  Its  meetings  are  presided  over  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elective,  and  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  budget  and  granting  of  supplies  are  specially  reserved  to  it.  All 
males  more  than  twenty-five  years  of  age  are  entitled  to  the  franchise  if  they  pay 
4s.  6d.  in  direct  taxes,  or  22s.  from  real  estate.  Graduates  of  universities,  certified 
teachers,  officers,  and  priests  are  not  required  to  possess  any  property  qualification, 
and  they,  as  well  as  all  married  men,  become  enfranchised  on  completing  their 
twenty-first  year.  All  electors  are  eligible  as  deputies  if  they  pay  18s.  in  direct 
taxes,  or  90s.  from  real  estate.  Every  25,000  inhabitants  are  represented  by  a 
deputy.  The  President  of  the  Chamber  is  selected  by  the  King  from  five 
candidates  presented  by  the  deputies.    The  latter  are  entitled  to  remuneration. 

For  judicial  purposes  the  country  is  divided  into  twenty-six  districts,  or 
comareas,  with  eighty-five  courts.  Tliere  are  courts  of  appeal  at  Lisbon  and 
Oporto,  and  a  supreme  court  at  Lisbon.  Parish  judges  (Juiz  eleito),  elected  by  the 
people,  exercise  the  inferior  jurisdiction.  Juries  give  their  verdict  on  questions  of 
fact  in  civil  as  well  as  in  criminal  cases.  The  principal  codes  still  in  force  are  the 
"  Codigo  Alfonsius  "  of  the  fifteenth,  century,  the  "  Codigo  Manoelino  "  (1613), 
and  the  "  Codigo  Filippino,"  introduced  by  Philip  lY.  of  Spain.  A  Commercial 
Code  was  published  in  1833. 

The  Roman  CathoUo  religion  is  that  of  the  State,  but  Protestant  places  of 
worship  are  suffered  to  exist  in  the  seaports.  The  hierarchy  includes  a  patriarch 
residing  at  Lisbon,  two  archbishops  at  Braga  and  i^vora,  and  fourteen  bishops. 
The  Inquisition  was  abolished  in  1821,  and  the  monasteries,  750  in  number,  as  well 
as  most  of  the  convents,  were  suppressed  in  1834,  and  their  revenues  confiscated 
for  the  benefit  of  the  State. 

The  army  numbers  1,650  officers  and  38,000  men,  of  whom  about  two-thirds 
are  under  colours  during  peace.  On  a  war  footing  it  is  to  be  raised  to  2,4x8 
officers  and  70,687  men.  All  men  are  obliged  to  serve  either  in  the  army  or  in 
the  reserve,  and  exemption  can  no  longer  be  purchased.  The  fortresses  are 
numerous,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are  capable  of  being  defended  against  modem 
artillery.  The  most  important  are  Elvas,  Abr&ntes,  and  Yalen9a,  near  the  Spanish 
frontier,  the  fort  of  Sao  Julia  and  the  citadel  of  Peniche  on  the  coast.  The  navy 
no  longer  numbers  a  thousand  vessels,  as  it  did  when  King  Sebastian  started  for 


PORTUGAL. 

tbe  invasion  of  Morocco.      It  consists  now  of  twenty-seven  steamers,  including  an 
ironclad  corvette,  and  eleven  saiUng  vessels,  manned  by  3,000  men  and  armed 

with  171  guns.  .        ,oo,i  .i. 

The  pubUc  revenue  approaches  £6,000,000  sterling,  and  ever  smce  1834  there 
has  been  annually  a  deficit,  which  has  resulted  in  a  national  debt  of  more  than 
£80  000  000,  a  burden  almost  too  heavy  for  a  small  country  like  Portugal.  The 
revenue  is,  however,  increasing,  a  balance  between  income  and  expenditure  has 
been  estabKshed  within  the  last  year  or  two,  and  the  wretched  expedient  of 
deducting  from  5  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  salaries  of  Government  officials  could  be 
dispensed  with  for  the  first  time  in  1876. 


Political  Divwionb,  Abba,  and  Population. 


Diatriota. 
I  Vianna 
Entre  Douro  e  Minbo  !  Braga . 
I  Porto 


i  Villa  Real   . 
'  \  Braganqa    . 

!Av£iro 
Viz«u . 
Coimbra 
f  Goarda 
'  \  Oastello  Btanco 


Area,  Sq.  MUm. 

864 
1,054 

908 
1,718 
2.673 
1,216 
1,922 
1,600 
2,148 
2,660 
1,348 
2,661 
2,936 
2,497 
2,740 
4,198 
1,876 


Fopnlatiaii,  1874. 
221,040 
346,429 
461,212 
239,691 
177,170 
272,763 
898,477 
306,237 
234,912 
178,703 
194,044 
217,316 
491,206 
109,192 
112,477 
164,327 
193,877 


Daiuitr. 
266 
629 
600 
140 

60 
207 
.03 
100 


146 
82 

168 
44 
41 
87 

104 


4,208,881 


Colonial  PoBsissioNa. 

Ana.  Sq.  HUM. 

Asoras  ...•••*■* 

Afbica:—  ..- 

Madeira .        .        •  •  « 

Cape  Verde  Island '•*»' 

Senegambia   . .fi 

St  Thome  and  Prindpe                 .        •  «»• 

FortAjttda     •  ,    •        •        •     ,'        •        •  ^,„Jx 

Angola,  Benguela,  and  MoMamedee  'irSSJ 

Mozambique  and  Sofala          ....  40,000 

^"(i^.ftc i.»»5 

Damio ™ 

Diu .    *» 

Timor  and  Eambing »•*•*[ 

Macao J* 

Coloniet    .        .        .  362.140 

Total,  Portugal  and  Colonies    .        .       .  396,842 


TapaiMUaa. 

Danalty. 

60,072 

66 

118.609 

383 

90,704 

61 

9,282 

344 

31,692 

76 

700 

64 

2,000,000 

6 

800,000 

8 

474,234 

389 

40,080 

1336 

12,303 

1026 

260,000 

46 

71,834 

47-^8 

3,460.410 

10 

7.769,291 

20 

steamers,  including  an 
3,000  men  and  armed 

.  ever  since  1834  there 
snal  debt  of  more  than 
;ry  like  Portugal.  The 
B  and  expenditure  has 
wretched  expedient  of 
iment  officials  could  be 


Uatian,  1874. 
221,049 
346,429 
461,212 
■239,691 
177,170 
272,763 
398,477 
306,237 
234,912 
178,703 
194,044 
217,316 
491,206 
109,192 
112,477 
164,327 
193,877 


Dnuitr- 
266 
629 
600 
140 


4,208,881 


filM. 


124 


TopaUMoa. 

Donlltr 

60,072 

66 

118.609 

883 

90,704 

61 

9,282 

344 

31,692 

76 

700 

64 

2,000,000 

6 

800,000 

8 

474,234 

389 

40,080 

1336 

12,303 

1026 

260,000 

45 

71,834 

47-^8 

3,460.410 

10 

7.769,291 

20 

Abrtiite8,490 

Abruzzoe,  268 

AohelouB,  48 

Adrianofle,  106 

iBgadian  Idonda,  334 

Mgeaa  Sea,  69,  96 

iBgina,  66 

.Sgium,  67 

Mohta.  IsUnda,  331 

.£tolia,63 

^toliko,  49,  53, 

Aitone,  366 

Ajacdo,  866,  369 

Albacete,  420 

Albania,  116 

Albaniana,  44,  119,  120;  in  Italy, 

296 
Albano,  260 
Alcalb,  393 
Aloftntata,  391 
Alc6y,  420 
Alecaandria,  170 
Alemtejo,  490 
Algarve,  490 
AUaina.422 
Alhambra,  407,  408 
Alicante,  417,  422 
Almaden,  302 
Almapo,39l 
Almeida,  48l 
Almeria,  412 
Alpheiu,  61,  63 
Alps,  10 
Alptyama,  397 
Amarante,  479 
Anadoli>faiyak,  104 
Ano(ma,282 
Andalnaia,  804 
Andona,  438 
Androa,72 
Anio,  273 
Anteqneta,  412 
Antimiloa,  71 
Antipuoa,  71 
Apennines,  267 
Aqui]a,284 
Aragon,427 
Aragon  Steppes,  486 
Alto.  438 
Aiaiuaei,  393.  894 
Arcadia,  68, 66 
ATeuo,262 


INDEX 


Argentaro,  Monte,  248 
Argolis,  69,  66 
Aiioa,68 
A^ostoli,  79 
Anano,  306 
Aimoiians,  102 
Arno,  210 
An>fla,469 
Arta,  Gulf  of,  48,  63 
Aspromonte.  288 
ABtorga,387 
Astanaa,448 
Aatypalaea,  94 
Athena,  64 
Athoo,  Mount,  108 
Attica,  63 
Av^iio,  476,  481 
ATila,389 
Asooitia,  447 
Asof ,  Sea  of,  26 

Badges,  391 

Batea,407 

Balagna,  366 

Balearic  Islands,  423—427 

Balkans,  183 

Bafamn,  169 

Barcellos,  479 

Barcdona,  486 

Ban,  806 

Barletta,  306 

Basque  Provinces,  430 

Basques,  372,  442 

Bastelica,  386 

BaBtia,8e8 

Batalha,  489 

Batnecas,  .387 

Bayona,  469 

BeJB,496 

Belem,487 

Belgrad,  174 

Belb8,4S8 

Benevento,  306 

Berda,  179 

Berici,  193 

Berlingas,  483 

Bessarabia,  164 

Bidaasoia,  437 

Bientina,  246 

Kffuglia,868 

^bao,44e 

Biscay,  Bay  of,  441 


Black  Sea,  26 
Boeotia,  63 
Bologna,  228 
Bolaena,269 
Bomflca,488 
Bonifacio,  369 
Bomia,  127 
Boephorua,  98 
Botosani,  169 
Braga,479 
Braganqa,  481 
BnJla,  170 
Brenner,  222 
Brindisi,  306 
Bucharest,  168 
Biilgaiia,  131 
Bulgarians,  138 
BArgos,  388 
Bussaco,  481 
Butrinto,  76 
Buyukdere,  103 

Cabo  da  Boca,  488 

Cfrcere8,391 

C&diz,  401,  410 

Calabria,  287,  296,  296,  808 

Calahorra,  448 

Calamata,  67 

Caktayud,  434 

Calvi,  369 

Caminha,  479 

Campania,  289 

Ctoipo  dell'  Oro,  366 

Campo  de  Ouriquo,  492 

Can(fia,90 

Canea,92 

Cantabrian  Pyrenees,  461 

Capri,  302 

Capua,  304 

Carcavellos,  487 

Cardona,43l 

Ow%hese,366 

Gasabianda,  366 

Caso&es,487 

Caserta,304 

Canno,  304 

GaateUolUt,  431 

Castel-Qandolfo,  361 

Ca8tUes,877 

Castro  Marim,  496 

Catalonia,  427 

Catania,  32(> 


602 

CaUnnuri,  309 
Celtiberiana,  872 
CelU,  372 
Cephalonia,  78 
CephinuB,  61 
Cerigo,  69 
Ceeimbra,  490 
Chalcidice,  107 
Chalcis,  70,  71 
Chaves,  481 
Chiaiia,244 
Cintra,  483 
Circaauanii,  142 
Citheron,  47 

Ciudad  Br>al,  891 

Civita  Vucchia,  281 

Coimbra,  481 

ColumbretoB,  424 

Comacchio,  220 

Como,  198 

ConBtantinople,  88,  98, 160 

CopaiB,  61,  62 

Oorcubion,  469 

C6rdova,  406,  408 

Corfu,  76 

Corinth,  67,  66 

Corsica,  363 

Corto,  366,  869 

Conxnna,  469 

Cosenza,  309 

Cotrone,  309 

Cranz,  66 
Crato,  496 
Crete,  90 
Cuenca,  392 
CycladeB,  70 
Cyllone,  67 
Cythera,  69 
Cythnos,  71 

Daimiel,  391 
Danube,  136, 169 
DardanelleB,  106 
Dede  Aghaoh,  107 
Delos,  71,  74 
Delphi,  47 

Despeflaperros,  396,  3»» 
Dobruja,  134,  142 
Dodona,  118 
DolondteB,  192 
Dora  Baltea,  197 
Douro,  478 
Drin,  116 
Drina,  174 
Duero,  883 
Durango,  417 
Durasso,  1'''6 

Ebro,  427 
Ebro  Delta,  432 
Ecya,402 
Elba,  266 
Elche,  417—419 
Eleuids,  66 
EIiB,69 

fl  ToicaU  898 
Ivas,  496 
Etna,-311 
Epakto,  63 
EpidauruB,  68 
Epinu,  116,  117 
Erasinuii,  61 
ErytnanthuB,  67 
Eflcorial.  398 
EBpinho,  479 
E^wBoadfi,  479 
.   Eatrella,483 


Egtromadura,  377 
Estrenioz,  496 
EtruBcanii,  248 
Eub«ea,  70,  71 
Euganoan  Ililla,  198 
EuripuB,  70 
EurotaB,  62,  67 
EuBkarianB.  442 
Evora,  49o 

Fttlticeni,  169 
FarilhSoB,  483 
Faro,  496 
Ferdinandea,  816 
Fnrrara,  228 
Ferrol,  469 
Figu6i»  da  Fez,  481 
Fiumidno,  271,  278 
Florence,  261 
Foggia,806 
Fontibre.  432 
Fucino,  262 
Fuenterrabia,  447 


Oaeta,  804 

Oaia,  479 

CkOazidi,  68 

GaUtz,  169 

Qalicia,  448 

Oallipoli,  106,  308 

Gastuni,  63,  64 

Gata,  Sierra  de,  381 

GaytanoB,  399 

Genoa,  234 

Gtorania,  48 

Gerona,  437 

Gibraltar,  400,  413 

Gibraltar,  Strait  of,  26 

Giion,  469 

Oipmes,  373 

Girgenti,  329 

Giurgevo,  170 

Giurgiu,  170 

Golden  Horn,  98 

GoUolino  of  Amo,  240 

Granada,  407 

Grand  Paradis,  191 

Grfeo  de  Valencia,  424 

GtMob,  Biem  de,  880 

Greece,  86 

Greekfl  in  Turkey,  102, 114,141, 

Guadalajara,  398 

GuadaUviar,  416,  417 

Guadalquivir,  896,  399 

Guadarrama,  378 

Guadiana,  896,  883 

Gubbio,  282 

Guernica,  447,  468 

Guetaria,  447,  462 

Goimariiem  479,  480 

GuipAiooa,  446 

Gyttiioa,  66 

Hagio  Rumeli,  91 

H^con,  47 

HellenM,  41 

HeUeBpont,10« 

Hercules,  Tower  of,  469,  468 

HermopoliB,  74 

Herzegovina,  127 

Huelva,  406 

Hydra,60 

Hylice,61 

Hymettus,  48 

Iberia,  869 
Iberians,  872 


163 


Katovothras,  48 
Kilia,  160 
Kraguyevats,  174 
Kia5ia,129 
KrushevatB,  178 
Kutzo-Wallaohians,  44 

I.AConia,  69 

La  Corufia,  469 

Lairo  MaKgiore,  108 

L«ioonsofVenice,202,207 

LaMancha,  378,  886,  891 

Lamego,  478,  481 

|junia,66 

Larouco,  480 

Laurium,  48 

Lebrya.  409 

Le^479 

Leooo,308 

Leghorn,  266 

I.^ria,489 

LcmnoB,  97 

Lentini,  316 

Leon,  377,  387 

Lepanto,  68 

Lerida,436 

Leuoadia,  77 

Lezirias,  4H2 

li^bana,  460 

Liguria,  280 

lima,  476 

Limans,  161 

Limia,  476 

Linfcres,  406, 407 

lipari,  381  h 

Lisbon,  484 

Livadia,  6ft 

Ii<H^o,  489, 448 

Ixaoa,  417 

Ixnwto,  283 

Loul6,  496 

Lucca,  263 

Lugo,  469 

.'jycaena,  68 

Haocalubas,  817 
Macedonia,  98 
Madrid,  892,  893 
Maffia,  821 
Hafra,488 
Magra,264 
Mamotes,48 
Huorca,  4<6 
MUaga,412 
Malaria,  247 
Malea,  67 
MaUorca,426 


INDEX. 


S08 


,25,  427 
tno,  309 
127 
96 
<79 
Iiles,  15 

291 

00 

182 

,169 

183 

,78 

426,  427 

a,  394 

libel.  439,  440 

40«,  410  , 

416,  417 

othr8a,48 

169  I 

lyevats,  174 
A,  129 
levatE,  173 
).WBllachian«,  44 

iia,69 

>rafla,  469 

MaKK>ore,  198 

BiM  of  Venice,  202,207 

Anoha,  378.  886,  391 

)go,  478,  481 

a,  66 

uco,  480 

ium,  48 

ija.  409 

,479 

0,308 

toni,266 

ia,489 

n(M,97 

ini,  316 

I,  377,  387 

iiato,  63 

da,  436 

oadia,  77 

iriaa,  482 

)ana,460 

aria,  "iSO 

ia,476 

lanB,  161 

da,  476 

tree,  406,  407 

an,  381  h 

bon,  484 

adia,  6A 

pfofio,  439, 448 

rca,4l7 

reto,288 

116,  496 

cca,263 

cteiis,  oH 

ujcaluboB,  317 
icedoiiia,98 
idrid,  892,  893 
iffia,  321 
ifra,488 
Bgra,264 
amotea,43 
aioTca,  4<6 
Saga,  413 
[alalia,  247 
[alea,  67 
rallc«ca,426 


Malta,  886 
Malvoiiie,  67 
Mancha  Real,  402 
Hanfredonia,  306 
Mantinea,  61.  62 
Mantua,  227 
Haiathon.  66 
Marathoniai,  66 
Marchena,  409 
Marchem  267 
Maremma,  246 
Mariana,  367. 868 
Maritaa,  136 
Mam  -.%,  Sek  ot,  104 
Manala,  826 
Matapan,  69 
Matai6,  437 
Mattodnhoa,  479 
Medina  del  Campo,  889 
Me<OteiTanean,  23 
Megara,  66 
Mega^Spileon,  67 
Menorca,  426 
Merida,  391 
Merinoa,  386 
Meaaenia,  66, 68 
Moaaina,  32) 
Meaaina,  Strait  of,  309 
Heteora,  113 

Methone,  69 

MUan,  226 

MUoa,72 

Minho,  466,  473 

Hiflo,  466 

Minorca,  426 

Mirdita,  116,  123 

Misaolonghi,  49,  68 

Mirtra,  68 

Moldavia,  167 

Moncavo,  429 

Monomque,  496 

Mondego,  473 

Monjmoh,  436 

Monaenrat,  431 

Monte  Ointo,  363 
i  Monte  Oargano,  287 
I  Montenior,  496 
>  Montenegro,  179 

Monte  Pellegrino,  316 

Montepnldano,  263 

Monte  Viao,  189 

Montieri,  242 

Hontilla,  409 

Moora  in  Spain,  872 
i  Morava,  127,  173 
I  Morea,  66 

!  Mflicia,  413,  417— 420 
'  Myoens,  68 

Kaplea,  286,  800 
Nuenta,  128 
Naupactua,  68 
Navarino,  67 
Navana,  439 
Kavaa  de  Toloaa,  896 
Nasoa,  71,  74 
Nsa  Kaimeni,  72 
Negroponte,  71 
Neiiiea,  68 
Nicosia,  326 
Mish,  143 
Noya,  469 
Numancis,  879 
Nuniantia,  387 

Oeiraa,  487 
Okhrida,  116 


Olite,  448 
Olivonca,  496 
Olot,  437 
Olto,  168 

Olympua.  Mount,  110 
Oporto,  478 
Orense,  469 
Orecza,  368 
Orihuela,  417,  419 
Orvieto,  282 
Oatia,  271,  273 
O8una,409 
Otranto,  306 
Ovar,  481 
Oviedo,  469 

t>ieatum,-303 
Paia  do  Vinho,  477 
Palatine  HiU,  277 
Palencia,  387 
Palermo,  322 
Palma,  429 
PalmanoTa,  229 
Pamiaua.  63 
Pantellaria,  334 
Pamaaaua,  47 
Pamea,  47 
Pamon,  67 
Paio8,71 
Patonea,  894 
Patraa,  66 
Pelaagiana,  41 
Peloponneaua,  66 
Polorua,  316 
Peflagaohe,  473 
Pefiaa  de  Europa,  449 
Peneua,  64,  113 
Penha  de  Gintra,  489 
Peniche,  483 
PentelicuB,  47 
PergUBa,817 
Perugia,  268,  282 
Peaaro,  288 
Peso  da  B^goa,  477 
Phanar,  102 
Phenea,  63 
PheneuB,  60 
Phigalia,68 
Phlegrean  Fielda,  290 
Phoma,  60 
Piave,  101,  206 
Pietra  Mala,  194 
Pindua,  46. 116 
Pimataa,  63 
Picaighettone,  860 
Flaa^oia,  391 
Po,  Biver,  210 
Po,  Valley  of,  180 
PomaHlo,  496 
Pompeii,  301 
Ponte  de  lima,  479 
Pontevedra,  469 
Pontine  Marahea,  267 
Poroa,  69 
Portalegre,  496 
Port  Mahon,  427 
Porto,  478 
Portugal,  469 
Potensa,  308 
Poaaaoli,  290 
Prato,  263 
Prereaa,  126 
Priarend,  126 
Procida,  291 
Pruth,  169 
Pnigoerda,  436 
i   PyloM,66 


Pyreneea,  420 
Pywoa.  67 
Pytiuaea,  424.  426 

Quoluz.  488 

Raacia,  129 

Ravenna,  228 

Reggio,  294,  800 

Remoaa  Paaa,  464 

Reni,  169 

Reno,  208 

Rhium,  63 

Rhodope,  136 

Riaa  of  Oalida,  464 

Rimini,  222 

Rioja,  448 

Rio  Tinto,  406 

Riviera,  230 

Rocca  d'Anfo,  860 

Rodoato,  108 

Roman  Campagna,  266 

Rome,  274 

Ronda,  413 

Roaaa,437 

Uota,  406 

Rumania  (Roumania),  IM 

Kumaniana,  162 

Rumili-kavak,  104 

Ruphia,  63 

8ado,492 

Magre8,493 

Suimtum,  423 

S^imanoa,  388,  380 

Salamia,  66 

Salerno,  302 

Saloniki,  109 

Salpi,  306 

.Salvaterra,  482 

Samothrace,  96 

San  Fernando,  410 

SanlOcar,  400,  410 

San  Marino,  284 

Santa  Maura,  77 

Santander,  448,  468 

Santarem,  490 

Santiago  de  Compoatela,  460 

Santofia,  468 

Santorin,  72 

SSo  Jo&o  da  Foa,  479 

Saragoaaa,  434 

Sarayevo,  130 

Samo,  303 

Sciacca,330 

Scutari,  116,  136, 180 

ScyroB,  70 

Sebino,  200 

Segovia,  389,890 

Segre,  431 

Segura,  416,  417 

Serbelloni,  201 

Serohio,  242,  263 

Serena,  391 

Sereth,  169 

Serra  da  Eatrella,  474 

Serra  de  Moncbique,  492 

Serra  do  Oerea,  474 

Servia,172 

Serviana,  110 

Set&bal,  490 

Seville,  409 

Sbil,  168 

l^oily,  309 

Sierra  Morena,  396 

Sierra  Nevada,  396 

Sil.466 


804 

gflvMh  m 

Sobiwbe,  430 
Hofla,  148 
Boria,  387 
Spain,  360 
Bpaniarda,  878 
Sparta,  68 
Spartaiu,  65 
Sperohiuis  <0 
Spesia,  89,  287 
Sphakiotea,  9a 
Spoleto,  iS-i 
Sporadea,  70 
St.  Florent,  86^ 
Stromboli,  388 
Strymon,  136 
St.  Sebastian,  448 
Stymphalus,  61 
St.  Yuste,  381 
Styx,  67 
SuUna,  188 
Suliotea,  119 
SybarLi,  808 
Syra,74 
SyraouM,  827 

Tafalla,  447 

Tagliamento,  191,  20A 

Tagua,  ae«  T^o  and  Tejo 

Ti3o,  383,  482 

Tula  vera  de  la  Reina,  891 

Taranto,  307 

Tarragona,  486 

Tayira,  496 

Tavogliere  of  Poglia,  286,  299 

Taygetiut,  68 

Tejo,  482 

Tempe,  111 

Tend,  470,282 

Thairit,406 


INDEX. 


Thaaoa,  04 
Thebes,  66 
Thera,  72 
Therapia,  103 
Thennia,  71 
Thermopylu,  60 
Theaialy,  98,  HI 
Thomar,  489 
ThnK!ia,98 
Tiber,  267, 268 
Tierra  de  Campos,  865 
Tirgovist,  170 
Timova,  188 
Tivoli,  271 
Toledo,  890,  89S 
Tolowi,  447 
Topino,  269 

Torres  Vedraa,  488 

Tortoaa,  486 

Tn^an'B  WaU,  161 

Trani,  306 

Transylvanian  Alps,  167 

Trapani,  826 

Tnurimeno,  264 

Trichoma,  48 

Tripolis,66    . 

Tripolitita,  66 

l^illo,  891 

Tudela,  448 

Turin,  224 

Turkey  in  Europe,  87 

Turkish  Empire,  161 
Turks,  147. 
Tnmu  Severinu,  170 
Tuscans,  248 
Tuscany,  289 
Tny,  469 
Tyrrhenian  S«s,  248 

medB,407 


Urbino,  288 
Vtrora,  409 

Valdeon,  460 

ValdonieUo,  866 

Valencia,  418,  419,  423 

Valladolid,  888 

Vardar,  186 

Vendetta,  867 

Venice,  202,  207.  220 

Verbano,  197 

Vergara,  447 

Verona,  220 

Vesuvius,  28b,  291 

Vianna  do  Oastello,  479 

Vigo,  469 

ViOcof,  169 

ViUa  do  Oonde,  479 

VUlanova  de  Portimfto,  494 

Villa  ReiO,  480  ,      ^. 

Villa  Real  de  Santo  Antonio,  495 

Vitosh,  182 
Vis£u,  481 
Vo«titBa,67 
V6uga,  476 
Vuloano,883 

Wallaohiana,  120, 168 

Talomitsa,   161 
Yanino,  116,  126 
Taasy,  168 
\uruks,  107 

Zamora,  388' 
Zante,  79 
Zaragosa,  484 
Zesere,  482 
Zinsares,  114, 119 
Zyria,67 


SND  OF  VOL.  I. 


UEApll 


mmflmmmmfmmmat 


ii|.  .B'    iliii  I    I    i.iMii 


A 


y" 


^imt}iW} 


^'."'!''.^-i'i.;ijj.W!jaM^"' 


bo,  28S 
mi,  400 

leon,  4M 

loniello,  S66 

Diici*,  418,  410,  433 

ladolid,  888 

dar,  18« 

idetU,867 

lice,  203,  207,  320 

iMao,  197 

gM%447 

olu^330 

uviiu,  28b,  201 

ana  do  Outollo,  479 

[0,469 

tat.  180 

U  do  Ooode,  479 

lanova  de  Portimlo,  494 

]aBMl,480 

la  Real  de  Saoto  Antonio,  495 

»ab,  183 

■£tt,481 

ititia,67 

ittga,478 

doano,  88S 

^Hn«t»Ut,«i,  120, 188 

domitaa,   181 
mino,  116.  12S 
iMjr,  168 
lundn,  107 

uuon,  888 
inte,  70 
aragvia,  484 
esere,  483 
inaarea,  \14, 11* 
i7ria,07 


ttii«m 


